Intermediate
Earth Science
Teacher’s Manual
1
INTERMEDIATE
EARTH SCIENCE
Teacher’s Guide
Written by:
Sharon Bassage, W-FL BOCES
Edited by:
Barb Hurrin
ESTEC
Elementary Science Training and Education Center
Wayne-Finger Lakes BOCES
121 Drumlin Court Newark, NY 14513
Property of Syracuse City School District.
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INTERMEDIATE EARTH SCIENCE
Overview and Format …………………………………………………………………………… 1-5
Standards ………………………………………………………………………………………… 5 & 31
Concepts …………………………………………………………………………………………. 4
Lesson 1: Inside Earth …………………………………………………………………………… 6
Lesson 2: The Atmosphere ………………………………………………………………………. 8
Lesson 3: The Water Cycle ………………………………………………………………………. 10
Lesson 4: Plate Motion ………………………………………………………………………….. 12
Lesson 5: Pangaea and Continental Drift ………………………………………………………… 14
Lesson 6: Extreme Natural Events ……………………………………………………………….. 16
Lesson 7: Weathering and Erosion ………………………………………………………………. 18
Lesson 8: The Rock Cycle ………………………………………………………………………... 22
Lesson 9: Rocks of the Lithosphere ………………………………………………………………. 24
Lesson 10: Minerals ………………………………………………………………………………. 26
Glossary …………………………………………………………………………………………… 28
Resources …………………………………………………………………………………………. 29
Other Standards …………………………………………………………………………………… 30
Overview:
Intermediate Earth Science provides activities which students can develop an understanding of the
concepts of the interactions of the land (lithosphere), water (hydrosphere), and air (atmosphere). Students will
develop cognitive and motor skills as they construct models of the Earth and its components, such as;
volcanoes, earthquakes, erosion, the water cycle and rock cycle, and the movement of the lithospheric plates
(plate tectonics). The teacher’s manual contains the same background content as the student’s manual!
The content (or background material) that is underlined comes directly from the Intermediate Core Content
Guide, major understandings. Vocabulary and words or phrases that are important are in bold or italic. The
teacher can read about the subject area prior to beginning the unit.
Before you Begin:
1. There are posters, models and transparencies in the kit. Feel free to use them as you wish, they will be
referenced in the lessons that seem most appropriate.
2. There are four books included with the kit. You can use them with the given lessons, before or after lessons,
or together with the reading the students have in their student manuals.
Books in the kit include the follow Delta Readers:
“Earth Movements”
“Water Cycle”
“Erosion”
“Rocks and Minerals”
Scheduling: Intermediate Earth Science can take from 10 – 16 weeks depending on the maturity of the
students and the time allotted for science lessons. There are 10 “Lessons” that include lab activities for
each. Make sure you preview the “Teacher’s Manual” prior to starting the unit to confirm your time.
Materials to be
Obtained locally:
hard boiled eggs (2 of them) - Labs 1, 2 - optional
matches - Lab 2
pyrex or glass jar - Lab 2
soap (optional activity) Lab 7
crushed ice - Lab 4
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Concepts:
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The Earth has layers.
The inner core is solid.
The outer core and mantle are liquid.
The crust is where we live.
The crust is also called the lithosphere.
The atmosphere is a mixture of gases.
Nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide are the main gases.
The atmosphere has different characteristics at different altitudes.
The hydrosphere is all the water on the Earth’s crust.
The water cycle keeps an even balance of water on Earth.
There are 3 main steps to the water cycle: evaporation, condensation and precipitation.
Heat flow and movement of material in the mantle cause convection currents.
Convection currents cause the plates to move.
Earth at one point, was one giant landmass.
Continental drift is the movement of the continents (due to convection currents in the mantle).
Fossils, rock formations, mountain ranges and the spreading ocean floor are all used as evidence for
continental drift.
Plate tectonics is the theory that combines continental drift and sea floor spreading.
Extreme natural events may have both positive and negative impacts on living things.
Earthquake wave studies tell us about the layers of the Earth.
Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and mountain building mainly occur at the plate boundaries.
Weathering and erosion are the processes that break down the Earth’s crust.
The process of weathering breaks down rocks to form sediments. Water, wind, and living things are the
primary sources of weathering.
Soil consists of sediment, organic material, water, and air.
Water, glaciers, wind and waves shape and reshape Earth’s rock and soil in some areas and depositing them
in others, sometimes in seasonal layers.
Gravity is the driving force behind erosion which is the transport of sediment.
Rocks continually break down and build up to form new rocks. This is called the rock cycle.
Smaller rocks come from the breakage and weathering of bedrock and larger rocks.
Rocks are made from minerals.
The way a rock is formed tells you what type of rock it is.
Minerals are naturally forming.
Minerals can be identified using physical characteristics.
