Invasive Species Impacts and Management:
Coconut hispid beetle (Brontispa longissima)
(Major source: FAO 2007)
Prepared by IUCN SSC Invasive Species Specialist Group
1.0
INTRODUCTION: THE IMPORTANCE OF PALM CONSERVATION
2.0
HOST PALM SPECIES
3.0
DAMAGE CAUSED BY THE COCONUT HISPID BEETLE
4.0
IMPACT OF COCONUT HISPID BEETLE ON AGRICULTURE
5.0
IMPACT OF COCONUT HISPID BEETLE ON TOURISM
6.0
FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE COCONUT HISPID BEETLE
ESTABLISHMENT
7.0
INSPECTION & MONITORING
8.0
QUARANTINE
9.0
CHEMICAL MEASURES
10.0
BIOCONTROL MEASURES
10.1
TETRASTICUS BRONTISPAE
10.2
METARHOZUM ANISOPLIAAE
11.0
FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS
12.0
INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT: COUNTRY CASE STUDIES
13.0
KNOWLEDGE DISSEMINATION
14.0
REGIONAL AND COUNTRY ORGANISATIONS AND EXPERTS
1.0
INTRODUCTION: THE IMPORTANCE OF PALM CONSERVATION
The coconut palm Cocos nucifera is an important plant resource for many cultures. The
leaves and fibers of the tree have many practical uses in Pacific Island culture. It is also
an important crop plant in the Asia-Pacific region, supporting the livelihoods of millions
of people. Global production of coconut is around 60 billion nuts and it is grown in over
93 countries with the Philippines, Indonesia and India ranking in the top three in terms of
productivity. Coconut palms are also an attractive fixture of tropical landscapes
ubiquitous to every Pacific village and a valuable and vital touristic component of the
Asian-Pacific region (ASEAN IPM 2007). The Maldives and Thailand both have large
tourism industries built around idyllic palm studded tropical beaches.
2.0
HOST PALM SPECIES
Species in the families Palmae (Arecaceae) and Cycadacea are potentially attacked by
Brontispa longissima. Hosts species include (APFSIN Undated):
 Coconut Cocos nucifera (most favored host);
 Royal palm Roystonea regia;
 Alexandra palm Archontophoenix alexandrae;
 Sago palm Metroxylon sagu;
 California fan palm Washingtonia filifera;
 Mexican fan palm Washingtonia robusta;
 Bottle palm Hyophorbe lagenicaulis;
 Chinese fan palm Livistonia chinensis;
 Madagascar palm Chrysalidocarpus lutescens; and
 Areca nut palm (betel palm) Areca catechu.
There are 36 species in 26 genus recorded as host plants for the coconut hispid beetle in
Shenzhen, China. The following species are seriously damaged by the beetle (Qing,
Guang-Wen & Ling 2006):
 Coconut Cocos nucifera;
 Royal palm Roystonea regia;
 Alexandra palm Archontophoenix alexandrae;
 Caryota ochlandra;
 Areca triandra;
 Syagrus romenzoffiana;
 Caryota cmingji;
 Phoenix hanceana; and
 Ravenea rivulari.
In Hainan province, China, host palms include:
 Coconut Cocos nucifera;
 Areca nut palm (betel palm) Areca catechu;
 Alexandra palm Archontophoenix alexandrae;
 Royal palm Roystonea regia;
 Roystonea regia;
 Washingtonia fllifera;
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Petticoat palm Washingtonia robusta;
Hyophorbe lagenicaulis;
Liviston chinensis; and
Golden cane palm Chrysalidocarpus lutescens;
In Hong Kong host palms include (CABI International 2002, in Wijesinghe 2004):
 Ivory nut palm Phytelephas;
 Petticoat palm Washingtonia robusta;
 King palm Archontophoenix alexandrae; and
 Dwarf date palm Phoenix roebelenii.
In Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia, major host plants include (CABI International
2002, in Wijesinghe 2004):
 Royal palm Roystonea regia;
 Areca nut palm (betel palm) Areca catechu;
 Nicobar palm Bentinckia nicobarica;
 Carpentaria palm Carpentaria acuminate;
 Fish tail palm Caryota mitis; and
 Hyophorbe lagenicaulis.
