Botany 101 Lab Manual
Tacoma Community
College
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Biology Laboratory: Safety, Procedures, Emergencies
1. No open food or drink is permitted in the lab at any time, whether a lab is in progress or not. No
eating, drinking, chewing of gum or tobacco is permitted. Never taste anything at all while in the
lab rooms.
2. Know the locations of the eye wash and shower stations, fire alarm, fire extinguisher, first aid kit,
and emergency exits.
3. Safety instructions are given at the beginning of each lab period. Always arrive on time so that you
know what you are supposed to do and are informed of any specific safety concerns or safety
equipment associated with the day’s lab activity.
4. Wear any required personal protective equipment (lab coat, apron, goggles, etc).
5. Stash book bags safely so that they won’t trip people.
6. Report all illnesses, injuries, breakages, or spills to your laboratory instructor immediately.
7. Clean broken glass (glass that is not contaminated with any chemical reagents, blood, or bacteria)
can be swept up using the dust pan and placed in the broken glass container. If the glass is
contaminated in any way, keep the area clear to prevent tripping or laceration hazards, and consult
your instructor for proper disposal guidance. A broken glass flow-chart is available in the lab to
help you decide what to do.
8. Notify your instructor if any of the equipment is faulty.
9. Clean up your entire work area before leaving. Put away all equipment and supplies in their original
places. Disinfect your work surface if the lab activity involved any infectious materials.
10. Use the appropriate waste containers provided for any infectious or hazardous materials used in lab.
11. Safety information about hazardous chemicals used in the lab activities can be found in the Material
Safety Data Sheets (MSDS), located in the Right-to-Know Binder in the safety station. We (faculty
and students) should be fully aware of the properties of the chemicals we are using. Please use the
MSDSs. If you cannot find the MSDS for the reagent you are using in lab, inform your instructor.
They are also relatively easy to find online. A keyword example is “Sodium Chloride MSDS.”
12. Use caution with the lab chairs. Because they are on casters, the can roll away when you are
standing at your workstation. Make sure your chair is where you expect it to be before sitting down.
Do not use your chair as a means of moving from one part of the lab to the other.
13. Wash your hands before leaving the lab room.
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Laboratory 1: Pea Lab - Principles of the Scientific Method
Adapted by permission from Steve Brumbaugh from the Green River Biology Lab Manual
Exercise: Applying the Scientific Method
The work required for this lab spans about four weeks depending on a number of factors. Your
instructor will explain the methods of storage for your experimental set-ups, and how to arrange for the
use of the rooms and greenhouse to do your work.
Pre-lab Assignment
Before coming to lab carefully read the sections of your textbook regarding the scientific method and
the pages of this exercise then answer the pre-lab questions.
Goals of this Lab Exercise
 To understand the mechanisms used in the scientific method
 Design an experiment and carry out the steps of a scientific experiment
 To work cooperatively in establishing a protocol for a scientific experiment
Introduction
In its simplest form, an experiment involves a check or control group compared with an experimental
or test group. The control is held under constant conditions while the test group is exposed to the affects
of various factors, one at a time. Any changes that occur in the test group, but not in the control group,
are assumed to be the result of the condition that is changed. Each treatment, including the control,
should be replicated, and the replicate organisms should be carefully distributed so that no individuals
being treated will be favored more than others. In the activity that follows, you will design your own
original experiment.
Materials (per group of four students)
20 Little Marvel pea seeds and 2 flower pots
Growth medium (vermiculite in greenhouse)
Atomizer containing gibberellic acid solution
Atomizer of de-ionized water
Procedure
Each team should decide on its organization, discuss the problem/hypothesis, and plan the experiment.
Gather the materials needed and begin the activity. Prepare your seeds planting by following the
following method.
1. Seed Preparation - Place 20 pea seeds in a beaker and cover them with tap water so that the water
level is about 2 cm above the level of the pea seeds. Label the beaker with team identification and
date. Place it in a dark cupboard in the biology lab and let the pea seeds soak overnight (i.e. 12-24
hours). The soaked seeds should now be planted as directed below.
2. After the seeds have soaked overnight take them to the greenhouse. Prepare 4 flowerpots by
adding moistened soil to each. The containers should be about 3/4 full. In each pot, place 6
soaked seeds. Cover the seeds with another ½ inch of moistened soil. Label each pot with team
identification and date and keep them in the greenhouse. Keep the medium moist, but not soggy
wet.
3. When the seedlings are 2-3 cm high measure their height in millimeters. This is done by
measuring the distance from the growth medium surface to the tip of the shoot apex. Measure
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each seedling and record your data. These lengths are the initial measurements. You will now
apply your experimental treatment to your experimental group. First you need to decide what your
experimental treatment will be! You can use one of the following suggestions, or come up with
your own. If you use your own, please check your ideas with your instructor.
a. Spray plants with gibberrelic acid, a growth hormone
b. Add a few fertilizer pellets
c. Grow your plants under blue or red light
d. Grow your plants in the shade
e. “pinch” your plants when they are about 4cm high (this means plucking off the uppermost
leaves)
f. Grow your plants outside the greenhouse
4. On each day of class, measure & calculate the average number of leaves per plant, the average
internode length, and the average height per treatment. Record your data on the data table in your
in-lab report sheet.
Figure 1 Plant Anatomy This drawing is to be used to guide the measurement of the inter-node length.
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Report Sheet
Name
Group Names
Pea Lab Exercise
.
.
.
.
.
Table1: Average internode length, number of leaves per plant, and height for the pea plant experiment
Date
Ave.
internode
length (cm)
Ave. # of Average
leaves
height
per plant (cm)
Observations
Experimental Group
Control Group
Experimental Group
Control Group
Experimental Group
Control Group
Experimental Group
Control Group
Experimental Group
Control Group
Experimental Group
Control Group
1. Prepare a graph of the average daily heights for both the experimental and control groups.
Properly title and label your graph (Appendix A). Graph both sets of data on the same graph by
using different colors and a key. Attach this graph to your lab. In the space below, explain the
results and trends seen in your graph:
2. Prepare a graph of the average internode lengths for both the experimental and control groups.
Properly title and label your graph (Appendix A). Graph both sets of data on the same graph by
using different colors and a key. Attach this graph to your lab. In the space below, explain the
results and trends seen in your graph:
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3. Prepare a graph of the average number of leaves for both the experimental and control groups.
Properly title and label your graph (Appendix A). Graph both sets of data on the same graph by
using different colors and a key. Attach this graph to your lab. In the space below, explain the
results and trends seen in your graph:
4. What correlation(s) did you observe between number of leaves, internode length, and plant height?
5. List at least two observations of similarities and/or differences in the general growth of the
experimental and control plants other than the observations recorded in question 4 above.
6. List at least three possible sources of error that may have influenced the data you collected.
7. Suggest 3 ways to provide more valid data or show other pertinent results. Be specific!!!
8. Did you confirm your hypothesis?
YES
/
6
NO
(Circle One)
Pre-Lab Report Sheet
Pea Lab Exercise
Name_________________________________
Note:
Answer the following six questions before coming to lab, but after having read
the previous pages of this handout!
1. Write a hypothesis using the "If .... Then" format for this experiment.
2. What is the independent variable for your pea experiment?
3. What is the dependent variable(s) for your pea experiment?
4. Name at least three controlled variables in the pea experiment?
5. Give a brief explanation of your experimental design:
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Laboratory 2: Microscopy
Parts of the Swift M5 Microscope
Ocular lens (10X)
Headpiece
Objectives –5X (red),
10X(yellow), 40X(blue),
100X(white)
Condenser Lens –
focuses the light from the
source. The blue filter is
attached to the bottom of
the lens, beneath the iris
diaphragm.
Arm
Iris Diaphragm
Lever – controls
the light that enters
the condenser.
Coarse Focus
Fine Focus
Condenser Lens
Control – Raises
and lowers
condenser lens
Mechanical Stage
Control – moves the slide
Forward, back, left, and
right
Light Source
Mechanical Stage
– holds the slide, is
moved with the
mechanical stage
control
Power Switch
Light Intensity
Control
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Microscopy
Purpose
This lab is designed to give the student a basic understanding of microscopy, and introduce proper
techniques for using a compound, light microscope. The primary objectives of this lab are for the student
to:
- Understand the importance of microscopy in viewing individual cells.
- Identify the parts of a compound light microscope and their function.
- Demonstrate and practice proper techniques for use and care of a compound light microscope.
- Make a wet mount slide preparation.
Background
The basic unit of life and the smallest hierarchical level that can be considered alive is the cell. All
living things, simple or complex, are made of cells and much has been learned through their analysis. The
human eye is able to resolve objects less than a millimeter (1.0 mm) in size, but not much smaller than
that. Although there are some cells that can be observed with the naked eye (human egg cell, squid giant
axons, etc.) most cells are too small to be viewed without assistance. Today, in order to visualize small
specimens such as individual cells, a light microscope is most commonly used. The first light
microscopes were invented in the 17th century AD by Anton Von Leeuwenhoek, Von Leeuwenhoek was
able to achieve a magnification of approximately 270X. The invention of the light microscope opened up
a new world for biologists to study, and the field of Microbiology was born. Today’s modern light
microscopes are capable of magnifying images over 1000X, enough to clearly see even some of the
smallest cells.
Exercises:
Part A: Using the Swift M5 Microscope and Viewing a Letter “e”
1. Carrying the Microscope: Always use two hands, one of which should support the base while the
other holds the arm of the microscope. Microscopes contain delicate optical structures that
could be damaged through impact. Thus, be very careful and gentle when setting down the
scope and moving it.
2. Setting up: The eyepieces (oculars), condenser lens, and light source should be clean and dustfree. You may want to wipe these surfaces with a lens-grade Kim Wipe prior to using the
microscope.
3. You will now prepare a wet mount of a letter “e.” Follow the steps below. You will use this slide
to become oriented with using the microscope and to learn how to measure the field of view.
a. Obtain a clean glass slide and a letter “e.”
b. Place the letter “e” in the center of the slide, and, using the water dropper bottle, place a
drop of water over the letter “e”.
c. Place a cover slip over the drop of water and letter “e”.
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4. Ensure that the lowest power (red) objective is pointing at the stage before placing your slide on
the stage.
5. Place your slide on the stage. Look at the stage, not through the eyepieces. Use the mechanical
stage controls to position your slide such that the letter is directly over the condenser lens.
6. Move the iris diaphragm lever to the left and use the condenser lens knob to raise the condenser
lens to the highest position possible. Find the knob that raises and lowers the condenser lens
under the left-hand side of the stage. You should not loosen the condenser lens with the pins
that are used to hold it under the stage.
7. Turn on the microscope and use the rheostat wheel on the front of the stage to adjust the light
so that it is not too bright or dim – go for what is comfortable for your eyes.
8. Look through the eyepieces- don’t worry about focusing yet. What do you see? Two circles, one
blurry circle, or one clear circle? Do not worry about whether you can see the slide clearly – all
you should be focusing on right now is the circle – if you see two circles, you need to push your
eyepieces together a bit. If you see a blurry circle, you need to widen them. When you find the
right distance for your eyes, look at where the dial is between the eyepieces. You can select the
best distance for you using that number whenever you need to use your microscope for the rest
of the quarter.