Acknowledgement: This manual and kit contains overhead transparencies and one lab activities that were
taken with permission from Prentice Hall. The information comes from Prentice Hall Science Explorer
Series, Copyright  2000, “Inside Earth” Teaching Resources
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Standards:
 The full description of the NYS Science Standards associated with this unit are listed at the end of the
unit. The Key Idea, general idea, and the Major Understand Code are listed here.
Intermediate Physical Setting Standards:
Key Idea 2: Many of the phenomena that we observe on Earth involve interactions among components of air,
water, and Land. Students should develop an understanding of Earth as a set of closely coupled systems. The
concept of systems provides a framework in which students can investigate three major interacting components:
lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere. Processes act within and among the three components on a wide
range of time scales to bring about continuous change in Earth’s crust, oceans, and atmosphere.
Major Understandings:
Atmosphere, Altitude: 2.1a, 2.1b
Rocks, Minerals and the Lithosphere: 2.1c, 2.1e, 2.1f, 2.2g, 2.2h
Hydrosphere and the Water Cycle: 2.1d, 2.1j
Weathering and Erosion: 2.1g, 2.1h, 2.1i
The Earth, Layers, Plate Tectonics: 2.2a, 2.2b, 2.2e, 2.2f
Pangaea and Mountain Building: 2.2c, 2.2d
ABOUT THE FORMAT
There is a teacher manual, lab manual, student manual, and assessment . The lab manual has the directions to
labs to fill out and is referenced in the teacher manual. Most of the discussion questions are listed in the teacher
manual so that they can be discussed with the students during the lab.
The student manual has reading and guided questions that go along with the different lessons. Each lesson has a
Homework section listed at the end that tells you what section and worksheet to complete. You can have
students read the content before or after each lesson based on your teaching preference.
The teacher manual has two columns. The “boxed” column lists the “Activity Title”, “Concept”, “Skills”,
“Evaluation”, “Standards”, “Materials” and any other helpful hints or information you might need. The
“Standards” section includes the Major understandings from the MST standards based on the grade level of the
kit (intermediate grades 5-8).
The standards covered in the kit are summarized above and in detail at the end of the manual. The major
understanding code (ex. 5.1b) is listed after a sentence that contains the information.
The center column begins with a “Focus Question”. The purpose of the “Focus Question” is to guide the
teacher’s instruction towards the main idea of the activity. The “Question” is to be explored with inquiry skills
and hands-on manipulation by the students. The activity includes directions for the students, illustrations and
“Discussion Questions” (with answers in italics). These “Discussion Questions” can be used as a basis for class
interactions.
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Lesson 1: Inside the Earth
Focus Question: What is the inside of the Earth like?
Concepts:
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The Earth has layers.
The inner core is solid.
The outer core and mantle
are liquid.
The crust is where we
live.
The crust is also called
the lithosphere.
Vocabulary:
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Inner core
Outer core
Molten
Core
Mantle
Crust
Lithosphere
Evaluation:
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Students will know and
understand the layers of the
Earth.
MST: (Intermediate Level)
1.SI.1a
1.SI.1b
1.ED.1d
4.PS.2.1c
6.M.2b
6.M.2c
4.PS.2.2a
4.PS.2.2d
Materials:
Background Information:
The planet Earth is mostly rock. Earth is made of 4 main layers. Each
layer has different properties. Their names are: inner core, outer core, mantle,
and crust (2.2d).
The inner core is solid rock. It is very dense, or tightly packed together due
to the high pressure pushing down on it. It is the hottest layer (5000 °C or 9000°F,
the Sun is 11,000°F). The inner core is probably made of two metals, iron and
nickel. The iron is dense, which could explain why the Earth has a magnetic field.
The outer core surrounds the inner core. It is made of liquid metal. There is
less pressure in this layer. The temperature is still hot. This heat causes the metal to
be molten, or hot liquid. Together, the inner core and the outer core can be called
the core.
The mantle covers the core layers. It is the thickest layer. The hottest part
is nearest to the core. The density is more near the core, too. Because of the high
temperature and low density, the mantle flows like a thick liquid. This flow causes
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. It also creates mountains and ocean basins
(2.2a).
The outside layer of the Earth is the crust. It is the only layer we can see.
We live on this layer. Some parts are thick, but other parts are thin. The crust of
the sea floor, or the bottom of the ocean, is between 4 and 7 km (2.5 to 4 miles)
thick. The crust that forms the continents, or land masses, can be 35 to 70 km (22 44 miles) thick. The thickest part of the crust is in the mountains. If you compare
the Earth to an apple, the crust is similar to the apple peel. It is a very thin layer.
There is a special name for the rock layer that makes Earth's crust. It is
called the lithosphere (2.1c). It is the solid part of the Earth's crust. The lithosphere
is broken into large sections called lithosphere plates. The plates are moving very
slowly all of the time. When the plates collide, or bump into each other, there are
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Sometimes, parts of the plate can be pushed
back into the mantle. When that happens, the plate melts into molten rock.