Minor host plants in Darwin include:
 Alexandra palm Archontophoenix alexandrae;
 Queen palm Arecastrum romanzoffianum;
 Golden cane palm Chrysalidocarpus lutescens;
 Sealing wax palm Cyrtostachys renda;
 Princess palm Dictyosperma album;
 Gulubia costata;
 Laccospadix australasica;
 Livistona muelleri;
 Date palm Phoenix dactylifera;
 Fijian fantail palm Pritchardia pacifica;
 Ptychosperma elegans;
 Ptychosperma macarthuri;
 Washingtonia filifera; and
 Petticoat palm Washingtonia robusta.
In New Caledonia host palms include:
 Coconut Cocos nucifera;
 Areca nut palm (betel palm) Areca catechu;
 Caryota sp;
 Sago palm Metroxylon sagu;
 Bentnickiopsis;
 Balaka sp; and
 Calamus sp.
3.0
DAMAGE CAUSED BY THE COCONUT HISPID BEETLE
Seedlings, mature coconut trees and ornamental palms are all affected; however, palms
up to five years old are at the greatest risk of infestation by the coconut hispid beetle
(ASEAN IPM 2007; PestNet 2002). The coconut beetle attacks unopened young fronds;
as the spear unfurls the beetle moves on to other palms or the next emerging spear; it
does not attack leaves that are already emerged. Beetle larvae chew large areas of the
leaflets killing underlying tissues and reducing leaf photosynthesis; photosynthesis may
be reduced to zero in the case of multiple beetle attacks. Beetle attacks result in the
reduction of the amount of reserves available to the plant to produce new growth or form
reproductive structures; flower and fruit and subsequently “nut” production are
significantly reduced. Infested palms are more susceptible to drought and diseases such
as fungal rot (PestNet 2002). Severe infestations may result in the complete defoliation of
the palm (Lu et al. 2008); in the worse cases palms, especially young ones, die from
severe infestation (Kalshoven 1981, Stapley 1980, He et al. 2005/06).
4.0
IMPACT OF COCONUT HISPID BEETLE ON AGRICULTURE
Coconut Cocos nucifera, oil palm Elaeis spp. and ornamental palms are all affected by
the coconut hispid beetle and are all important industry crops. In countries where the
coconut is grown coconut industries are at risk of reduced yields due to beetle
infestations. Coconut production losses due to the coconut hispid beetle have been
recorded to be as high as 30% to 50% in Vietnam and 50% to 70% in Samoa (Tan Viet
2004; Voegele 1989). South East Asia and the Pacific are particularly affected.
Infestation by the coconut hispid beetle has the potential to have a drastic affect on the
livelihoods of whole villages; in some localities 90% of the people rely on the coconut
for their livelihood (Quirante 2007). Where the coconut hispid beetle has been left
unchecked coconut processing factories have been shut down, thousands of workers have
been let off and farmers have been left without work (Bernama 2007).
5.0
IMPACT OF COCONUT HISPID BEETLE ON TOURISM
Idyllic tropical island landscapes dotted with tall palm trees are an essential pull-factor
employed to entice people to travel to South East Asia and the Pacific. Browning and
dying palms degrade these landscapes, are unmarketable and have negative consequences
for the tourism industry and the people whose livelihoods depend on tourism. The natural
environment and its use for recreational activities is also spoiled for local people and
residents.
6.0
FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE COCONUT HISPID BEETLE
ESTABLISHMENT
Dry periods favour the establishment of B. longissima (Bariyah and Baringbing 1987,
Tjoa 1953; Kalshoven 1981, in FAO 2007; Yueguan & Yankun 2004, in FAO 2004).
Young palms less than four years old attract the beetle; the heart leaves of older trees are
firmer and less suitable as breeding habitats. Stunted palms with less compact hearts are
more susceptible to Brontispa. Strong monsoon winds reduce the abundance of parasitic
wasps, conditions that favour beetle attacks.