9. Finally, set the ocular lens focus. Bring the “e” into focus using the coarse focus knob and then
the fine focus knob. Look through the right eyepiece with your right eye – close your left eye.
Use the fine focus to make the image as sharp as possible. Now look through the left eyepiece
with your left eye and close your right eye. If the image is blurry in any way, sharpen it by
rotating the left eyepiece clockwise or counterclockwise.
10. With each slide, ALWAYS start with the scanning (4X, red) objective. With the 4X objective, you
may start with the coarse focus knob and then use the fine focus knob to sharpen the image.
Look at your “e.” Draw what you see in on the In-Lab Report Sheet #1.
11. Next, look at the slide with the low power (10X, yellow) objective. The objectives should be
parfocal, which means that you should only need to use the fine focus knob. Note how the
objectives increase in length with magnification power. The coarse focus moves the stage up and
down, and you may run the slide into the objective if you use coarse focus with the longer
objectives. Draw what you see in the report pages. Draw what you see in on the In-Lab Report
Sheet #1.
12. Finally, look at the slide with the high power (40X, blue) objective. Again, only use the fine focus
knob – you can turn it in either direction to sharpen the image. If the image does not become
clear in a couple rotations in one direction, you should probably rotate the focus knob in the
other direction. Draw what you see in on the In-Lab Report Sheet #1.
13. With your letter e slide still in place, answer the rest of the questions under part A on your In-Lab
Report Sheet.
14. When you are finished viewing your letter “e,” return it to the small dish from where you
collected it. It will dry out. You can re-use your slide and cover slip for a later exercise.
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Troubleshooting
“The light doesn’t work”
 Ensure that the worktable is plugged in – the worktables should be plugged into overhead electrical
outlets. If your table is not plugged in, it won’t have power.
 Ensure that your power cord is properly inserted into the base. The power cords are removable and
sometimes come loose.
 Ensure that the rheostat is not dialed all the way down.
 If you have tried all of the above, and the light still does not work, notify your instructor. The
lightbulb, power cord, or fuse may need to be replaced. Your instructor may have you use a different
microscope for the time being. If your instructor is unable to repair the microscope, the lab technician
should be notified.
“I cannot see anything.”
 Ensure that the scanning (4x, red) objective is fully locked into place.
 Make sure the light is on.
 Make sure your slide is centered properly and not upside down.
 Check the condenser to make sure the iris diaphragm lever is set to the left.
 You will need to use the coarse adjustment knob to raise the stage so that the slide is quite close to
the objective before an image can be seen.
 If you have tried all the above and still cannot see anything, notify your instructor. You may be
directed to put away your microscope and use a different one. In this case, the lab technician
should be notified.
“The image is blurry.”
 First, make sure you followed all of the focusing steps described in steps 2 through 11.
 CLEAN EVERYTHING. Clean the ocular lenses, the light source, the condenser lens, the
objective, and the slide. DO NOT REMOVE ANYTHING. You should be able to clean the
objective without removing it. Make sure the slide is not upside down!
 If you’ve tried all of the above, and the image is still not sharp, please notify your instructor. Your
instructor may attempt further cleaning or direct you to put the microscope away and use a
different one. The lab technician should be notified in this case.
Putting the Microscope Away
1. Select the scanning (4x, red) objective, and remove your slide from the stage.
2. If you used methylene blue or any wet mounts, gently wipe the high power (40x, blue) objective
with a dry lens tissue. If it is clean and dry, use the same tissue to wipe the eyepieces and stage. If
you see fluid or stain on the tissue, use a small amount of lens cleaner to wipe the objective. Then
wipe the eyepieces and stage.
3. Center the mechanical stage so none of the gearing is hanging out on the side. The electrical cord
should be bound with the velcro strap.
4. Carry the microscope properly and place it in the appropriately numbered space in the cabinet with
the arm facing outward. When the arm is facing outward, the number is visible, and the scope is
more easily retrieved from the cabinet.
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Parking Tickets
5. If you put away your microscope improperly, the next user may write up a ticket and attach it to
your microscope.
6. If you find something wrong with your microscope, notify your instructor. If it was put away
improperly, you can write a ticket, and attach it to the arm so that it is visible from outside the
cabinet. Your microscope will probably be used by at least 10 other students this quarter. The
purpose of the tickets is to foster awareness for proper handling and use of the microscopes. They
are very expensive, useful tools for your learning and should be respected as such.
Part B: Wet Mounts of Plant Cells
1. Obtain one leaf of the water plant, Elodea. Make a wet mount of the leaf
2. Properly focus the microscope and view the individual cells under the highest magnification.
3. Draw several cells (they are rectangular), paying attention to details and scale.
4. Obtain a piece of red pepper. Using a razor blade, make a very thin slice of the pepper.
5. Make a wet mount of your pepper slice.
6. Draw several cells (they are rectangular), paying attention to details and scale.
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Lab 2: Microscopy
In-Lab Report Sheet
Your name_______________________________________________ Section____________
Your group members’ names:
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
Part A: Using the Swift M5 Microscope and Viewing a Letter “e”
1. Wet Mount – Letter “e” Slide. Draw the letter at three different magnifications.
________X
________X
________X
2. Looking at the drawings of your letter “e” above, what is magnification?
3. Slowly move the slide away from you using the mechanical stage control. Which way does the image
move?
4. While looking into the ocular, slowly move the slide to the left. Which way does the image move?
5. Make a rough estimate of how much of the letter is visible when viewed under high power? (Give a
percent based on the differences in the size of the field of views)
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6. Why is it necessary to center your object (or the position of the slide you wish to view) before changing
to high power?
7. Under high power is the illumination brighter or less bright than it is with low power?
8. Is it more desirable to increase or decrease the light when changing to a higher magnification?
Part B: Wet Mounts of Plant cells
________________________
________________________
________X
________X
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Lab 3: Identifying Organic Compounds in Plants
Name________________________
Names of Group members___________________________________________
Introduction: This lab will introduce some simple qualitative methods for identifying basic types of
organic compounds. Read through the lab, and the chapter on organic molecules in your book, and then
answer the prelab questions at the end of the lab
I. Carbohydrates
Ia. Simple Sugars
The basic formula for simple sugars is (CH2O)n: where “n” is three or some greater number. For some of
the most common sugars n = 6 and, hence, their formula is C6H12O6. Sugars with this formula include
both glucose and fructose. Both of these sugars react with Benedict’s solution as do all simple” sugars.
Procedure (work in pairs):
1. Take 5 ml of dilute honey and add 1 ml of Benedict’s solution in a test tube. Heat this tube in beaker of
boiling water. What do you observe?
This is a positive test for simple sugars such as glucose and fructose.
2. Repeat this test using a solution of sucrose (table sugar). Do you get a positive reaction?
3. Again add 5 ml of distilled water to a test tube. Place a piece of apple into the tube and crush it with a
stirring rod. Pour the water into a clean test tube and test with Benedict’s. Does apple have simple sugars?
4. The sugars in honey and apple are both monosaccharides. Given that honey is simply nectar gathered
from flowers, what is the function of the sugars in nectar and fruit (how do they help the plant to survive
to reproduce)?
5. Table sugar is processed from stems of the grass, sugar cane. Chemically it is the disaccharide, sucrose.
Each molecule of sucrose consists of one glucose and one fructose bound together. With this chemical
bond, electrons are not available to reduce the copper ion in Benedict’s solution, hence, the negative
reaction. Sucrose is the sugar transported by the phloem of plants. Speculate about why it may be adaptive
for plants to produce monosaccharides in fruits and flowers, but transport sugars in their tissues in the
form of a disaccharide.
Ib. Starches are long chains of the simple sugar glucose. Starch is easily identified using a solution of
iodine and potassium iodide (I2KI).
1. Fill a test tube one third full of distilled water, and add 2 drops of starch suspension. Swirl the tube and
add one drop of I2KI. What happened? ________________________This result indicates the presence of
starch.
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2. Cut a very thin slice of potato and make a wet mount using distilled water. Observe the tissues at 400x
and make a drawing. Remove the slide. Put a drop of I2KI on one edge of the cover slip and blot water
from the other edge using tissue paper. Put the slide back under the microscope and observe any changes.
Draw the stained tissue.
Unstained
Stained
3. Working with your partner take a precut corn grain and treat the cut surface with I2KI. Specifically
what tissue of the grain tests positive for starch (see diagram below)?__________________________
- Save this corn section for reference in “Part III”.
embryo
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II. Lipids
Lipids are not one chemical class of molecules like carbohydrates. However, all lipids are nonpolar: they
do not mix in water and they will dissolve certain nonpolar substances that will not dissolve in water.
Triglycerides, phospholipids, waxes, and steroids are all examples of lipids. In this exercise we will
consider only the triglycerides, which are commonly known as fats and oils.
Procedure: Take a piece of peanut seed, cut a very thin slice and make a wet mount of the tissue. Observe
the tissue under both low and high power. Now add I2KI as described previously and observe the
distribution of starch in the tissue. Add Sudan IV stain to your wet mount using the same procedure
previously described for adding I2KI to a wet mount. This stain is nonpolar and will move into the lipid
droplets residing in the tissue.
1. Can you think of why it may be more adaptive for a plant to store food in the form of oils in a seed
than in the carbohydrates of a tuber?
2. Why don’t animals lay down long-term energy stores in the form of starch?
III. Proteins
From your text you know that proteins are polymers of amino acids. The general formula of an amino acid
is given below:
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There are twenty different amino acids found in living systems. Each of these has a different “R” group. A
huge number of proteins can be formed using different combinations of these twenty. One test for proteins
uses concentrated nitric acid. The acid reacts with the “R’ groups of certain amino acids.
III. Identifying Protein in a Corn Grain
**This procedure will be demonstrated by your instructor, under the fume hood.
Procedure: Observe the corn kernel you tested earlier with I2KI. Note where starch is located. Take
another dry corn kernel that has been cut longitudinally, and place it in a petri dish. Add two drops of
concentrated nitric acid to the cut surface of the half-kernel: be careful not to breathe the fumes!!! Wait
three minutes and check for a yellowish coloration indicative of proteins. Compounds other than proteins
will turn yellow after this treatment. To specifically test for the presence of proteins, add two drops of
concentrated ammonium hydroxide to the yellowish tissue. Proteins should turn orange after this check
step.
WARNING: Both nitric acid and ammonium hydroxide are extremely caustic. Protect your eyes!
Use safety glasses while working with the reagents, and avoid rubbing your eyes after using them
until after you rinse your hands. Avoid breathing the fumes of either.
1. In what tissue is starch concentrated?
2. In which tissue is protein concentrated?
3. Why do you think starch and protein are located in different regions of a corn kernel?
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Prelab Questions for Lab 3: Identifying Organic Compounds in Plants
Name_____________________________________
These questions must be answered from the lab introduction materials and turned in at the beginning of
lab.