Sometimes the edge of the plate is pushed up. When that happens, the mountains
grow larger. Earth's lithosphere is always moving and changing.
Lab 1: “Clay Model Earth”
Hard boiled egg*
Clay – colors (see below)
Nylon string cut 12 in./student
*provided by teacher or students
Management:
Red Clay – cut 1 cm piece, then
cut that piece into 8ths, one piece
for each student.
Yellow – cut 1 cm piece/student
Brown – cut 2½ cm piece/student.
Blue – 1 cm piece/student
Green – ½ cm piece/student
Book: Earth Movements pages 23
Optional: Use overhead #1
Discussion:
Ask students how thick they think the Earth is.
(Approx. 5100 miles [~ from California to New York
and back])
Ask students what they think the Earth is like inside.
See if students know how scientists discovered the
layers. (Analysis of earthquake waves helped prove
that the layers exist.)
Optional Demo:
Use a hard-boiled egg as a model of the layers of the
Earth (see example). Cut the egg in half to show the
layers. (You may need to color the center or apply a
small dark, paper dot to show the core.) Explain that
the thickness of the crust of the Earth is very similar to
that of the eggshell. Indicate that relative to the other layers the crust is the
thinnest.
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Activity 1: Earth Models – Use Lab 1: Model Earth 1st page
1. Start with the red clay and have them roll it into a small ball. Discuss that this represents the inner core. You can
give additional details such as it is almost as hot as the surface of the Sun. The core is ~9000°F and the Sun’s
surface is estimated at 11,000°F. It is 1200 km or 746 miles thick.
2. Use the yellow clay next. Have them role it out so that it will cover the core. This is the outer core. The
temperature ranges from 2200 – 5000°C (4000 – 9000°F) the closer you get to the core and the thickness is
2300km or 1430 miles.
3. Continue with the brown clay as the mantle. The mantle ranges from 800 – 2000°C (1472 – 4000°F) and its
thickness is 2900 km thick or 1800 miles.
4. Finish with the blue and green clay representing the continents and water which shows the crust. The thickness of
the crust varies from 5 – 70 km (3-43 miles) thick.
5. Discuss why scientists have studied only the crust of the Earth. Also discuss why studying events such as
earthquakes have helped scientists to discover more information about how the Earth works.
6. Using the nylon, have students slice their clay Earth’s in half. The layers won’t be a perfect ratio of the
thicknesses of the layers, but the students will get the idea of what the Earth’s layers look like. You can reference
the thinness of the crust compared to the other layers.
7. Complete Lab Sheet 1.
Activity 2: Earth Model Foldable –Use Lab 1: Model Earth 2nd – 3rd pages
1. Have students color and label the 4 circle templates based on knowledge and interpretations of the
colors of Earth’s layers.
2. Once they are colored, assemble the Earth model using the steps below.
a. Cut out the 4 circles. Fold each in half along the dashed line with the printed side facing in.
b. Place the circle with the map face down. Press rolls of tape or glue on the LEFT side of the circles.
c. Place the folded circle labeled CRUST face up on top of the map circle so that the circle edges
match exactly.
d. With the CRUST circle folded closed, tape as shown.
e. Repeat steps 2c & 2d using the MANTLE and CORE circles.
f. Finally tape the other half of the CORE circle to the MAP circle.
Homework:
Have students read “The Inside of the Earth” page 2 in the student manual and complete
worksheets #1 & 2
Note:
Students are not required to know that the core is composed of iron and nickel. They are also
not required to know the specific temperatures and depths, although they should have a general
idea of which is hottest, deepest, etc....
Students should be able to identify the layers of the Earth if it is represented like the picture.
1.
2.
3.
4.
crust
mantle
outer core
inner core
http://scign.jpl.nasa.gov/learn/plate1.htm - this is a good Nasa website to learn about
the layers.
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Focus Question: What is our atmosphere made of?
Lesson 2: The Atmosphere
Background Information:
Concepts:
 The atmosphere is a mixture of
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gases.
Nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide
are the main gases.
The atmosphere has different
characteristics at different
altitudes.
Vocabulary:
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Atmosphere
Gases
Gravity
Greenhouse Effect
Evaluation:
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Students will understand that the
atmosphere is a thin blanket of air
made-up of a mixture of gases.
Students will understand that the
atmosphere has different
characteristics at different
altitudes.