7.0
INSPECTION & MONITORING
Palms must be inspected for symptoms of infestation and presence of the beetle before
being moved out of infested areas. Adult beetles, larvae and eggs are all located inside
the tightly folded leaves young heart leaves in the throat of the palm; these leaves should
be targeted during inspection. Symptoms of infestation by B. longissima include necrotic
patches on the young leaflets which appear as white streaks and are caused by the beetle
chewing the leaf (Fenne 1996, Howard et al. 2000, in He et al. 2005/06). Injured leaves
of coconut seedlings show large, dead patches resulting from the coalescing of feeding
strips; the leaves finally tear leaving a ragged appearance (He et al. 2005/06). Symptoms
of secondary fungal infections may also be evident on infested palms (He et al. 2005/06).
8.0
QUARANTINE
Prohibition of the movement of host palm seedlings (including ornamental palms) and
potential habitat material, including palm produce (eg: coconut leaves, items made from
palm fibers) out of infested areas is necessary to prevent spread of the beetle pest to new
areas. Non-infested countries at risk of infestation should adopt quarantine guidelines to
ensure that infestations of the beetle are detected before plants leave infested countries.
The use of check points, emergency legislation and emergency measures are all useful
management tools. This might include cutting down infested palms and hanging
insecticide bags on palms up to three kilometres from the area of infestation. Raising
awareness among stakeholders and the general public and training programs are
important for the ongoing monitoring of beetle presence and to increase awareness of the
risks involved in shifting palms and palm products. Phytosanitary measures in plantations
and nurseries should be encouraged.
9.0
CHEMICAL MEASURES
Pesticides are generally expensive for local farmers who obtain only small profits from
coconut (Nakamura Konishi & Takasu Undated). Pesticide application to tall coconut
trees is impractical and poses risks for applicators (Nakamura Konishi & Takasu
Undated). Chemical control, using relatively safe pesticides, is appropriate for short term
use, to establish a quarantine area, in nursery environments and to combat the pest before
biological control measures become operative and effective. During the twentieth
century a number of insecticides were used to combat B. longissima, however, most have
been phased out due to their toxic side effects. In addition B. longissima has developed a
resistance to aldrin and dieldrin. Imidacloprid, Dieldrin, Quinalphos, Azinophos,
Methidathion and Chlordane are reportedly effective for up to four months; repeated
applications may be impractical and uneconomical (ASEAN IPM 2007). Carbaryl has
been suggested for use in nurseries (SPC 1985). He and colleagues (2005/06) tested the
insecticides Imidacloprid and Acetamiprid to compare them with Carbofuran sachets
currently used in Singapore. Imidacloprid was the most effective in hispid beetle
population suppression, followed by Carbofuran. Acetamiprid was the least effective.
Guang-Jiang, Yong-Yue & Ling (2007) found that avermectin controlled nearly 100% of
B. longissima in the field for about 1 month.
10.0 BIOCONTROL MEASURES
The introduction and enhancement of parasitoids to control B. longissima has been very
effective. The techniques for the mass-rearing of parasitoids have been mastered by
Chinese scientists; factories now produce 50 000 to 80 000 insects per day (Jian 2007).
Natural enemies of B. longissima include parasitic wasps (the egg parasitoids:
Hispidophila brontispae, Ooencyrtus podontiae and Trichogrammatoidea nana and the
larval/pupal parasitoids: Tetrastichus brontispae, Asecodes hispinarum and
Chrysonotomyia sp.) and entomopathogenic fungi (green muscardine fungus Metarhizium
anisopliae and Beauveria bassiana). Mites (Anoplocelaeno sp.), ants (Oecophylla
smaragdina), larval bacterial diseases and predators (earwigs Chelisoches morio and
Chelisoches variegatus) have also been recorded as affecting coconut hispid beetle
populations.
10.1
TETRASTICUS BRONTISPAE
Tetrastichus brontispae has been widely introduced in the Pacific Islands for control of B.
longissima. It establishes in higher numbers in milder tropical climates and at irrigated
sites in hotter climates (for example, in Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia) (Chin &
Brown 2001, in FAO 2007). Successful release is dependent on the initial release of large
numbers of the parasitoid (Halfpapp 2001, in FAO 2007). T. brontispae naturally spreads
up to eight kilometres from the release site, sometimes as far as 34 kilometers (Chiu et al.