1. What are the four main groups of biological macromolecules?
2. What is the monomer (building block) for each of these groups?
3. What monomers make up the polysaccharide starch?
4. I2KI is used to test the presence of which molecule?
5. Benedict’s test is used to test the presence of which molecule?
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Lab 4: Cell Structure & Function
Purpose
This lab is designed to give the student a basic understanding of plant cell structure and function.
The primary objectives of this lab are for the student to:
 Demonstrate competency with utilizing a light microscope including the visualization of both
eukaryotic plant cells.
 Describe the structure of the major cell organelles and discuss how that structure facilitates the
organelle’s specific functions.
 Demonstrate knowledge of safe lab practices.
 Demonstrate slide preparation and identification of stained and unstained structures.
Background
Elodea canadensis is a freshwater aquatic plant. It is native to North America but is an invasive
species in most of the rest of the world. Elodea spends most of its life cycle entirely underwater,
providing habitat for many protists and aquatic insects.
Laboratory Exercises
Part A: Kingdom Plantae
1. Observation of Elodea. Prepare a slide of a leaf that has been vitally stained with Janus Green B.
This is a ‘vital’ stain. It colors the living mitochondria and membranes of the nucleus and vacuole
making them more visible.
2. Observe the plant cells under the highest magnification.
3. Look for cells exhibiting any internal movement. Scan the cells in your leaf until you find one
demonstrating an obvious flowing movement of the chloroplasts around the edges of the
rectangular cells. This movement is called cytoplasmic streaming. It is facilitated by the same two
proteins responsible for muscle contraction in animals (actin and myosin). While observing a
streaming strand of cytoplasm, look carefully for spherical structures about 10% of the diameter of
the disc of the chloroplasts. These are mitochondria. Locate a nucleus (if you haven’t already). Often
they will be found against one side of the cell in which case they will be hemispherical in outline.
4. Sketch several cells. In one cell, label the chloroplasts, mitochondria, vacuole, cell wall, and nucleus.
5. Answer questions on your In-Lab Report Sheet
Part B: Plant cell structures
6. Label the organelles of the plant cell
Part C: Diffusion and Osmosis in Plant Cells
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1. You will view plant and animal cells in three different kinds of solutions: pure water (Solution A),
10% NaCl (table salt, Solution B), and 0.09% NaCl (Physiological saline, Solution C).
2. Label four microscope slides A, B, C, and D. Divide and conquer: have each person in your lab group
prepare one of the four slides and view with the microscope under the highest magnification.
3. Prepare the plant slides as follows:

Slide D: place an Elodea leaf on the slide and add a cover slip. Observe the cells under the
highest magnification. Sketch several cells on your In-Lab Report Sheet. Notice the size of the
vacuoles and the distribution of chloroplasts. Can you see any of the chloroplasts moving?

Slide A: place an Elodea leaf on a slide and add a drop of solution A. Add a cover slip. Observe
the cells under the highest magnification. Sketch several cells on your In-Lab Report Sheet.
Notice the size of the vacuoles and the distribution of chloroplasts. Can you see any of the
chloroplasts moving?

Slides B: Follow the same procedure as Slide A above, using solution B instead. Let the slide set
for 5 minutes before viewing under the microscope.

Slide C: Follow the same procedure as Slide A above, using solution C instead.
4. Answer questions on the In-Lab Report Sheet.
5. Clean up: place all slides in the “used slides” container. Wash hands thoroughly and put
microscopes away. Wipe down the surface of your lab counter with detergent to clean up any
solutions that might have leaked or spilled.
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Lab 4: Cell Structure & Function
In-Lab Report Sheet
Your name_______________________________________________ Section____________
Your group members’ names:
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
Part A: Kingdom Plantae
__________________________
________X
1. Describe the distribution of the chloroplasts
2. What is the process called by which plants turn light into energy? ___________
3. In which organelles does this process go on? ___________
4. Give two examples of structures/organelles that are found in plant cells but not in animal cells.
_______________________
______________________
5. What substance are plant cell walls made of? ________________________
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Part B: Plant cell structures
6. Label the structures on the diagram below
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Part C: Diffusion and Osmosis in Plant Cells
1. Sketch several Elodea cells under the highest magnification in the circles below. Be sure to show
the overall size, shape of the cells. Also note the distribution of chloroplasts and the size of the
vacuole.
Slide D: Elodea only
0.9%NaCl
Slide A: 100% DI H20
Slide B: 10% NaCl
Slide C:
1. Which of the three solutions was hypotonic to the Elodea? Thoroughly explain your answer,
describing the movement of water and the overall appearance of the cells.
2. Which of the three solutions was hypertonic to the Elodea? Thoroughly explain your answer,
describing the movement of water and the overall appearance of the cells.
3. Which of the three solutions was isotonic to the Elodea? Thoroughly explain your answer, describing
the movement of water and the overall appearance of the cells.
4. Elodea is a plant that has evolved in pond water. Thus we should expect it to be fairly well-adapted
to its habitat. Would you expect pond water to be isotonic, hypo-tonic, or hyper-tonic to Elodea
cells and why?
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Pre-Lab Assignment for Lab 4: Cell structure and function
Name__________________________________________ Section________
Directions: Please read the entire lab following this assignment before attempting to answer the following
questions. Use the information in the lab and your textbook or lecture notes to help you answer the
following questions
1) What is Elodea?
2) What is cytoplasmic streaming?
3) What molecule makes up the bulk of a plasma membrane? What is significant about the head and
tail regions of that molecule?
4) What is the difference between diffusion and osmosis?
5) What is the difference between active and passive transport mechanisms? Thoroughly define each.
6) Go to the following website and watch the transport videos for Elodea cells in hypertonic,
hypotonic, and isotonic environments. http://www.linkpublishing.com/video-transport.htm
(alternatively, your teacher may show this in class).
a) What happened to Elodea when paced in a hypertonic environment?
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Lab 5: Plant Anatomy
Pre-Lab #4
Name________________________________
1. List three specialized cells of the epidermis
2. Where is the vascular cambium located and what is its function?
3. List three of the four primary functions of roots.
4. Where is the Casparian strip located and what is its function?
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In-lab for Lab 5: Plant Anatomy
Name___________________________
Names of Lab Partners_____________________________________________________
Topic 1. The Plant Body
Introduction:
Plants are photosynthetic autotrophs which are also structurally complex. The tissues of higher plants
are organized into roots, stems, and leaves. These are the organs of the plant body. Together, the leaf and
the stem make up the shoot. Both leaves and stem are derived from growth of an apical bud. Each leaf
along the stem is associated with a bud, and these give rise to lateral branches. The upper angle formed by
the leaf and stem is called an axil. These buds are found in that location, and are called axillary buds.
1. Describe the functions of each of the 3 plant organs:
a. stems:
b. roots:
c. leaves:
Learning objectives:
Gross morphology - terms you will be required to know and be able to use
I. The Bean Seedling. Go to the side bench and carefully uproot a seedling growing in vermiculite. Label
the figure using the list of terms below:
Axillary Bud, Blade , Root System, Petiole, Root , Shoot System, Stem, Vein , Leaf, Cotyledon
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II. Examples of Other Plants. Around the room are examples of plants with the following
characteristics. Write the name of the plant next to its leaf arrangement
Opposite leaves__________________________
Alternate leaves__________________________
Whorled Leaves _________________________
Compound Leaves________________________
Dormant Shoots: Morphology of a Woody Twig
Take a woody twig and carefully study it. Consider the following questions:
1. The twig is encased in a water-proof, air-tight covering (the bark). Can you discern any observable
structures in the bark that may be related to gas exchange?
2. Based on your observation of the dormant twig, were the leaves arranged in an opposite or alternate
fashion?
3. Speculate. Botanically, what are the bud scales?
4. Without looking at the cross section of the stem determine how many
years growth is represented by your twig.
Plant Primary Growth and Development
1. Examine a prepare slide of a leaf bud. Label the figure below
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Discussion
1. Describe the changes in cell size and structure in the stem tip. Begin at the youngest cells at the
apex and continue to the xylem cells.
2. What is an apical meristem?
Examine a prepared slide of a stem cross section. Label the figure on the following page:
35
1. Were any epidermal trichomes present on the stem? yes or no (circle one)
2. Is there any evidence of and secondary growth?
3. What is the function of xylem? of phloem?
Lab Study B Roots
Examine a prepared slide of a root cross-section
c. label the figure on the following page:
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1. Note that the epidermis of the root lacks a cuticle. Can you explain why this might be
advantageous?
Leaves
Procedure: Examine a prepared slide of a leaf cross-section
Observe the structure of cells in the central midvein. Is the xylem or phloem on the top half? (circle one)
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c. Observe the distribution of stomata on the upper & lower epidermis. Where are they more abundant?
(circle one) Why?
Cell Structure of Tissues Produced by Secondary Growth
Look at the cross-cut of tree. Locate the heartwood, sapwood, and cork. Count the number of annual
rings. When you have done all of this, call your instructor over for initials here_________________.
Now examine a prepared slide of a woody stem cross-section under your microscope.
1. Based on your observations of the woody stem, does xylem or phloem provide structural support
for trees? (circle one)
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Lab 6: Photosynthesis and Respiration
Pre-Lab Assignment
Name__________________________________________
Directions: Please read the entire lab following this assignment before attempting to answer the following
questions. Use the information in the lab and your textbook or lecture notes to help you answer the
following questions
1. Why do we need to place a beaker of water in between the lamp and the test tubes filled with
Elodea?
2. List some of the affects of ocean acidification.
3. What are the two interdependent pathways of photosynthesis?
4. What is yeast? What are some of its uses in daily life?
5. In this lab, will yeast be accomplishing aerobic or anaerobic respiration? How do you know?
6. What four types of sugar will we be “feeding” the yeast?
7. What two byproducts will yeast produce after metabolizing sugar?
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Lab 6: Photosynthesis and Respiration.
Objectives







Explain the chemical principle of acids/bases and pH.
Describe the basic steps of cellular respiration and photosynthesis.
Apply biological principles to global energy use issues.
Demonstrate competency with using a light microscope.
Demonstrate knowledge of safe lab practices.
Gather and critically evaluate experimental evidence and draw appropriate conclusions from
observations and empirical data.
Demonstrate the appropriate use of manometers and volumetric measurement.
Introduction
Refer to your textbook for background information about photosynthesis and respiration. Be sure to review
both aerobic and anaerobic respiration.
Phenol red is a pH indicator. It is red when the pH of the solution is 7 or higher (alkaline or basic) and light
yellow when the pH of the solution is less than 7 (acidic). Carbonic acid is formed when CO2 from our breath
combines with water. This process makes phenol red turn yellow. Elodea is an aquatic plant that can use this
carbonic acid as its carbon source for photosynthesis. Thus, a solution of phenol red containing carbonic acid will
slowly turn back to red as Elodea photosynthesizes. We will use phenol red to indicate Carbon uptake during
photosynthesis.