MST:
1.SI.1a
4.PS.2.1a
4.PS.2.1b
Materials:
Lab 2: The Atmosphere – cut out
8 ½ x 14 white paper
Copy of Atmosphere pictures
Crayons*: red, blue
Tape or glue sticks*
Scissors*
Optional Activity:
matches*
hardboiled egg*
paper - 8" x 10"*
jar/bottle (Snapple works well)*
*supplied by teacher
The lithosphere is the layer of rock that covers the Earth’s surface. The
atmosphere is a mixture of gases that surrounds the Earth (2.1a). The
atmosphere is held to the surface of the Earth by gravity. Nitrogen and oxygen
are the most common gases in the air. Carbon dioxide, water vapor and other
gases makes up a very small portion of the air. Normally, the amount of carbon
dioxide doesn’t change. But, the burning of fuel such as coal and oil adds billions
of tons of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere each year. As a result, the amount
of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is increasing. The increased carbon dioxide
can block energy from leaving the Earth. This contributes to global warming or
the greenhouse effect.
Layers of the Atmosphere:
The atmosphere has 4 major layers. Each layer is different. Temperature
and altitude (distance from Earth’s surface) are two ways they are different
(2.1a). As altitude (height) increases, the air pressure decreases (2.1b). That
means the higher you go in the sky, the less gravity there is.
The four main layers of the atmosphere include:
Troposphere: The troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere
where nearly all weather occurs (2.1a).
Stratosphere: The stratosphere is a very stable layer. The ozone is
contained within this layer. Ozone absorbs ultraviolet (UV) light. It prevents
too much UV light from reaching the Earth’s surface.
Mesosphere: The mesosphere is the middle layer. It has two main
characteristics. First, the air temperature reaches its coldest, around
–90C. Second, the air is thin at this level. This is where meteors begin to
burn up.
Thermosphere: The thermosphere is a warm layer. There are very few
air molecules present. That means the air is very thin but gravity can still pull
objects towards Earth. This is where the Space Shuttle mostly flies.
[Exosphere: The exosphere is the region that overcomes the pull of gravity and
things can escape into outer space. Most orbiting satellites are found here.]
Optional: Use overhead #2.
Discussion:
Ask students: Why is the atmosphere so important? (Accept reasonable
answers that include concepts covered in their content. To breathe, protection
from UV rays, importance of satellites, etc…
Activity: Use Lab 2: The Atmosphere Foldable
****Students do not have the directions.
1. Using an 8 ½ x 14 piece of paper fold it “shutter” style.
2. Carefully cut out the diagram of the atmosphere (on the lab
sheet). Color the long dark lines that represent temperatures
changes: from the bottom -- blue, red, blue, red, representing
decreasing, increasing, decreasing, increasing temperatures.
3. Fold in half lengthwise and cut apart. Paste each half onto
the front shutters of the paper. Paste toward the bottom so you
have room for a title at the top.
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4. Cut the two parts of the title out and paste on the top of the shutters.
5. Cut out the boxes that contain the characteristics of each of the eight layers of the atmosphere. Paste inside
the foldable under the correct layer. Be sure to put the main layers on the inside left and
the minor layers on the inside right.
6. Cut flaps for each of the layers on the front shutters.
7. Carefully cut out the small sketches ONE AT A TIME. Read the words that tell you
where to paste the sketch and paste to the front of the foldable on the diagram of the
atmosphere. Do NOT cut out the words that tell you where to paste each sketch!
8. Fill in the Name Tag and paste on the back.
Discussion Questions: Lab 2: The Atmosphere Discussion Questions
1. List the four main layers. Troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere
2. List the four minor layers. Ozonosphere, ionosphere, exosphere, magnetosphere
3. Which layer is the most important to you and why? Troposphere
4. What two layers protect you? Troposphere and ozonosphere
5. What cloud indicates the top of the troposphere? Cumulonimbus
6. Which layer has the highest temperature? Troposphere
7. Which layer has the lowest temperature? Mesosphere
8. Which layer burns up meteoroids that enter the earth’s atmosphere? Mesosphere
9. Which layer contains the ozone layer and what does it do? Stratosphere, UV protection
10. Which layer contains all of the satellites? Thermosphere
11. Which layer contains ions responsible for radio waves? Thermosphere (ionosphere)
12. In which layer do airplanes fly? Troposphere (jet planes in the stratosphere)
13. Any other interesting information you can find about the layers.
Optional Demo: Effects of Air Pressure**
1. Crumple a sheet of paper into a ball and drop it into the bottle. The bottle must be slightly smaller
than the diameter of the egg.
2. Light the long match and drop it on the paper so it begins to burn. Be careful!!
3. Let the paper burn until the flame goes out.
4. Set the hard-boiled egg over the opening at the top with the pointed end of the egg down.
5. Observe what happens.
**This demo is optional. Caution must be observed due to the flame and glass jar. You can use a
cotton ball lightly soaked with alcohol for this demo to reduce the amount of “ashes” in the bottle,
just be very careful with igniting it! You can get the egg back out of the jar by tipping the jar with
the egg close to the opening, then using a tight seal with your mouth, blow into the jar, let the egg
drop to the opening and it will come out.
Homework:
Have students read about the atmosphere page 5 and complete worksheet #3.