1985, in FAO 2007; Tan Viet 2004). Sweet resources such as honey, sucrose and glucose,
obtained from flowering plants and honey, may prolong the longevity of adults and
increase the fecundity and parasitism of females effectively (Bao-Qian et al. 2006).
10.2
METARHOZUM ANISOPLIAAE
Metarhizium anisopliaae is a fungus which quickly establishes and spreads in wet
conditions (Thi Loc 2004) and has been shown to infect and kill about 65% of the fouth
or fifth instar larvae and 27% of adult beetles (Chiu & Chien 1989, in Thi Loc 2004).
Fungal spores contact the host’s integument, grow and penetrate the haemocoel,
eventually killing the host and growing through the cuticle to the outside. The fungus
then produces an abundance of conidiospores on the beetle carcass, which disperse to
surrounding beetle populations (Marschall Vargo & Fatuesi Undated). Conidia are
dispersed by the wind and the rain (Liu Lin & Shiau 1989). One month after treatment
with the chemical dicidex populations of the coconut hispid beetles tend to fully recover;
after the same period of time in trees treated with M. anisopliae beetle numbers remain
significantly below pre-treatment figures (Marschall Vargo & Fatuesi Undated). The
success of entomopathogenic fungi as microbial control agents is largely dependent upon
the use of highly virulent strains (Daoust and Roberts 1982, in Liu Lin & Shiau 1989);
spraying of improved strains of the entomopathogenic fungi M. anisopliaae has met with
success.
11.0 FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS
The search for a synthetic mixture with the smallest possible number of constituents that
possess the same attractant as fresh coconut leaves for B. longissima and the development
of this synthetic molecule is desirable and could play a role in biological plant protection
(Jian 2007). Exploratory surveys for potential biocontrol parasitoids in the original home
of B. longissima are suggested. Though difficult to implement, the use of tolerant
cultivars is a little documented aspect of B. longissima management.
12.0 INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT: COUNTRY CASE STUDIES
Different countries and regions have emphasised different methods of control. A common
feature of almost every region has been the use of integrated pest management – using a
combination of management techniques targeted at controlling the pest in infested areas
and decreasing the risk of the spread of the pest into non-infested areas.
Maldives (Shafia 2004):
Educational measures: Information has been distributed to educate the public and
increase awareness. National news papers, Voice of Maldives and Television Maldives
have followed biocontrol release events. A Brontispa awareness programme was
designed to increase community awareness of the problem and the current quarantine
prohibitions and included frequent radio broadcasts, posters distributed to all inhabited
islands, resorts, relevant ministries, schools and the general public and leaflets distributed
in the local Dhivehi language to the public.
Quarantine measures: Inter-island movement of coconut fronds, mature coconut palms
and coconut seedlings from Brontispa-infected islands is prohibited.
Chemical measures: Chemical control with insecticides (Carbamate Sevin) and systemic
insecticides (Monocrotophos) has been employed in the Maldives.
Biocontrol measures: Asecodes hispinarum was imported from the quarantine facility
of Nong Lam University, Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC), Vietnam. The parasitoid was
mass-reared on site at Sun Island resort and released following approval. A total of
approximately 300 000 parasitoids were released and distributed among eight islands.
On-going monitoring is in place. It is yet too early to determine the effectiveness of the
parasitoids.
Training and capacity building: Ministry of Fisheries, Agriculture and Marine
Resources (MOFAMR) staff have been trained by the National Project Coordinator. Todate (2004) training has been conducted in five atolls.
Philippines (Quirante 2007) :
Educational measures: Radio announcements to increase awareness about the coconut
hispid beetle and the status of infestations.
Training and capacity building: Technical briefings are an important component of
management in the islands.
Thailand (Sindhusake & Winothai 2004) :
Educational measures: A campaign was initiated to increase awareness of the risks of
moving palm seedlings into non-infested areas.
Quarantine measures: Quarantine inspection is in place to prevent spread of pest
(Nakamura Konishi & Takasu Undated).