As we burn fossil fuels in our cars and factories, CO2 is released into the air. The good news is that our lakes,
rivers, and oceans absorb much of this greenhouse gas back out of the atmosphere. Perhaps this is not good news
after all. When CO2 is dissolved in water, then following reaction occurs:
CO2 + H20 H2CO3  H+ + CO32Notice that the carbonic acid (H2CO3) quickly dissociates into hydrogen ions (protons) and carbonate (CO32-). This
build-up of H+ acidifies our oceans terrestrial and marine aquatic systems. This acid can dissolve the calcium
carbonate shells of many of our sea creatures, including shellfish, corals, and phytoplankton. Phytoplankton are
microscopic organisms that form the base of the marine food web.
In the second part of our lab we will determine which sugars are best metabolized by yeast under anaerobic
conditions and then propose hypotheses to explain why some sugars are metabolized but not others. Cultures
around the world have for millennia used yeast fermentation to produce bread and alcoholic beverages. Yeasts
are single-celled fungi that are able to metabolize some foods, but not others. In order for an organism to make
use of a potential source of food, it must be capable of transporting the food into its cells. It must also have the
proper enzymes capable of breaking the food’s chemical bonds in a useful way. Sugars are vital to all living
organisms. Yeasts are capable of using some, but not all sugars as a food source. Yeast can metabolize sugar in
two ways, aerobically, with the aid of oxygen, or anaerobically, without oxygen. Although the aerobic
fermentation of sugars is energetically much more efficient, in this experiment we will set the conditions so that
yeast carry out the reactions anaerobically.
The four sugars we will “feed” our yeast within this is lab are glucose, fructose, lactose, and sucrose. Recall
their structures:
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The net equation for the more than two dozen steps involved in the aerobic respiration of glucose is:
Enzymes
C6Hl2O6 (aq) + 6 O2 (g) 6 H2O(l) + 6 CO2 (g) + energy (36-38 ATP)
glucose
oxygen
water
carbon dioxide
The alcoholic fermentation of glucose is described by the following net equation:
Enzymes
C6Hl2O6(aq)  2 CH3CH2OH (aq) + 2 CO2(g) + energy (2 ATP)
glucose
ethanol
carbon dioxide
Note that ethanol is a by-product of alcoholic fermentation. Since yeast do not have the enzymes needed to
metabolize ethanol, much of the energy stored in the molecules of glucose is trapped in the molecules of ethanol
and is unavailable for use by yeast cells. The complete break down of glucose to carbon dioxide and water in
aerobic respiration yields much more energy than does alcoholic fermentation: 36-38 ATP, versus only 2 ATP
molecules produced by anaerobic respiration. Ethanol molecules produced by alcoholic fermentation diffuse from
yeast cells into the surrounding aqueous environment. Since ethanol is harmful to cellular membranes yeast cells
will die if ethanol concentrations reach a critical level, usually a concentration of about 12%.
Procedure
Safety: The lamps get very hot, so do not touch them after they have been on for a while.
Part A: Photosynthesis in Elodea
1. Label 3 test tubes 1-3
2. Add 20mL of water and 20 drops of phenol red to each test tube.
3. Using a straw, blow into each test tube until the phenol red turns yellow. Stop once it turns yellow.
The color of each test tube should be about the same
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4. Add another 10mL of water to each test tube
5. Obtain a piece of dark-adapted Elodea (it has been kept in the dark for 24 hours). Cut a piece of
Elodea that is about 10cm long and place it into test tube #1, cut side facing up. If the Elodea is
not fully submerged, cut the piece smaller.
6. Obtain a piece of bright light – adapted Elodea (it has been kept under a bright light for 24 hours).
Cut a piece of Elodea that is about 10cm long and place it into test tube #2, cut side facing up. If
the Elodea is not fully submerged, cut the piece smaller. Try to make sure that your pieces of
Elodea in each test tube are about the same size and have about the same number of leaves.
7. Turn on the lamp and set it up about 2 feet from the test tubes. Angle the head of the lamp so that
it is directly shining on all 3 tubes. Place a beaker of water directly in front of the lamp. This will
act as a heat sink. The lamp can get hot, and the additional heat could confound our results.
8. Record the color of each test tube at 15, 30, 45, and 60 minutes in Table 1 of your In Lab Report
Sheet. Which test tube turned red first? Also record your observations of the bubble production in
each test tube at 60 minutes. Which one is producing the most bubbles? Does one seem to be
producing bubbles faster than the others?
9. While you are waiting an hour, obtain a small piece of the leaf of the red shamrock plant.
10. Tear and twist the leaf to expose a single cell layer from the bottom epidermis.
11. Make a wet mount of the lower epidermis and view under the microscope at 400x. Draw a picture
of what you see, labeling the stomata. Notice that the guard cells are attached at the top and
bottom. Answer questions listed under part A of your In-Lab report Sheet.
12. Clean-up: Turn off lamps, placed “used” Elodea in the labeled containers. Dispose of the test
tube solutions in the appropriate container. Throw the paraffin away and remove the syringes
from the stoppers. Rinse your test tubes and place them in the plastic bin by the sink. Empty your
heat sink. Rinse slides and cover slips and put into the used slides container.
13. Answer the rest of the questions listed under part A of your In-Lab report Sheet.
Part B: Anaerobic respiration in yeast
1. Obtain five test tubes and label them 1-5 with a wax pencil. Also mark each tube with the initials of
one of your lab members.
2. Use a pipette to put 3mL of sugar into each test tube. Put glucose into test tube 1, fructose into test
tube 2, and lactose into test tube 3, and sucrose into test tube 4.
3. In test tube #5, place 3 mL of water.
4. Obtain the yeast suspension. Gently swirl the yeast suspension to mix the yeast that has settled to
the bottom. Use a pipette to add 3 mL of yeast into Test Tube 1. Swirl the tube to mix the yeast
into the sugar solution.
5. Repeat step three for test tubes 2,3, and 4.
6. Incubate all 5 test tubes for 10 minutes in the 37oC water bath placed at the back of the room.
7. Remove the tubes from the water bath and swirl them gently for about one minute and then place
them in the test tube rack at your bench. Leave them in the rack from 20 minutes.
8. After 20 minutes, observe the height of the solutions in the test tubes. Do the solutions all look the
same? Which one is tallest? Shortest?
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9. Clean up: dump your solutions down the sink. Rinse the test tubes and place in the plastic bin by
the sink.
10. Answer the questions under part B on your In-Lab Report Sheet.
*Part B of this lab is an adaptation of the fermentation lab from the Green River Community college lab manual for BIOL
100.
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Lab 6: Photosynthesis and Respiration
In-Lab Report Sheet
Your name_______________________________________________
Your group members’ names:
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
Part A: Photosynthesis in Elodea
Table 1: Photosynthesis in Elodea. Tube 1 contains dark-adapted Elodea, tube 2 contains bright light-adapted
Elodea, and Tube 3 contains no Elodea (control).
Test tube #
Color @15 min
Color @30 min
Color @45 min
Color @60 min
1
2
3
1. What gas did you blow into the test tubes?_______________________
2. Write the overall, balanced equation for the creation of carbonic acid within the test tubes.
3. What happens to the color of phenol red due to photosynthesis? Why?
4. The graph below shows the relationship between CO2 and pH that is currently playing out in our oceans
(and elsewhere). This phenomenon is currently harming a lot of organisms in the ocean. The problems
will only get worse as global CO2 levels increase. Fill in the pH curve on the right using the knowledge that
you have gained thus far. It has been started at 8.16 for you.
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5. Should we be concerned with ocean acidification? Why or why not? (discuss as a group)
6. What gas is in the bubbles that you see rising from the Elodea?____________
7. What is the role of light in photosynthesis?
8. Draw the cells of the lower epidermis of the shamrock plant. Label the guard cells and the stomata.
9. What molecule enters the plant through the stomata? ____________What two molecules leave the plant
from the stomata?_____________ and ____________.
10. Guard cells can control the opening and closing of the stomata. Using your knowledge of diffusion and
osmosis, how do you think they accomplish this?
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11. Excess carbon dioxide in the atmosphere due to the burning of fossil fuels should act as a fertilizer for
plants, boosting photosynthesis, shouldn’t it? This increased photosynthesis would take CO2 back out of
the atmosphere, yet scientists are measuring a steady rise in CO2. Why is this? (Hints: What else does a
plant need besides CO2? What happens if a plant gets too hot? What’s happening to our forests
worldwide?)
12. The final product of the Calvin cycle is a sugar called G3P. Plants convert this to glucose, which it uses for
its own cellular respiration. Some of the glucose is also converted to sucrose and stored in the sap of the
tree. The rest of the sugar is stored as complex carbohydrates. What are the two forms of complex
carbohydrates that are found in plants, and where would each kind be found in a plant?
Part B: Anaerobic Respiration in Yeast
1. Considering the results of this experiment, can yeast utilize all of the sugars equally well? List the sugars in
order from the fastest to the slowest metabolism by yeast.
2. Why do you think that one of the sugars was not metabolized? (hint: it’s the same reason that some
humans cannot metabolize this same sugar)
3. Among the sugars that yeast could metabolize, explain why the sugars that were metabolized at different
rates. (hint: look at the structures of the three sugars given in the introduction)
4. Write the overall balanced chemical equation for the aerobic respiration of glucose by yeast, indicating the
number of ATP molecules produced.
5. Write the overall balanced equation for the anaerobic respiration of glucose by yeast, indicating the number
of ATP molecules produced.
6. Why are there different numbers of ATP produced when yeast metabolize glucose aerobically vs.
anaerobically? (hint: think about the steps involved in aerobic vs. anaerobic respiration)
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Laboratory 7: The Cell Cycle
Pre-Lab Assignment
Name__________________________________________ Section________
Directions: Please read the entire lab following this assignment before attempting to answer the following
questions. Use the information in the lab and your textbook or lecture notes to help you answer the
following questions
1. Using your text, outline the steps or phases of mitosis by describing the major events of each phase
of the process.
2. What are some reasons why a plant cell would undergo mitosis (and cytokinesis)?
3. What are some reasons why a plant cell would undergo meiosis?
4. Define haploid and diploid
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Laboratory 7: The Cell Cycle
Objectives



Describe the cell cycle and the process of mitosis & meiosis in cell division.
Demonstrate competency with using a light microscope.
Understand the alternation of generations life cycle in plants
Introduction
Please review the stages of mitosis and meiosis in your textbook. The micrograph below displays
examples of the different stages of the cell cycle in onion root tip cells. Animal cells will look slightly
different (ex. round instead of square) and may be stained different colors, but the chromosomes will be
performing the same actions in the same stages. During the lab, you will be viewing prepared slides of an
onion root tip and identifying the stages of mitosis. You will also use pipe cleaner to model the stages of
meiosis and mitosis.
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Interphase
Procedure
Part A: Modeling Mitosis and Meiosis with pipe cleaners
1. Your bag contains two sets of six pipe cleaners. The pipe cleaners represent the 6 chromosomes of
a cell of an imaginary organism. Among the 6 chromosomes, you should be able to distinguish 3
pairs: long, medium, and short. One of each pair should be blue, and the other red. The second set
of pipe cleaners will be used to “duplicate” your cell’s chromosomes, so set them aside for now.