Images from
http://earthguide.ucsd.edu/earthguide/diagrams/atmosphere/index.html - this is a nice interactive site
Wikipedia &
http://www.ouramazingplanet.com/earth-atmosphere-layers-atmospheric-pressure-infographic-0326/ - this site
has a great
Wikimedia
graphic showing the events within the layers
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Lesson 3: The Hydrosphere
Focus Question: How do we keep a balance of the amount of water on
Earth?
Concepts:
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The hydrosphere is all the water
on the Earth’s crust.
The water cycle keeps an even
balance of water on Earth.
There are 3 main steps to the
water cycle: evaporation,
condensation and precipitation.
Vocabulary:
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Hydrosphere
Water cycle
Evaporation
Condensation
Precipitation
Groundwater
Run off
Water vapor
Evaluation:
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Students will be able to identify the
parts of the water cycle.
Students will be able to describe what
is happening to water as it moves
through the cycle.
MST:
1.SI.1a
1.SI.1b
1.ED.1d
4.PS.2.1d
4.PS.2.1j
6.M.2b
7.S.2a
Materials:
Lab 3: “The Water Cycle”
Clear tank, no lid
8oz clear jar no lid
plastic wrap
rubber band
ceramic weight
water & ice*
sand* (optional)
Optional – blue food coloring
Student water cycle models:
Ziplock bag
1 oz cup
Cotton ball
* supplied by teacher
Background Information:
The majority of the Earth is covered by a relatively thin layer of
water called the hydrosphere (2.1d) The hydrosphere is all the water on
the Earth’s crust covering about three-fourths (¾) of its surface. About
97% of the Earth’s water supply is in the oceans as salt water. Smaller
amounts, about 2% are in glaciers and ice and 1% is fresh water, in lakes,
rivers or in the air. Water can cycle through the crust, oceans, and
atmosphere over and over again. Water that was once in the Pacific Ocean
may now be in your faucet or the clouds in the sky. Water circulates
through the atmosphere (air), lithosphere (land), and hydrosphere (water)
in what is known as the water cycle (2.1j). Three main steps make up the
water cycle; evaporation, condensation and precipitation.
The evaporation part of the water cycle involves heat energy
from sunlight. This heat energy causes some of the water on the Earth’s
surface to evaporate. Evaporation causes liquid water to change into a gas
called water vapor. The water vapor enters the atmosphere, rises and cools
as it moves to higher altitudes (remember that most weather occurs in the
troposphere).
Condensation is the when the water vapor that was evaporated
changes back into a liquid. For condensation to occur, the air must be
cooled. As the warm air close to the Earth rises in the atmosphere it is
cooled and condenses into droplets of water that form clouds. When these
clouds become too heavy with water droplets, it begins to precipitate.
Precipitation involves the return of fresh water to the Earth. As
the water condenses it returns in the form of rain, sleet, snow, hail, and
other forms of precipitation. Large amounts of precipitation fall from the
atmosphere and can either sink into the ground (groundwater) or can form
streams and rivers. Some water that forms into streams and rivers can
evaporate, while the majority becomes run off into ponds, lakes and back
to the oceans. Almost all ground water though, sinks deep into the crust
and eventually flows back into the ocean. Either way the water cycle
continues.
Optional: Use overheads #3 & #4.
Book: Water Cycle, Delta Reader would be good here.
Discussion:
1. If Earth is 75% water, ask students why the oceans and rivers don’t keep
filling up and cover Earth with water? (Accept answers of evaporation,
drought, human use and other reasonable answers).
2. Ask students how they think the amount of water stays equal on Earth or
why they are drinking the same water the dinosaurs drank? (The water
cycle – Accept any reasonable answers that are a part of the cycle).
Activity: Teacher Demo: Table top water
cycle (see picture) Use Lab 3: The Water
Cycle
Have students complete lab Worksheet 3: The
Water Cycle, while you are working with the
materials.
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1. Pour enough hot water into a tank to cover the bottom. You can add dirt, salt or food coloring to this if you like. This
will show students that the sediments are too heavy to evaporate with the water and will be left behind.
2. Place a small jar in the center of the bowl; if it floats add some pennies or something clean for weight.
3. Loosely cover the top of the tank with plastic wrap. Secure with a rubber band.
4. Place a ceramic weight on the plastic directly over the inside jar.
5. Place the tank in direct sunlight or under a lamp. Adding some ice to a Ziploc bag, then placing on the top of the
plastic wrap will accelerate the process. Keep the ice in the bag otherwise students will think the ice melted through
the plastic and into the smaller jar.
6. Have students draw the initial set up of the model on the activity sheet, then after 1 and 2 hours or when the
“condensation” and “precipitation” begin. Hopefully you will see some condensation start and possibly some drops
of water “precipitating” into the small jar. If you added sand to the tank, you could have students taste the water to
prove that the sediments stayed in the main tank.