Biocontrol measures: Mass rearing of biological control agents has occurred in the
country.
Training and capacity building: Training courses for farmers, hotel owners and plant
protection officials from the Department of Agriculture;
Research: Ecological research has been conducted to find out more about the coconut
hispid beetle
Vietnam (Tan Viet 2004) :
Chemical measures: Chemical control with Fastac, Karate and Sherpa has been used to
combat the coconut hispid beetle. Bio-insecticides have been used, ie: spraying with the
green muscardine fungus Metarhizium anisopliae.
Mechanical and cultural control: Infested spears are cut and palm crops are fertilised
and irrigated).
Biocontrol measures: Technicians of the Plant Protection Department in provinces
where the coconut beetle infested were invited to participate in training program on the
mass rearing, field release and monitoring of Asecodes hispinarum. Treatment with this
agent resulted the recovery of up to 90% of palm trees. Pesticide companies failed to sell
any insecticides to treat the coconut hispid beetle since the biocontrol project was
implemented.
13.0 KNOWLEDGE DISSEMINATION
Many member countries of the Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission (APFC) have been
hard hit by outbreaks of the coconut hispid beetle. Shared experiences between
agricultural and forestry sectors and regional collaboration have contributed to B.
longissima management. Sharing knowledge is an effective form of preventative action.
Improving information sharing in the Asia-Pacific region among the affected countries
will contribute to better control and management of the pest (Jian 2007).
Examples of how knowledge of the pest has been shared include the following:
 The JIRCAS Project: Biological Control of Invasive Insect Pests on Coconut
Trees was started in April 2006 for a five-year term to accumulate scientific
knowledge about the pest and its natural enemies; this information is intended to
be used to develop sustainable biological control methods against the beetle; the
overall goal is to help small-scale farmers who make a living from coconuts by
providing stable yields and secure income.
 Vietnam has vowed to help the Philippines in their efforts to eradicate the coconut
hispid beetle (Bernama 2007).
 The Asia-Pacific Forest Invasive Species Network (APFISN), the USDA Forest
Service, FAO and the Asia-Pacific Association of Forestry Research Institutions
(APAFRI) jointly organised the Asia-Pacific Forest Invasive Species Network
Workshop (held in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, in February 2005); the following
report was produced as a result: Developing an Asian-Pacific Strategy for Forest
Invasive Species: The Coconut Beetle Problem - Bridging Agriculture and
Forestry.
 The threat of B. longissima was discussed at the Farmer Field School (FFS)
Curriculum Development Workshop (held at Kochi, Kerala, India in February
2005).
 An Expert Consultation on coconut beetle outbreak in the Asia and Pacific Plant
Protection Commission (APPPC) member countries (held in October 2004 in
Bangkok, Thailand) was organised by the FAO Regional Office for Asia and the
Pacific (RAP); the main objective of the consultation was to exchange
experiences and lessons learned among countries; the consult recommended
regional collaboration in combating the problem.
 Asia and Pacific Plant Protection Commission (APCC) staff have participated in
B. longissima briefings in Vanuatu, Manila (Philippines), Manado (Indonesia),
Kiribati and India.
 In April 2004 Dr S.P. Singh (Project Coordinator-IPM) visited relevant centres in
India to warn about the possible danger of B. longisimma entering India and stress
the importance of disseminating knowledge of the pest to relevant parties.
 In August 2004 Dr P. Rethinam (Executive Director, APCC) visited the Central
Plantation Crops Research Institute (CPCRI) in India to brief scientists about B.
longissima and advise careful monitoring of the pest.
 In 2004 Dr S.P. Singh visited Madang and Tavilo Centers of Cocoa and Coconut
Research, Papua New Guinea and the Davao Research Center, Philippines
Coconut Authority, Philippines, to discuss B. longissima and its natural
antagonists.
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14.0
The threat of B. longissima was discussed at the Annual Review Meeting of the
CFC/DFID/APCC/FAO Project on Coconut Integrated Pest Management (held in
Manila, Philippines in 2004); the FAO and APCC decided to work together for
the management of B. longissima.