The buttons in your bag should be used to represent the ends (poles) or your cell(s).
51
2. Use your lecture notes or textbook to help you model the stages of mitosis and meiosis and answer
the questions in your In-Lab Report Sheet. Once you have answered questions 1-14 AND can
model mitosis and meiosis, call your instructor over for initials. If your instructor is busy with
another group, move on to the other parts of this lab.
Part B: Relative Lengths of Phases of Mitosis
1. In pairs, examine prepared slides of the apical meristem of an onion root tip at 400X. In each view,
count the number of cells in the various stages of mitosis. One partner observes & calls out to the
other partner who records data. Switch roles after one person has counted 50 cells, and count an
additional 50 cells. Record this data (and the data from your other group members) in Table 1 of
your In-Lab Report Sheet.
2. Calculate the total number of cells counted and the percentage of total cells counted for each stage of
mitosis. Record this data in the table as well.
3. Assuming that it takes an average of 24 hours (1,440 minutes) for the cells to complete the cell cycle,
calculate the amount of time cells spent in each phase of the cycle. Use the formula provided below.
Percent of Cell (expressed as a decimal) in Phase x 1,440 minutes = minutes cell spent in phase
Part C: Alternation of Generations
1. Answer the questions on your inlab report sheet
52
Laboratory 7: The Cell Cycle
In-Lab Report Sheet
Your name_______________________________________________
Your group members’ names:
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
Part A: Modeling Mitosis and Meiosis with pipe cleaners
1. Chromosomes don’t really have color. What do the two colors in our pipe cleaner model
represent?
2. Draw a simple diagram of the cell cycle, labeling G1, S, G2, mitosis, and cytokinesis.
3. What happens during G1? How many chromosomes are present in this cell?
4. What happens during S phase?
5. Using your model, how do you make a duplicated chromosome? (After answering, duplicate your
6 chromosomes)
6. What happens during G2?
7. How many chromosomes are present in this cell during G2?
8. Using your pipe cleaners, model all of the steps of mitosis. Use two buttons to represent the ends
(poles) of your cell. Have your book or lecture notes out to help you.
9. What is cytokinesis? How does it differ between a plant and animal cell?
53
10. Use your pipe cleaners to demonstrate to your instructor to difference between diploid and
haploid cells. What kinds of cells in a plant are diploid? What kinds are haploid?
11. What are homologous chromosomes? Where does each member of a homologous pair of
chromosomes come from? Show a pair of homologous chromosomes to your instructor.
12. Using your pipe cleaners, model all of the steps of meiosis. Use buttons to represent the ends
(poles) of your cell(s). Have your book or lecture notes out to help you. Use the principle of
independent assortment to who how meiosis results in genetically unique cells.
13.
Instructor initials
Part B: Relative Lengths of Phases of Mitosis
Table 1: The number of cells in each phase of mitosis. Apical meristem cells from an onion root tip were
viewed and counted at 400x.
Person 1
Number of cells
Person 2 Person 3 Person
4
Interphase
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Total
Cells
Counted
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Total
% of total
counted
Time in
each stage
14. Referring to the percentage of total cells counted in each phase of mitosis, determine which phase
takes the longest for the cell to complete, and explain why. Sketch a pie graph in the circle
provided of the percentage of cells in each phase to illustrate.
Part C: Alternation of Generations Life cycle
15. In the space below, draw the generalized diagram for the alternation of generations life cycle. Be
sure to label the gametophyte, sporophyte, mitosis, meiosis, gametes, and spores. Color in the
parts that are haploid and the parts that are diploid.
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Name______________________________________
PreLab for Lab 8: Plant Diversity I: Non-Vascular and Vascular Seedless plants
1. Mosses belong to the seedless non-vascular plant group. What does “non-vascular” mean?
2. Define spores and gametes. What is the difference between the two?
3. How does the life cycle of a bryophyte differ from all other land plants?
4. What is the name of the liverwort that we will see in today’s lab? (scientific name)
5. Which is bigger: a fern sporophyte or a fern gametophyte?
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Lab 8: Plant Diversity I: Nonvascular Plants and Seedless
Vascular Plants
Name_______________________ Names of Group members__________________________________
The Bryophytes
Plants are eukaryotic, photosynthetic organisms with chlorophylls a and b, xanthophylls and
carotenoids. Plants have cell walls with cellulose, and store food as starch localized in plastids. As is
found in the charophycean green algae, cytokinesis is accomplished by means of a phragmoplast. As we
learn more about the green algae and the plants, it is becoming clear that plants are a phylogenetic group
within the green algae adapted for life on land. Plants are more structurally complex than the green algae.
This is certainly due to the environmental pressures associated with life on land. The most structurally
simple plants have a sterile jacket of cells (dermal tissue) surrounding the sexual structures protecting
their gametes from dehydration. Eggs are contained in an archegonium, and developing sperm in an
antheridium (these have been lost in some of the more structurally complex lineages of plants). The
vascular plants have tissues specialized for the transport of water and photosynthate, which allow them to
tap underground water and mineral resources and to support themselves in competition for light. All
plants have a life cycle called alternation of generations, in which gametes are always produced by
mitosis, and spores are always produced by meiosis. All plants have embryos. The embryo is an early
sporophytic (diploid) stage that is nourished by the gametophytic generation.
The Bryophytes: Bryophytes are simply the plants without xylem and phloem. Mosses do have cells
specialized for the movement of water and photosynthate, which may be homologous to xylem and
phloem of vascular plants. The three phylogenetic groups of non-vascular plants are unique among living
plants in that the dominant generation is the gametophyte. In each case, the sporophyte is dependent on
the gametophyte for survival for the duration of its life’s span.
Domain: Eukarya - Organisms with nucleated cells
Kingdom: Plantae
Phylum: Hepatophyta (Liverworts)
Genus: Marchantia
Phylum: Anthocerophyta (Hornworts)
Phylum: Bryophyta (Mosses)
Part I: Phlyum Hepatophyta (Liverworts).
Structurally this is the simplest phylum of plants. The group lacks vascular tissues and stomata (there are
air pores, but these are not associated with guard cells). As with the other bryophytes, the gametophytic
generation is the dominant generation being free-living and photosynthetic. The sporophytes are both
totally dependent on the gametophyte for survival, and, inconspicuous. The tissues of the gametophyte
are undifferentiated. A body composed of simple, undifferentiated tissues, like those of liverworts, is
termed a thallus. Fertilization results in the formation of a diploid cell called a zygote. The zygote
resides inside the base of the archegonium where the zygote undergoes mitosis and grows into a
multicellular diploid embryo. The mature sporophyte mostly consists of one large sporangium which
produces spores by meiosis.
Observation of Marchantia.
Observe the Marchantia culture at the front of the room, and take a petri dish of Marchantia to your seat.
The non-reproductive portion of the plant grows firmly attached to its substrate. The main, green leafy
structure is called the thallus.
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Draw a picture of Marchantia below, labeling all of the following: thallus, rhizoids, antheridia (if
present), archegonia (if present), gemmae cups
1. Is the plant you observed the gametophyte or the sporophyte? (circle one)
Observe a gemma cup under a dissecting scope.
2. Are the gemmae responsible for asexual or sexual reproduction? Explain.
3. Why are these plants, like most bryophytes, restricted to moist habitats, and why are they always
small?
Sexual Structures.
Observe the elevated umbrella-like structures growing from the thallus, and note that there are two types.
One has spokes radiating from the stalk like the ribs of an umbrella, the other has a stalk terminating in a
disc. The structure with the spokes is an archegoniophore and bears archegonia.
The structure with the disc is an antheridiophore and bears antheridia. In each case, these structures are
made up of gametophyte tissue.
The Sporophyte of Marchantia.
The sporophyte develops while surrounded and nourished by the tissues of the gametophyte. This is a
fundamental characteristic of all plants. However, in the non-vascular plants, the sporophyte never
becomes independent from the gametophyte. The mature sporophytes of Marchantia can be found
hanging from the older archegoniophores.
Part II: Phylum Antocerophyta (Hornworts).
This group is superficially similar to the liverworts. Like liverworts, there is little tissue differentiation in
the gametophyte. The thin thallus grows in contact with the substrate. The cellular structure is different,
however. Indeed hornwort cells are uniquely different from all other plant cells. Typically plant cells have
numerous, disk-shaped chloroplasts. Hornwort cells have one, central, algal-like chloroplast. Also, unlike
liverworts, the hornworts have stomata. The sporophytes of the hornworts have guard cells associated
with the openings in its surface layer of tissues. This marks these openings as being true stomata.
Using a picture from your text, draw a picture of the overall hornwort plant and label the sporangium:
60
Part III: Phylum Bryophyta (Mosses)
Of all the non-vascular plants, the mosses have the clearest affinity to the vascular plants. Mosses have
specialized cells that conduct water, and others that conduct photosynthate. Further, these cells appear to
be homologous to similar tissues in the vascular plants. Unlike the vascular plants, in the mosses, the
gametophytic generation is the dominate generation, the sporophyte being dependent all its life on the
gametophyte for survival. The mosses also have disc shaped chloroplasts and have stomata.
View the Colonies on Demonstration
Of all the non-vascular plants, these are the ones, undoubtedly, with which you are most familiar. Mosses
grow everywhere where there is moisture to support them. Most mosses are very similar in form. Most
have gametophytes consisting of a central axis with leaf-like structures attached. The structures that
appear to be sporangia are actually the sporophyte generation.
Draw any moss on demonstration with sporophytes. Label both gametophyte
and sporophyte.
Review the structures and processes observed and then label the moss life cycle diagram below. Using
colored pencils or pens, color the haploid structures one color and the diploid structures another color.
Label the processes of mitosis & meiosis.
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Answer the following about the moss life cycle:
1. Are the spores produced by the moss sporophyte formed by mitosis or meiosis? (circle one) Are
they haploid or diploid? (circle one)
2. Do the spores belong to the gametophyte or sporophyte generation? (circle one)
3. Are the gametes haploid or diploid? (circle one) Are they produced by meiosis or mitosis?
(circle one)
4. Is the dominant generation for the bryophytes the gametophyte or the sporophyte? (circle one)
5. Can you suggest any ecological roles for bryophytes? (hint: the answer is not: “no”)
6. What feature of the life cycle differs for bryophytes compared with all other land plants?
7. How does moss get up on your roof?
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Prepared Slides of Mnium Archegonia and Antheridia.
Mnium moss has separate male and female gametophytes. The antheridia on the male plants are clustered
into “splash platforms”. Take the slide labeled “Mnium: Antheridium” and place the slide under your
microscope and observe the antheridia.