Discussion: Lab Sheet 3 discussion questions
1. Which parts of the model represent the actual parts of the water cycle? Have them write in their own words the
explanation of the water cycle.
2. Explain why evaporated moisture condenses and falls to Earth. When vapor cools, it condenses. If there is too
much water and the air becomes saturated with it, it will fall in forms of precipitation.
3. List 3 places from which water evaporates. Oceans, lakes, rivers, ponds, plants, people, etc…
4. Where does the majority of precipitation end up? Oceans
5. Discuss why (if you added dirt) the dirt stayed in the bottom of the bowl and the water in the small jar stayed
clean. The dirt is too heavy to evaporate so it stays.
Encourage students to look up more information about our water. Have them research their own water supply to their
house. Look up issues of water pollution (oil spills) and how it affects our environment.
A Model for the Students:
1. Using a Ziploc bag at a diagonal, place a small cup (medicine or condiment
cup) in the corner of the bag. It helps to staple the cup in place.
2. Add some water (you can add blue food coloring to the water) to the cup.
3. Staple a cotton ball into the opposite, top, corner of the bag (this represents
a cloud).
4. Zip the bag closed and tape to the window. The water will evaporate
(leaving the blue pigment in the cup), condense on the sides of the baggie,
and then ultimately drip down the sides and pool at the bottom of the bag.
Web Site:
http://www.lakeshorelearning.com/media/images/free_resources/teachers_corner/le
sson_plans/1_2/waterCycleSpinner.pdf - this site has a water cycle spinner students can construct
Homework:
Have students read about the hydrosphere page 7 and
complete worksheets #4 & #5.
Worksheet #5 contains math and simple operation
using large numbers. Students have to add and
subtract the numbers on the diagram. Some help
getting started may be needed.
Answers to questions:
1. 488,000km3
2. 488,000 km3
3. Same
4. Oceans
5. Oceans
6. Lose, 37,000 km3
7. gain, 37,000 km3
11
Focus Question: What causes the plates to move?
Lesson 4: Plate Motion
Background Information:
Concepts:
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Heat flow and movement of
material in the mantle cause
convection currents.
Convection currents cause
the plates to move.
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Vocabulary:





Convection currents
Theory of Plate Tectonics
Plates
Plate Boundaries
Molten
Evaluation:
Students will understand and
evaluate convection currents and
understand the cyclic nature of
melting rock that creates the
convection currents.
The lithosphere is broken up to form several big slabs called
plates. The plate boundaries usually
contain both the continents and the
oceans. These plates are always
moving. The Theory of Plate Tectonics
helps explains how the “solid” plates
“float” on the partially molten mantle
(2.2e).
The movement of the plates is caused by heat flow and movement of
molten material in the Earth’s mantle (2.2a). Material close to the core
is very hot. Mantle material further from the core, near the crust is
cooler.
The cooler material sinks deeper into the
mantle, becomes hot, melts and the hot
material is then pushed up. This sinking and
rising cycle repeats itself causing a circular
motion called convection currents
(like boiling water). These convection
currents are causing the plates to move (2.2e).
MST:
1. SI.1a
1. SI.1b
1. SI.2a
4. PS.2.2a
4. PS.2.2e
6. ICT.1a
6. ICT.1c
6. ICT.1d
Materials:
Lab 4: Convection Currents
plastic tank
lukewarm water*
crushed ice*
hot water*
red food coloring
blue food coloring
2 - 7 dram vials
Lids with hole
Ceramic weight
Masking tape*
*supplied by teacher
Book: Earth Movements pages
6-8
Optional: Use overheads #5, #6, &. #7
Discussion:
Ask students if they have ever noticed how the currents look in a pan of boiling
water or the currents of air coming off a hot car hood, and discuss the convection
that occurs.
Activity: Use Lab 4: “Convection Currents” (as a demo or groups)
1. Fill a plastic tank w/ room temperature water 2/3 full.
2. Fill hot water to the top of the 7 dram vial, a ceramic weight, and a few drops of
red food coloring and replace the top. Watch that when the water squirts through
the hole, no one gets burned. The water should be as hot as you can make it –
safely, and “beaded” over the top of the vial so that
are no bubbles under the cap.
3. Add cold water to fill the other 7 dram vial and a few
drops of blue food coloring and replace the top.
The water should be as cold as you can make it and
“beaded” over the top of the vial to prevent air
bubbles.
4. Using a partner, at the same time, one should
carefully, gently set (slide) the red, hot vial into one
corner of the tank. (DO NOT STIR OR SHAKE
THE WATER). The other partner should tape or hold
the blue vial of ice water, upside down with the lid in the water, to the opposite
corner of the tank so it is about half way in (see illustration). You should start
seeing currents of colored water in the tank. If the water does not come out of the
vials, tap or squeeze the vial lids to release any air bubbles.