In the XLI Cocotech Meeting (held in Santo, Vanuatu from 5 to 9 July 2004) the
party recognised the recent threat of B. longissima in reducing crop yields and the
need to educate coconut growers and development workers.
The problem of B. longissima was highlighted at the XLI APCC Session (held in
Tarawa, Kiribati from 19 to 22 October 2004).
REGIONAL AND COUNTRY ORGANISATIONS AND EXPERTS
Regional:
The Asia-Pacific Forest Invasive Species Network (APFISN); http://apfisn.net/
Asia-Pacific Association of Forestry Research Institutions (APAFRI);
http://www.apafri.org/
FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific; http://www.fao.org/world/regional/rap/
Asia and Pacific Plant Protection Commission (APPPC);
http://www.eppo.org/WORLDWIDE/RPPOs/apppc.htm
Keith Chapman, Plant Production Officer (Industrial Crops), FAO Regional Office for
Asia and the Pacific, Maliwan Mansion, 39 Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand; email: keith.chapman@fao.org
A full list of participants of the Expert Consultation on coconut beetle outbreak in the
Asia and Pacific Plant Protection Commission (APPPC) member countries (held in
October 2004 in Bangkok, Thailand) is available in: FAO. 2004. Report of the expert
consultation on coconut beetle outbreak in APPPC member countries [Annex 2.];
available from: http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/ad522e/ad522e06.htm#bm06.2
Cambodia:
Hean Vanhan, Deputy Director, Department of Agronomy and Agricultural Land
Improvement, Ministry of Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries; e-mail:
vanhan@mobitel.com.kh; tel: (855) 12818216; fax: (855)23 216655
China:
Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences; http://www.caas.net.cn/engforcaas/index.htm
Fiji:
Wilco Liebregts, Biological Control Specialist, Eco-Consult Pacific, P.O. Box 5406,
Raiwaqa PO, Suva, Fiji Islands; e-mail: ecoconsult@connect.com.fj
India:
The Central Plantation Crops Research Institute (CPCRI), Kerala; http://cpcri.gov.in/
University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore, Karnataka;
http://www.indiastudycenter.com/Univ/States/Karnataka/bangalore/UnivAgriSciences/de
fault.aspCoconut Development Board (CDB), Kochi, Kerala and Regional Office,
Bangalore, Karnataka; http://coconutboard.nic.in/
National Bureau of Agriculturally Important Insects (NBAII) [formerly Project
Directorate of Biological Control (PDBC)], Bangalore; http://www.pdbc.res.in/
Maldives:
Aminath Shafia, Director, Ministry of Fisheries, Agriculture and Marine Resources,
Maldives; e-mail: aminath.shafia@fishagri.gov.mv
Myanmar:
Kyu Kyu Swe Tin, Deputy Supervisor, Myanmar Agriculture Service, Ministry of
Agriculture and Irrigation, Yangon, Myanmar; e-mail: ppmas.moai@mptmail.net/
Papua New Guinea:
National Agricultural Information System (NAIS);
http://www.pngnais.org/wysiwyg/view_page.php?id=7
Philippines:
Philippine Coconut Authority (PCA); http://pca.da.gov.ph/
Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research and
Development (PCARRD); http://www2.pcarrd.dost.gov.ph/joomla/
Brontispa Action Team (BAT); contactable through any of its member agencies:
Philippine Coconut Authority in Diliman, Quezon city; (02) 426-1398 and (02) 928-9488;
National Crop Protection Center , University of the Philippines, Los BaCollege, Laguna;
(049) 536-2409; Bureau of Plant Industry, Malate, Manila; (02) 524-7353, (02) 5239132 and (02) 404-0409; KASAKA-KALIKASAN, Department of Agriculture, Quezon
City; (02) 920-4099 and (02) 928-8741 loc. 2606.
Thailand:
Chalern Sindhusake, Senior Entomologist of Plant protection and Research
Development Office, Department of Agriculture, Bangkok; e-mail:
chalerms@asiaacess.net.th
Vietnam:
Tran Tan Viet, Vice Chairman of Plant Protection Department, Nong Lam University,
Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam; e-mail: trantanviet@hcm.vnn.vn