Draw an antheridium here:
Take the slide labeled “Mnium Archegonium” and place the slide under your microscope and observe the
archegonia. Make a drawing of an archegonium below and label the egg:
Part IV: Phylum Pteridophyta – (The Ferns and Their Relatives)
Domain: Eukarya
Kingdom: Plantae
Phylum Lycophyta (spike mosses, club mosses, and quillworts)
Phylum: Pteridophyta (whisk ferns, horsetails, and ferns)
** Since the plants in Phylum Lycophyta are mostly extinct, we will not deal with them in today’s
lab.
Phylum Pteridophyta – the Ferns.
Ferns are a major phylogenetic group of plants consisting of several different orders in the phylum
Pteridophyta. They are widespread and ecologically important. Fern sporophytes are structurally complex
and typically have true stems, roots and leaves. The gametophytes we will see in lab are very small and
are bisexual).
Ia. The Sporophyte.
Observe the living and pressed sporophytes in the room. Identify the stems, leaves, and sori (clusters of
sporangium). Sketch the overall structure of the whisk fern (look at picture in the book), horsetail, and
fern below. Label the and sporangium
1. Are there any true leaves on the whisk fern?______ On the horsetails?______
2. Are sporangia present on the whisk fern? ______On the horsetails? _______
On the ferns?______
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Ib. The Gametophyte.
Now take the prepared slide of a whole-mounted gametophyte and look for gametangia. Archegonia can
be found near the notch and antheridia will be found scattered across the whole thallus. The archegonium
is embedded in the tissue of the gametophyte. To observe the egg you must focus carefully.
Draw the entire gametophyte at 40x. Label archegonia and antheridia.
Next take a living specimen of a fern leaf and examine the sori under the dissecting microscope. Draw
what you see below, labeling the indusium and sporangium
3. Are the spores in the sporangia produced by mitosis or meiosis? (circle one)
4. Are the sporangia haploid or diploid? (circle one) Think about which generation produces them.
5. Once dispersed, will these spores produce the gametophyte or sporophyte generation? (circle
one)
Fern Life Cycle
Review the structures and processes observed, and then label the stages of the fern sexual
reproduction outlined in Figure 15.6 on the next page. Using colored pencils or pens, circle those
parts of the life cycle that are haploid and those that are diploid. Circle the processes of mitosis
and meiosis.
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1.
2.
3.
4.
Are the spores produced by the fern sporophyte formed by mitosis or meiosis? (circle one)
Are the gametes produced by meiosis or mitosis? (circle one)
Is the dominant generation for the fern the gametophyte or sporophyte? (circle one)
Can you suggest any ecological role for ferns?
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Prelab for Lab 9: Plant Diversity II: Gymnosperms and Angiosperms
Name________________________________________
1. Describe three ways in which Gymnosperms are different from Angiosperms
2. List four features of flowers that attract pollinators.
3. From what part of the flower does the fruit develop? ______________________
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Lab 9 Plant Diversity II: Seed plants and Flowering plants
Name_________________________________
Names of Group members_____________________________________________________________
Seed Plants: The Gymnosperms
Domain Eukarya
Kingdom Plantae
Phylum Coniferophyta (The Conifers)
Genus Pinus
Phylum Cycadophyta (The Cycads)
Phylum Ginkophyta (The Ginkgoes)
Phylum Gnetophyta (The Vessel Bearing Gymnosperms)
Seed Plants: An Overview of Terms
The remaining five phyla of plants, are all seed plants. Seeds contain young sporophytes (embryos). In all
cases, the gametophyte generation is still there, but is either hidden by sporophytic tissues or dramatically
reduced. Our knowledge of the life cycles of non-seed plants provides us with a perspective about the
evolution and life cycles of the seed plants. All seed plants are heterosporous, which means that they
produce separate male and female spore in separate male and female sporagnia. A Seed is a mature ovule
(female gametophyte) bearing a young sporophyte (an embryo) complete with food storage tissue covered
by a seed coat derived from integuments.
The Gymnosperms
Gymnosperms are simply seed plants that are not angiosperms. This means that they are grouped by what
they don’t have. Gymnosperms do not bear fruits and their seeds are not enclosed. ‘Gymnosperm’ literally
means naked-seeded as their seeds are not enclosed in fruits. There are four phyla of gymnosperms.
I. Coniferophyta (The Conifers).
Conifers are seed plants all of which have woody stems. Their life cycle does not include motile sperm.
The sperm nuclei are carried all the way to the egg by the pollen tube. While absent in the yews, the most
distinctive feature of the group is the compound ovulate cone, consisting of a central stem bearing seedscale complexes. Each seed scale complex consists of a modified leaf in which the ovules develop.
Conifers include many commercially and ecologically important species. These include the pines,
spruces, hemlocks, douglas fir, junipers, cedars and all three genera of the redwoods. Conifers are among
the world’s largest, tallest and oldest trees. Observe the examples of conifers on display.
What economically important products are derived from
Conifers?_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________
Ib. Life Cycle of the Genus Pinus
Observe the living Pinus leaves on display. How many needles are in each bundle?_____________
Use the key provided to determine which species of pine tree this is___________________________
In conifers, male cones are borne for only a matter of days or weeks and are then shed. In Pinus the male
cones are borne in clusters and emerge with the new spring growth of the lower branches.
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Studying the Details of the Male Cone
Take the prepared slide labelled, “Pinus Male Strobilus”. Draw what you see below, and label the
microsporangia and pollen grains.
The Male gametophyte (Pollen Grain)
In all seed plants the male gametophyte is greatly reduced. For fertilization to occur the male gametophyte
must be physically carried to the ovule. This event is pollination and in pine is accomplished by the wind.
Examine a prepared slide of a pollen grain and draw it below (if no slide, take a look at the picture in your
book).
What possible survival advantage could be provided by the “Mickey Mouse” ears?
The tube cell will germinate into the pollen tube which will grow up through the neck of the archegonium
to an egg. After pollination the generative cell will divide to form two sperm nuclei. Both of these nuclei
will be delivered to the egg nucleus via the pollen tube.
Megasporangiate Stages
In conifers female cones persist through the year and their presence give rise to the common name of the
group. In Pinus the female cone emerges with the new spring growth of the upper branches. Female cones
typically emerge in May and do not reach maturity where they disperse seed until the fall of the following
year!
What are two ways in which pine seeds might be
dispersed?____________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
Studying the Details of the Female Cone
Observe the prepared slide through your
microscope. Identify the sterile bracts labelled “A”,
and the seed scales labelled “B” on the next page. A
sterile bract with its associated seed scale is a seed
scale complex.
Dissection of a Female Cone:
Take this cone and pull it apart using your fingers. Share
the pieces with those at your table. Everyone should
then dissect out one seed-scale complex.
Lay it flat and observe the ovules. How many ovules are there on
seed-scale?________________
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each
Flip over the seed-scale and observe the sterile bract.
Draw each view of one seed-scale complex. Label seed-scale, ovules, and sterile bract.
Studying the Details of the Ovule
Take the prepared slide labeled “Pine female strobilus” and use 400x to study details of the ovule. Look
for an ovule with a huge cell in the center. This cell will undergo meiosis to produce four female spores.
In Pinus, only one female spore will go on to produce a female gametophyte. The tissue in which this
cell is embedded is the female sporangium. The female gametophyte will undergo_______________ to
produce an egg. After pollination, the sperm will fertilize the egg.
II. Phylum Cycadophyta (The Cycads).
Cycads are a group of seed plants with non-woody secondary growth. Plants are dioecious. What does
this mean? __________________________________________________
Foliage is similar to a palm tree. Cycads have flagellated sperm carried to the archegonium by means of
the pollen tube. This group was more important ecologically in the past than in the present. Today the
group consists of only three families of plants. Cycads are extensively planted in tropical and subtropical
areas as ornamentals. Observe the examples of cycads and draw a rough sketch of one here below:
III. Phylum Ginkgophyta (The Ginkgos).
Ginkgos are seed plants with woody secondary growth and distinctive fan shaped leaves. They are also
dioecious. Female ovules mature into a stinking fruit-like seed. Ginkgo has flagellated sperm! The
group was more important ecologically in the past than in the present. Today the phylum includes one
species, Ginkgo biloba, which is extensively planted as a street tree. Observe the demonstration materials
of Ginkgo biloba on the side bench ( or in your textbook). Ginkgo is used by some people as an herbal
supplement for_____________________________________________________________________
IV. Phylum Gnetophyta (Vessel-Bearing Gymnosperms).
This is a peculiar group consisting of only three genera (plural of Genus) that are radically different in
shape and form from each other. These plants are dioecious. Even though these three genera don’t look
similar, they are thought to be a true evolutionary group of plants.
Label each figure with the appropriate genus name (Ephedra, Gnetum,
Welwitschia):
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Genus: ____________________
Genus: ____________________
Genus: ____________________
The Angiosperms
Domain Eukarya
Kingdom Plantae
Phylum Anthophyta (The Flowering Plants)
The angiosperms are the most abundant and diverse group of plants on Earth. Angiosperms were the last
major group of plants to appear in the geologic record.. The group diversified explosively. All sexually
reproducing flowering plants have flowers. The general rule is that the flower is a shoot consisting of four
types of modified leaves, sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels. However, there are major groups of
flowering plants that have flowers without petals or sepals. Examples include the oaks and birches. It is
not clear whether these trees descended from plants that never had petals and sepals, or if their floral
structure has become reduced as an adaptation to wind pollination. The grasses are another group adapted
to wind pollination. Their flowers typically have only stamens and carpels. In the case of the grasses it is
clear that their flowers represent a reduction in complexity from ancestors that did have petals and sepals.
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Defining characteristics: All angiosperms have carpels. The carpel is a female sporangium that bears and
encloses ovules. After pollination, carpels mature to form fruits. All angiosperms undergo double
fertilization. The male gametophyte (pollen grain) produces two sperm nuclei which are delivered to the
female gametophyte via the pollen tube. One fertilizes the egg to produce a zygote. The other undergoes
fusion with the two nuclei of the central cell of the female gametophyte giving rise to a type of nutritive
tissue called endosperm.
I. Flowers
A flower is A determinately growthed shoot that typically includes four tiers of modified leaves: The
calyx made up of sepals, the corolla made up of petals, the androecium made up of stamens, and the
gynecium made up of carpels. A flower is complete if it contains all four tiers of modified leaves. A
flower is incomplete if it does not have all four tiers of modified leaves.
Closely examine (pull apart and slice open) a real flower locating all the parts. Sketch it below and label
all the parts: stigma, style, ovary, anther, filament, petals, sepals
Grass flowers have most of the parts too but they are modified. Using the poster for
help, label the following grass flower parts: (if real grass flowers are available, be sure to
look for the dangling male parts and feathery female parts.)
.
Pollen: Look at the slide labels “mixed pollen grains.” look at all the different shapes and sizes! Draw a
few here:
How come a daisy is not “a flower”?
Why do some flowers stink like rotting meat?
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Why do some flowers make sweet nectar?
Why are some orchid flowers are shaped like female wasps?
-Why are some flowers are small, un-noticeable, and scent-free like alders and grass?
Take five different flowers to your table and fill in the table below. Use the attached keys at the end of
this lab to help you determine the shape of the corolla, landing platforms, and predicted pollinators.