5. Using the Lab Sheet #4, draw what is seen in the tanks and answer the questions.
12
Homework:
Have students read about Plate Motion, page 10 and do worksheets #6, #7, and #8.
Optional: Have students draw convection currents in the mantle on the picture of the Earth on the worksheet. Have
students look up more information on the web.
Optional Convection Current (From http://www.stevespanglerscience.com/)
1. Fill two bottles (mouth of the bottle should be at least 1 1/2 inches in diameter) with
warm water from the tap and the other two bottles with cold water. Use food coloring
to color the warm water yellow and the cold water blue. Each bottle must be filled to
the brim with water.
2. Hot over cold: Place the index card or old playing card over the mouth of one of the
warm water bottles. Hold the card in place as you turn the bottle upside down and rest
it on top of one of the cold water bottles. The bottles should be positioned so that they
are mouth to mouth with the card separating the two liquids. You may want to do this
over a sink.
3. Carefully slip the card out from in between the two bottles. Make sure that you are
holding onto the top bottle when you remove the card. Observe what happens to the
colored liquids in the two bottles.
4. Cold over hot: Repeat steps 2 and 3, but this time, place the bottle of cold water on
top of the warm water. Observe what happens.
What’s happening?
Hot air balloons rise because warm air is lighter than cold air. Similarly, warm water is lighter
in weight or less dense than cold water. When the bottle of warm water is placed on top of the
cold water, the more dense cold water stays in the bottom bottle and the less dense warm
water is confined to the top bottle. However, when the cold water bottle rests on top of the
warm water, the less dense warm water rises to the top bottle and the cold water sinks. The
movement of water is clearly seen as the yellow and blue food coloring mix, creating a green
liquid.
13
Lesson 5: Pangaea & Continental
Drift
Concepts:




Earth at one point, was one giant
landmass.
Continental drift is the movement
of the continents (due to convection
currents in the mantle).
Fossils, rock formations, mountain
ranges and the spreading ocean
floor are all used as evidence for
continental drift.
Plate tectonics is the theory that
combines continental drift and sea
floor spreading.
Vocabulary:




Landmass
Continental Drift
Pangaea
Plate Tectonics
Evaluation:



Students will understand that the
plates move.
They will conclude that evidence
presented helps prove the theory of
plate tectonics or continental drift.
They will realize that Earth’s
movements cause earthquakes and
volcanic eruptions.
Focus Questions:
1. What was Pangaea?
2. What evidence do we have that continents were once connected together in
one large landmass?
Background Information:
In the early 1900’s a German scientist, Alfred Wegener, noticed
how the continents looked like pieces of a jigsaw puzzle. He also noticed
that the landmasses (continents) seem to fit together. He developed the
Theory of Plate Tectonics (or continental drift). That is, at one time the
Earth had one giant landmass that split apart or drifted to form today’s
continents (2.2d). He called the landmass Pangaea (pan-GEE-uh).
Scientists have also used evidence from fossils to support the plate
tectonics theory. The remains of similar plants and animals were found in
Africa, South America, Australia and India. The dinosaur Lystrosaurus
(LIE-stro-SAWR-uhs) also lived on several continents but this dinosaur
could not swim! So how could they have developed on unconnected
continents so far away? Plate Tectonics!
Continents fitting together like puzzle parts and fossil correlation
provided initial evidence that the continents were once together (2.2d).
Fossils are not the only evidence that scientists have to support the
continental drift theory. Rock structures are also used. Mountain ranges
in South America that end abruptly at the Atlantic Ocean are identical in
age and composition as those found on the Atlantic coast of Africa. If
these continents were “pieced” together, the two mountain ranges would
line up.
The Theory of Plate Tectonics helps to explain the formation of the
Earth’s crust and its movements, collisions and destruction. It also
accounts for the origins of volcanoes, earthquakes and mountains.
Optional: Use overhead #8 & #9.
MST:
1.SI.1a
4.PS.2.2d
6.M.2a
6.M.2b
6.M.2c
Materials:
Lab 5: Pangaea
Aluminum foil
Aluminum pan (lasagna)
Glue*
Stapler*
Scissors*
Water*
*supplied by teacher
Activity: Use lab 5: “Pangaea Lost But Not Forgotten”
1. Have students cut out the patterns of the plates in their lab book.
2. Paste the pieces to aluminum foil then cut the foil into similar pieces.
3. Have students try to put the pieces together as Pangaea.
4. Next have students place their completed Pangaea pieces into a pan of
water. Ask students what the water represents related to Earth. The
mantle. Tell them by gently wiggling the pan
of water it shows how the mantle helps to
move the plates. Refer back to the convection
currents in the previous lesson. Have students
create a current to move their land masses.
Discuss how that movement affects the
landmasses. They bump together or get pulled
apart. Take the plates out of the water, reassemble, and have students push
their North American and Eurasia landmasses together to crinkle their foil.
