America in World War II (at Home)
I. The American People in War time
A. U.S. experienced demands of total war before, but not on this scale
1. Armed forces in worldwide combat for 4 years
2. Societal changes and distortions reaching into every corner of nation
B. The War Economy
1. WWII ends the Great Depression
a. Unemployment, deflation, industry sluggishness had vanished
b. Most important agent of new prosperity was federal spending
i.
Raised budget, GNP, Ind. production--17,000,000 new jobs
c. Most striking- increase in personal income
i.
Limits on consumer—many goods scarce--increase in savings
2. WWII increases total wealth/produces change in wealth distribution
a. Poor up 70%, rich-20%, Farmers-400%, Ind. workers- 15%
II. Labor and the War
A. War- labor shortage
1. Army diverted 15 mil. people from work force—overall, 46.553 million
2. increasing reliance on minorities, young, elderly, women
B. War gives boost to union membership, but restricted ability to win increased wages
1. government wins “no strike” pledge from unions
2. “Little Steel” formula- 15% limit on wage increases
a. negotiations of National War Labor Board
3. In return, “maintenance-of-membership” agreement
a. gov. promised new workers were automatically enrolled in unions
4. Still, rank-and-file union members and union leaders resented restrictions
a. despite no strike pledge, 15,000 stoppages during war (most wildcat)
i.
United Mine Workers strike (’43) provokes gov. response
a) Smith-Connally Act (War Labor Disputes Act)
requires unions to wait 1 mo., prez can seize plants
ii. proposal to conscript workers into service blocked
5. Public animosity toward labor rises rapidly--states limit union power
III. Stabilizing the Boom
A. Fear of deflation of GD turned into fear of inflation (25% inc. in prices ‘39-41)
1. Rx: Office of Price Administration freezes prices/rents in certain areas
2. First OPA director- Leon Henderson, replaced in 1943 by Chester Bowles
a. minimal increase in living costs, inflation less of problem than WWI
3. OPA never popular--Black-markets/overcharging beyond OPA’s control
B. methods of controlling inflation--gov. revenue-raising programs: borrowing/taxation
1. Borrowed ½ of revenue through bonds
2. Increased income tax--Revenue Act ‘42 levied 94% tax on highest incomes
IV. Mobilizing Production
A. US’s great productive capacity most important weapon in Allied victory
1. 1/42- FDR created War Production Board led by Donald Nelson (Sears)
a. controls purchases of war material, allocation of materials/man power
i.
Not as much power as War Industries Board from WWI
2. WPB never able to win complete control of military purchases
a. Army and navy negotiated contracts themselves
b. Never satisfied complaints of small businesses (corps. favored)
3. FDR gradually transferred authority to Office of War Mobilization
a. Only modestly more successful than WPB
4. Yet, War economy managed to meet all of nation’s critical war needs
a. by ’44 factories produced more than needed--2x Axis combined
V. Wartime Science and Technology
A. WWII a watershed for technological and scientific innovation—gov. finances R/D
1. ’40, National Defense Research Committee directs funds for research
a. later Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD)
B. Despite Ger. and Jp. technological advantages, US and GB’s mass production key
1. by late ’42, allies caught up with Axis—i.e. submarines and tanks
C. Rx to axis strengths—radar and sonar immeasurably valuable
1. allied antiaircraft technology strong
2. German rocket capability significant, but numbers limited (V1/V2)
D. Long-range bombers, more precise navigation key for allies
E. Intelligence gathering perhaps the most effective allied advantage
1. code breaking important—early computers become operational
VI. African-Americans and the War
A. WWI- Blacks eagerly serve--thought position in post-war society would be enhanced
1. WWII--determined to use conflict to improve status by making demands
2. ‘41 A. Philip Randolph, pres. of Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters
a. insists gov. require defense industry to integrate work forces
i.
Randolph planned massive march on DC for support
b. FDR afraid of violence and political embarrassment--negotiates
i.
establishes Fair Employment Practices Commission
ii. Investigates discrimination against blacks--success limited
B. N. migration= white resentment, suspicion, rumors of conspiracy to deprive jobs
1. in North- severe tensions boil over—i.e. Detroit, ‘43
2. during WWII black organizations redouble efforts to challenge segregation
3. Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) mobilizes mass popular resistance
a. Sit-ins in theaters, etc--forcing DC restaurants to agree to serve blacks
b. victories few, but aroused defiant public spirit among blacks
C. Racial agitation strong in public institutions, but pressure also in military
1. early--limited to menial jobs, segregated units, ban from Marines/Air Force
2. Gradual changes—belief that tension and segregation a waste of manpower
a. End of war- Af-Am service increased 7x—more units see combat
b. Training camps partly integrated, allowed to serve on ships w/ whites
i.