Flower #
Features
1
2
3
4
5
# of petals
# of sepals
color
scent (y/n)
nectar (y/n)
special features
(landing
platform,
guidelines,
nectar spur,
etc.)
predicted
pollinator
Dichotomous Key to Pollinators
Flower Characteristics Method of Pollination
1A. Sepals and petals reduced or inconspicuous. Feathery or large stigma. Flower has no odor.
Wind
1B. Sepals and/or petals large and easy to identify. Stigma is not feathery.
The flower may or may not have an odor.
2A. Sepals and petals are white or not very colorful (greenish or burgundy). Flowers have a
distinct odor.
 Odor is strong, heavy and sweet.
Moth
 Odor is strong, smelling of fruit or fermented fruit. The flower parts and pedicel are strong.
Bat
 Odor similar to sweat, feces or rotting meat.
Fly
2B. Sepals and/or petals are colored. The odor may or may not be present.
 Flower shape is regular or irregular, but not tubular.
• Flower shape irregular. Sepals or petals
are blue, yellow or orange. The petal is
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well-suited to serve as a landing platform.
There may be dark lines on the petals.
Odor is sweet and fragrant………………………………………..Bee
• Flower shape is regular. The odor is
fruity, spicy sweet or meat-like.
Beetle
 Flower is tube-shaped.
• Strong, sweet odor
Butterfly
• Little or no odor. The flower is typically red.
Hummingbird
II. Fruits
These enclose the mature seeds and are derived from the ovary of the pistil. These may be fleshy, or hard.
If hard they may be dehiscent or indehiscent. Fruits are ripened ovaries. One of the definitive characters
of the angiosperms is that the ovules are encased. Fruits always serve to protect the maturing
ovules/seeds. However, a great deal of variation exists in the angiosperms in regards to the nature of the
mature fruit.
Berries: Some fruits become totally fleshy. These fruits are berries. Many unrelated plants have fruits that
are berries. In regards to fruit-type a great deal of convergent evolution has occurred.
Drupes: Fruits that have a fleshy outer and a stony inner part are drupes. “Stone fruits” are drupes, and
include cherries, peaches, plums, apricots and nectarines. All are members of the genus Prunus in the
family Rosaceae. Other plants bear drupes as well but are unrelated.. This is another example of
convergent evolution.
Pomes: Pomes are a type of fruit borne by one taxonomic group within the rose family including apple,
pear, hawthorne and quince. In pomes the sepal, petal and stamen tissues have become fused to the ovary
resulting in an inferior ovary. Pomes, like berries, are fleshy, but the tissues surrounding the ovary
contribute the bulk of the flesh of the mature fruit.
Follicles: Follicles are dehiscent dry fruits derived from a simple carpel that opens along one side. The
one obvious example familiar to many people are milkweed fruits.
Legumes: Like pomes this fruit type is associated with a taxonomic group - the bean family (Fabaceae).
This fruit is derived from one carpel that opens along two sides. Note that peanuts are not dehiscent but
are still considered to belegumes.
Capsules: A capsule is any dehiscent fruit derived from a compound ovary.
Grains, Nuts, Achenes: These are all examples of fruits that are non dehiscent and develop into a hard or
stony tissue surrounding the seed. Grains are the fruits of grasses (Poaceae). The carpel develops into a
hard layer tightly fused to the seed coat. This covering is the bran stripped from the wheat kernel.
Nuts are fruits where the carpel becomes completely stony. Many fruits considered to be nuts, however,
are actually drupes such as walnut, almond and coconut. Acorns are true nuts.
Achenes are hard fruits but not stony. An examples is sunflower “seed”. Some achenes are winged and
these are termed samaras.
Aggregate Fruits: Some flowers have multiple pistils. Their fruits develop into aggregates of simple
fruits all attached to the receptacle of the flower. These simple fruits themselves can be berries, drupes,
follicles or nuts. Observe the examples of these fruits at the front. Classify which simple fruit type
develops from each individual ovary. Note that strawberry is also an accessory fruit because the fleshy
tissue is not derived from the ovary. For strawberry list both the fruit type of each individual ovary, and
the floral part that becomes fleshy.
Multiple Fruits: Some plants have fruits that develop from whole inflorescences - from flower stalks
Lab Study D. Fruits and Dispersal- grocery store botany!
Examine six different fruit types and fill in the table below. Use the key below and pictures provided.
Make sure to take both dry and fleshy fruits. Feel free to cut the fruits open.
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Fruit #
Fruit type
Dispersal method
1
2
3
4
5
6
Dichotomous Key to Fruits
Fruit Characteristics
Fruit Type
Dry fruits at maturity (one ovary)
> Fruit with one seed
- Ovary wall and seed coat are fused …………………………………..Achene
- Ovary wall is hard or woody but can be separated
from the seed.
Nut
> Fruits with two to many seeds
- Ovary several cavities when cut in cross section and
several to many seeds.
Capsule
- Ovary with one cavity
+ Mature ovary opens along both sides
Legume
+ Mature ovary opens along one side.
Follicle
Fleshy Fruits (one ovary)
> Ovary with one seed. The seed is surrounded by a vary hard
stone (outer covering of the seed is formed from the inner ovary
wall)
> Ovary with many seeds. There is no “stone”
- All of mature ovary tissue is soft and fleshy and the
surrounding flower tissue does not develop into fruit.
- Fleshy fruit develops in part from the surrounding
tissue of the flower (base of sepals and petals). The
ovary wall is seen as a “core” surrounding the seeds.
Compound fleshy fruits (more than one ovary)
- Fruit formed from single flowers that have multiple
carpels which are not joined together
- Fruit formed from from a cluster of flowers (called
an inflorescence). Each flower produces a fruit, but
these mature into a single mass
Drupe
Berry
Pome
Aggregate fruit
Multiple fruit
Adapted from http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookDiversity_6.html
And Investigating Biology Lab Manual, Morgan and Carter 2005.
Supermarket BotanyShoot Systems - Stems, Buds and Leaves
Cabbage. A single compact shoot: Leaves are curled over the apical meristem to form a head.
Longitudinal sections show buds in the axils of leaves. Head lettuce shows a similar morphology. Note
that commercial cabbage and lettuce were bred for this heading quality. Wild cabbage and lettuce show
normal stem elongation.
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Brussels sprouts. Same species as cabbage: bred for its compact and edible lateral buds.
Kohlrabi. Same species as cabbage: central stalk serves as a fleshy storage organ.
Broccoli and Cauliflower. Same species as cabbage: bred for compact edible flower heads.
Artichokes. Another edible inflorescence: artichokes are composites similar to a giant thistle; edible
parts are bracts and receptacles.
Onions. These are bulbs that consist of tightly arranged layers of starchy- succulent leaves which are
connected by a short stem; longitudinal sections show the shoot tip(s).
Potato. An underground stem modified for storage with no leaves called a tuber. Eyes are buds from
which above ground shoots grow. Potato tubers form at the ends or sides of rhizomes (you might wish to
draw a diagram of a mature plant showing the three shoot types - aerial, rhizome, tuber).
Celery. These stalks are enlarged succulent petioles whoes blades are much reduced. Commercial celery
was also bred for non-elongation of central stem. Rhubarb is another example of a plant bred for edible
petioles.
Root Systems
Carrots. This is a tap root with parenchyma predominating in the secondary xylem and phloem tissues.
Sweet Potato. Another root modified for storage but, unlike carrot, cambia form around vessels in the
secondary xylem.
Beets. A tap root modified for storage. Secondary growth takes place in a series of cambia. These form
from the inside to the outside with the most recent cambium (the outer one) being functional. These
cambia give the root its characteristic pattern of concentric rings in cross-section.
Fruits
Tomato. This fruit develops from a single, fertilized flower the ovary of which becomes greatly enlarged.
It is technically a berry.
Cucumber and Squash. Both are berries in the cucumber family. Each develops from a single flower. In
cross-section one has an air space, the other is solid and succulent.
Pineapple. A multiple fruit developing from an entire stalk of fertilized flowers: The receptacle and the
ovaries are enlarged and fleshy. A longitudinal-section shows the entire stalk and the positions of
individual fruits.
Questions for review
1. Plants have evolved a number of characteristics that attract animals and ensure pollination, but
what are the benefits to animals in this relationship?
2. Complete following table
Features
Moss
gametophyte or
sporophyte
dominant?
vascular tissue?
(y/n)
seeds? (y/n)
fruits? (y/n)
water required for
fertilization? (y/n)
pollen grain? (y/n)
Fern
Conifer
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Flowering plant
4. Your neighbor’s vegetable garden is being attacked by Japanese beetles, so she dusts her garden with
an insecticide. Now, to her dismay, she realizes that the beans and squash are no longer producing.
Explain to your neighbor the relationship among flowers, fruits (vegetables, in the gardening language),
and insects.
Seeds. Look at soaked bean and corn seeds and/or posters.
a) Look at a real corn kernel...the embryo is the white leaf-like thing you can see beneath the skin. i)
How many embryos per seed?
b) What was the purpose of the long tube, called corn silk,
which was attached to each corn seed?
c) Open a bean or peanut seed and find the embryo.
Sketch and label its seed coat, leaves, cotyledon food,
and the scar where it attached to its fruit:
*d) List at least 8-10 FOODS which are made from seeds:
*e) Which is higher in calories per ounce (on average): foods from seeds or veggie? Why?
ETHNOBOTANICAL OBJECTS
Ethno = ethnic/cultural and so these are plant items used by people for various purposes.Look at each
specimen. What is the “useful” product? What part of the plant does it come from? Look at the list
below. Can you spot the correct category? Write down the product. (see examples below)
A. whole plants: embryo, seedling, or young sprouts:
B. roots or derived from roots: --e.g. sweet potatoes (often called yams incorrectly)
C. stems, stalks, and trunks:
i. whole stem or their internal fibers: --e.g. linen from the flax plant
ii. underground stems= tubers and rhizomes:
-- e.g. real, tropical, yams
iii. xylem and phloem fluids (sugary water)
iv. wound-healing and pathogen-killing latexes and resins:
D. leaves including leaf stalks (petioles and leaf buds: --e.g., celery stalk= leaf stalk
-- e.g. blue indigo dye from leaves
E. Flowers, flower parts, or unopened flower buds:
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F. fruits/pods (including their seeds) or things derived from fruits:
G. seeds (apart from their fruits):
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Lab11: The Tacoma Nature Center and Preserve at Snake Lake
Name: _____________________________
Meet in the parking lot of the Nature Center at Snake Lake. It is one mile east of TCC on
South 19th street at the corner of Tyler/Stevens (kitty-corner from Fred Meyers).
Parking is accessed from Tyler street, not S 19th.
We will start behind the building (nearest 19th st) near the inflow by the information
signs.
Snake Lake is a 54-acre nature preserve that consists of open water, forested hillsides and an urban
wetland. Snake Lake is named for its long, narrow shape--not its abundance of reptiles! The preserve
provides habitat for nesting, rearing, foraging and resting of many different bird, mammal, reptile and
amphibian animals. Remember as with any nature preserve or park--stay on the trails, take out only (and
everything) what you take in, and don’t feed the animal.