Partially integrated army bases (Ft. Dix, NJ),
3. occasional riots when blacks protest having to serve in segregated divisions
D. Yet, overall, traditional pattern of race relations slowly eroding
VII. Native Americans and the War
A. Military more open to Nat-Am participation in war, suffer less overt discrimination
1. at least 25,000 serve during WWII
2. Some as code-talkers (own languages over radio) foes unlikely to translate
3. War brought Nat-Am into intimate contact with white society—effects?
a. Some never returned to reservations, chose to assimilate
B. War’s effects on reservations
1. Little defense work reached tribes (no industrial capacity)
2. Able-bodied men left reservations for military or war production
3. Emphasis on unity undermined support for Indian Reorganization Act
a. revitalization of tribal autonomy (launched in ‘34) “Indian New Deal”
C. New pressures to eliminate reservation system and force assimilation
VIII. Mexican-American War Workers
A. Mexicans entered US in large numbers in response to labor shortages in SW
1. Braceros (contract laborers) admitted for limited time to work specific jobs
B. Before 1940- Mexicans and Mex-Am worked in farm industry
1. during GD, many deported--war labor shortages caused hiring again
2. Mexicans able to find significant factory jobs (2nd to Blacks in 1940s)
a. face same discrimination as blacks
b. Fair Employment Practices Comm. force some to hire Hispanics
C. Creation of tensions and open conflict
1. i.e. L.A. alarmed at activities of Hispanic youth, some in gangs (Pachucos)
a. exaggerated style of dress “Zoot Suit”- symbolizes rebellion/defiance
2. June ‘43, Race riots in Los Angeles--“Zoot Suit Riot”
a. White sailors invaded Hispanic communities and attacked zoot suiters
i.
Police did little to restrain sailors, LA bans zoot suits
D. Conflict revealed tension built into social position of Hispanics
1. treated as despised minorities- squalid residential areas, low pay, no schools
IX. “Rosie the Riveter”—Women and Children during wartime
A. Women thrust into roles previously considered inappropriate
1. Operation of industry with men at war
a. Work force women increased by 60%
b. New working women were older and more married
c. More likely to work in heavy industry jobs reserved for men
B. “Rosie the Riveter” symbolized new importance of Female work force
1. yet, obscured significant limits that remained on ability to participate fully
a. early war years- opposition strong to hiring women
i.
Economic/military necessity eroded objections, but not entirely
2. Women made important inroads in industrial employment during WWII
C. Most women were employed in service-sector jobs
1. Worked for government (bureaucratic along w/military and industrial needs)
2. Clerical employment for women expanded in other areas as well
3. Development of distinct female communities--association w/other workers
D. New opportunities produced new problems (less public hostility)
1. Mothers combined jobs with child care
2. Scarcity of child-care/community services=children left at home alone
3. Economic results, but affects family stability—i.e. Juvenile crime rises
E. For many children, experience was not in crime but work
1. 1/3 teens 14-18 employed late in war (reduction in high school enrollments)
F. Prosperity increased rate/lowered age of marriage=Baby boom generation
1. but many did not survive wartime separation--Rise in divorce rate
X. The Internment of the Japanese-Americans
A. War produced much fear, hatred, etc. and violations of civil liberties
1. No general censorship or major assault on sympathizers
2. Socialists and Communists left unpunished and un-persecuted (support war)
B. Not as much cultural animosity as WWI
1. Little hostility to Germans/Italians-- enemy was more their political systems
2. Japanese-Americans exception to general feeling of tolerance
a. racial and cultural stereotypes make it easier for contempt
i.
ii.
i.e. Japanese were devious, malign, and cruel people
Racial animosity extended to USA of J descent
a) 127,000 J-A in USA, most in CA
b) 1/3 unnaturalized, first-generation immigrants (Issei)
c) 2/3 were natives of USA (Nisei)
b. Close-knit communities sought to preserve culture
i.
easy for many other Americans to imagine conspiracy
ii. Stories circulated about sabotage at Pearl Harbor & other plots
C. Public pressure grew to attempt to remove potential threat
1. 2/42- response, FDR authorized army to intern the JA
a. Taken to “relocation centers” in the interior
b. Little different from prisons in the desert--Not brutal, but harsh
2. Many forced to spend 3+ years in grim isolation barred from employment-provided with minimal medical services, schools
a. Some joined Nisei army unit, fighting with distinction
3. SC upheld decision in ’44--unable to win compensation until 80’s
XI. The Retreat from Reform
A. 1943- FDR suggested “Dr. New Deal” should turn into “Dr. win-the-war”
1. Victory more important than reform--Reflected political reality of ‘41-43
B. Liberals unable to enact new programs
1. Difficulty protecting existing programs from Conservative assault
2. W/in admin, positions of influence in ‘30s displaced by managers of war
agencies, drawn from corps and Conservative Wall Street law firms
a. Greatest assault on New Deal came from Congress
3. WWII provided Conservatives excuse to dismantle many programs of ND
a. End of ‘43, Congress eliminated CCC, NYA, WPA--FSA left impotent
C. Even if FDR wanted to resist C trend, awareness of political realities would stop him
1. Republicans gained seats in ‘42 congressional elections
2. FDR accepted erosion of ND for support for war policies and peace plans
3. Republicans approach ‘44 determined to exploit resentment of wartime
regimentation/deprivation and unhappiness with ND “excessiveness”
a. Republicans hoped to play on deteriorating FDR health
b. nominate young and vigorous Thomas E. Dewey (Gov-NY)
4. FDR faced no opposition, but due to health, Wallace was abandoned as VP
a. Harry S Truman (MO)--chair of Senate War Investigating Committee
b. impressive record uncovering waste and corruption in war production
D. Parties agreed that conduct of war and plans for peace would not be an issue
1. Campaign revolved around domestic issues and FDR’s health
a. FDR dying, but campaign revived him
2. His apparent capacity to serve 4 more years, stature as international leader,
and promise to workers to revive ND after war ensured substantial victory
3. Won PV and EV, Dems maintain control of both houses of Congress
Conclusion:
Most Americans experienced a booming prosperity and only modest hardship during U.S.
involvement. Jarring changes to society could not be offset by the prosperity—shortages,
restrictions, regulations, family instability, and the absence of millions of soldiers profoundly
shaped the era.