 While waiting for everyone to get to Snake Lake, look at the interpretive sign on the south side of the
parking lot. Name three species of native plants and animals found at Snake Lake
A. Plants
B. Animals
1.
1.
2.
2.
3.
3.
How many species of mammals are found at Snake Lake?
1.
Birds?
What is the difference between an “ecosystem” and a “community”?
2. What are some reasons why this habitat is so great for wildlife?
A
3. What is an autotroph? List as many different plant species as you can recognize.
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4. What is a heterotroph? What kinds of organisms are heterotrophs? List any that
you see here today.
5. There are two kinds of heterotrophs: Define each below, and give an example of
each kind, found here today
a. Primary consumers –
b. Secondary consumers
6. Communities with high species diversify are great places for studying ecological
relationships. Symbiosis refers to any relationship between living organisms. There are
several types of symbioses, as outlined below:
a) What is mutualism? Give examples we see today of “mutualism”.
b) What is predation? Are there examples here today (or examples we presume
to be here)?
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c) What is commensalism? Examples here today?
d) What is parasitism? Examples here today?
7. When ecologists do research on communities, one thing that is important is how much
food is available to the animals throughout the year or from one year to the next. The
“food” or “biomass” (leaves, roots, fruits etc.) is made of molecules. It can be measured in
two ways:
- the volume or mass of the stuff;
- the energy released when the stuff is consumed or burned (calories);
Understand and explain why is there always WAY more mass/calories of plants than
animals. The same principle explains why top carnivores like hawks are rarer than the
herbivores like mice. This is often called the “10% RULE” and it is why most
environmentalists try not to eat meat. Understand the connection?
5. Has this community always looked the same? Of course not! Disturbance has occurred
here. The change in a community over time is called ____________
a) Primary succession is when.....
When or how did that happen here?
b) What is secondary succession and when/how did that happen here?
6. These nature areas are great for helping clean up pollution and stabilizing the
atmosphere.
a) How is Snake Lake and its surrounding communities helping reduce global warming?
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c) How might the lake be helping reduce “eutrophication” of the stream that drains the
nature area? (listen for the term “bioremediation”)
d) Heavy metal and toxin burial:
7. We severely damage natural areas, especially wetlands, in many ways, such as:
a) acid rain: (explain what is caused from, and what it is, why it hurts)
b) Street run off contains many bad things such as:
c) Nonnative invasive species such as...
Post 1 (wetland loop):
What is a wetland?
What role do the plants have in the filter process?
Post 2(wetland loop):
What is the name of the common wetland tree here?
Make a quick sketch of one leaf:
Post 3 (wetland loop):
The boxes in the trees are for wood ducks. What time of year would be best for spotting babies? Why?
How do you tell a sword fern from a bracken fern?
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Post 4(wetland loop): Skip
Post 5(wetland loop):
Name the berries!
What color berries are usually poisonous?
What color is usually safe?
Post 6(wetland loop): First bridge
Turtles are cold-blooded animals. What does that mean? How do they keep warm?
When referring to sexual dimorphism of mallards, which sex is drab colored?
Post 1 (History loop): skip
Post 2: (History loop):
What did native American tribes use the wetlands for?
Post 3: (History loop): Skip
Post 4: (History loop):
What is special about Fireweed (Epilobium augustifolium)?
Post 5: (History loop):
Hwy 16 (built in 1972). Second bridge
What are the larvae of dragonflies called?
Why do adult dragonflies hang around wet spots?
Post 6: (History loop): Other side of the bridge
What is the name of the large native trees with shredding bark?
What is an interesting fact about this tree?
Post 7: (History loop): Skip
Post 8: (History loop):
What do you think happened here?
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Backtrack to the forest loop
Post 8 (Forest Loop):
What do you think happened to this tree?
Post 7: (Forest Loop):
How do you tell a Douglas Fir from any other tree?
What will eventually happen to the Douglas Fir trees and why?
Post 6: (Forest Loop): Skip
Post 5: (Forest Loop):
What is the relationship between closed or open canopies and the amount of understory?
Post 4: (Forest Loop):
What is the name of the tall trees here?
Post 3: (Forest Loop):
What is a snag?
Post 2: (Forest Loop):
What is a moss? A lichen?
How do you tell the difference between moss and lichen?
Post 1: (Forest Loop): skip
Post 8 (Wetland Loop)
What is a nurse log?
Post 9: (Wetland Loop) Ants!
What do the ants eat?
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Post 10: (Wetland Loop)
What happened in this area about 13,000 years ago that formed the land into depressions called kettles?
Post 11/12: (Wetland Loop) Skip
Final Interpretive sign
Inflow:
Where does the water in Snake Lake come from?
What is the difference between point and non-point source pollution?
What can you do to help the water quality of Snake Lake?
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Lab 12: Forest Ecology Field Walk
In-Lab assignment
Name______________________
1. What is the definition of a coastal temperate rainforest?
2. What did the First Nations tribes use the Western Red Cedar Tree for?
3. Describe the relationship between mycorrhizal fungi, trees, and squirrels.
4. Why are salmon so important?
5. How does clear-cutting affect Salmon?
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6. What is a snag? A nurse log?
7. List ten species of plants and ten species of animals.
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Name______________________________
SEYMOUR CONSERVATORY Homework
A conservatory is a greenhouse with display flowers and other plants. Metro parks in
Tacoma has a wonderful conservatory on the east side of Wright Park in Tacoma that is
open Open Tuesday thru Sunday 10 am-4:30 pm (free). Closed Mondays
http://www.metroparkstacoma.org/page.php?id=21
Wright Park is between Division and 6th avenue. The conservatory is at 316 S G St
Tacoma, WA 98405 (253) 591-5330.
Visit the conservatory and among your other observations, fill this out as best you can.
This sheet is just to keep you actively looking at the plants, and reviewing material we are
learning in class. It is kind of a treasure hunt. PLEASE DO NOT ASK THE WORKERS
FOR HELP. If you have questions about the displays, not related directly to this handout,
they would be happy to help.
BANANA PLANT- north side of main entrance, outside
Banana plants are perennial but not woody. Look at the “stalk”- what is it formed from?
LEMON TREE (Citrus limon)- just inside the door, right side of path
Look for flowers. If low enough, sniff and observe . What kind of pollinators do you
suppose these flowers attract?
Citrus fruits are similar to berries in their structure but have thicker oily skin. Imagine
this tree growing wild in the ancient jungles of India... what kind of animal might have
eaten it, spreading its seeds? __________ ( make a hypothesis)
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GIANT BIRD OF PARADISE PLANT
Strelitzia nicolai
This young specimen has leaves that
resemble the banana’s but the flowers are
very different. If in flower, you may see
how it got its name. Each “flower” is
actually several within a bract. Sketch
one of these flower inflorecenses if they
are present:
QUEEN SAGO CYCAD TREE - in highest, central region
This specimen was started from a seed in 1895!
Which of the four main plant groups do cycads belong to?
Looking at the large old scales still attached to the trunk beneath
the leaves, do you suppose this plant is male or female?
PYGMY DATE PALM (Phoenix roebelenii)
Do you think date palms are monocots or dicots and why?
ORCHIDS (all along the wall dividing the north room with the central region)
The seeds are so tiny that they are not really visible. They don't contain a real food
reserve and therefore use a symbiotic fungi to contribute nutrients to the embryo.
-Are orchids monocots or dicots?
-Judging from its succulent leaves, where in a rainforest do orchids live: the sunny top or
in the shadier understory?
-How are their roots adapted to absorbing nutrients when they aren’t even in soil?
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- Hypothesize: why do orchid flowers have such odd shapes.
NORTH WING
BROMELIADS (on left/west) - many kinds including Spanish “moss”. Pineapple family.
Are these plants monocots or dicots?
These plants are epiphytes. What does this mean?
INSECTIVOROUS PITCHER PLANTS hanging in the back NW corner behind bench
What plant organ has been modified into the insect-catcher?
Why would a plant need to digest insects?
FIG TREE (fiddle leaf) (Ficus sp.) in the back by the emergency door
- Many animals rely on fig trees in the dry season in the tropical regions because they are
often the only thing in fruit. See how this mid-canopy species’ branches are horizontal?
- Why not grow more straight up?
Taxonomic Treasure Hunt: Use different plants than those highlighted above. You
may search inside and outside the greenhouse to find one representative plant for each of
the following taxonomic groups. For each plant, describe or briefly sketch the
plant/portions that convinced you it belonged in this taxon. If its name was labeled, write
that down also.
Seedless Nonvasculars (Probably only see 1 of the 3 phyla):
Mosses (Bryophyta)
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Seedless Vasculars
Ferns (Pterophyta)
Lycophyta (here too?)
Gymnosperms (2 of the 4 phyla)
Coniferophyta ... perhaps outside only!
Cycadophyta
Angiosperms: Phylum Anthophyta (the only phylum in this group) the two main classes:
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Class Monocot
Class dicot
ANATOMICAL ADAPTATIONS
1. LEAF COLORS:
a) Red/purple underneath: tropical understory
plants often have purple or red beneath the
leaves to make light bounce back upwards.
Find one species like this...write down its name
or describe/ sketch if no name labeled:
b) Variagated leaves (mottled, dotted, striped
white, pink, green...). Experiments show that the
white and pink portions do not store good foods.
So perhaps variagated leaves are not a worthy
meal for an herbivore? Just a hypothesis.
Find one species like this...write down its name or
describe/ sketch if no name labeled:
c) Colorful leaves: Look for at least one plant
with live, healthy colorful leaves (all over the plant
or in some parts of the plant). Why would it have
colorful leaves? Perhaps to attract pollinators to
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small flowers? Perhaps as sunscreen?
Describe or cite the name of your plant.
Give a hypothesis for why it has colorful leaves.
2. LEAF SHAPES- Find 2 species which have the most bizarre leaf shape you can find.
Sketch their leaf shapes
3. SURFACE TEXTURES of leaves or stems....
find two plants with really interesting
textures... who did you choose? What was so interesting? Give ideas for why they have
these textures.
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4. WATER STORAGE ORGANS- name or describe or sketch one plant with
huge bulbous storage stems/roots at the surface:
5. FLOWERS
a) Some “flowers” are actually a cluster of flowers, called an "inflorescence".
Try to find at least two different looking flower arrangements. For these
plants, roughly sketch the overall shape of their inflorescence and the
plant's name (if labeled).
b) Search for a flower that you able to identify the male and female flower
parts in
Sketch the flower and label the name of the plant (common name is fine).
If you can identify any of the parts, label the male pollen-producing organ
called the stamen; the female organ called the pistil.
7. FRUITS contain seeds. They are the swollen, mature female flower part
(and sometimes other parts too.) See fruits on any plant other than the
lemon?
Name a plant you observed here with fruits. Describe / sketch the fruit.
Hypothesize how this fruit helps disperse the seeds.
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