Ask what that represents. Mountain range building. Discuss the idea of
Alaska and Russia connecting due to plate tectonics!
5. Have students answer questions 1-7 on Lab Worksheet 5
14
Discussion:
Ask:
1. If the Earth’s crust moves, what moves with it? The oceans and continents.
2. What clues can you use to help put the pieces together? Shapes and patterns printed on the pieces.
3. What are some of the ways rocks provide clues about the Earth’s past? Type and age of rocks, deposits fossils and
glacial scratches found in rocks provide information about the history of the Earth
Have students’ lookup the location of the Appalachian Mountains on a present day map. Draw them on their map of
Pangaea. If done correctly, the Appalachians will match up with mountains in Eurasia and in Africa.
Homework:
Students should read page 14, Pangaea and complete worksheet #9 (this worksheet has difficult math associated with it.
Help with conversion factors may be needed).
Question 4: 5,000,000 cm or 50 km
Question 5: 0.000192km/yr or 19.2cm/yr
15
Lesson 6: Natural Disasters
Concepts:



Extreme natural events may have both
positive and negative impacts on
living things.
Earthquake wave studies tell us about
the layers of the Earth.
Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and
mountain building mainly occur at the
plate boundaries.
Vocabulary:







Plate Boundary
Earthquake
Volcanic Eruption
Folded
Faulted
Vibrational
Seismic Waves
Evaluation:


Students should be able to describe
how and why natural disasters (those
listed above) occur.
Students will understand both the
problems and benefits of natural
disasters.
MST:
1.SI.1a
1.SI.1b
1.SI.2a
4.PS.2.2f
4.PS.2.2c
4.PS.2.2b
6. ICT.2a
6. ICT.2b
6. ICT.2c
Materials:
Spaghetti
Marshmallows
2 Pieces of cardboard (4x6”) each group*
Earthquake simulator template –lab pg
Volcano Model
Vinegar
Baking Soda
Red Food Coloring
Tape*
Book: Earth Movements pages 9 – 11,
14
Focus Questions:
What are natural events? What are positive and negative impacts
of natural events on living things?
Background Information:
Extreme natural events are caused by forces of nature that have
the ability to dramatically change the Earth’s surface. Some of these
events in nature are earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, wild fires,
hurricanes, tornadoes, and floods. All of these natural events can have
both positive and negative impacts on living things.
The most common causes of earthquakes, volcanic eruptions,
and mountain building are from the crust being pushed together, pulled
apart, or sliding past each other (2.2f). It is at these plate boundaries
where the Earth moves in slow, constant motion that builds up stress and
energy. As they move, the rock layers that make up the plates bend,
stretch, or get squeezed together. Earthquakes happen when too much
stress is built-up in the rock layers and the layers suddenly break or
move past each other releasing great energy. Geologists can study the
folded, tilted, faulted, and displaced rock layers revealing past crustal
movement, and possibly future movement (2.2c)!
The waves (or vibrational disturbances) that are created during an
Earthquake are called seismic (SIZE – mic) waves. Seismic waves
carry the energy of the earthquake through the Earth’s interior and
across the surface in all directions. Different types of waves pass
through the different layers of the Earth’s core, mantle, and crust. The
early analysis of earthquake wave data (vibrational disturbances) leads
to the conclusion that there are layers within Earth, each with distinct
properties (2.2b).
Volcanoes are weak spots in the crust where molten material
(magma) from the mantle comes to the surface. Magma is hot, liquid
rock that is under tremendous pressure and high temperature deep within
the Earth. Magma is constantly moving and working its way towards
the Earth’s surface. It moves through cracks in solid rock or by melting
the solid rock. When magma finally reaches the surface, it is called
lava. Lava can build up to form a cone-shaped mountain. This coneshaped mountain is the start of a growing volcano.
Optional: Use overheads #10, #11, #12, and #13.
To the teacher: The main activity in this
section is “Spaghetti Towers”. Each group of
students will construct a spaghetti tower strong
enough to withstand an “earthquake” (directions
follow). In addition there is a plastic volcano
model that can be used as a demo or in a center.
You could have each group pick a “Natural
Event” and do a research project on it indicating
both positive and negative effects.
Activity 1: Use Lab 7: Spaghetti Towers
An Earthquake can last from a few seconds
to a few minutes. The solid land beneath your feet
Spaghetti tower 16
begins to shake, trees sway, and some buildings crumble. Some buildings however, survive with little damage because of
their designs. Students will design and construct a model tower planned for an earthquake-prone area using spaghetti and
marshmallows! Students can use any number of marshmallows and pieces of spaghetti, or whatever conditions you
choose), just keep it consistent for all groups.
Steps:
1. Draw sketches of the kinds of towers you might build using spaghetti and marshmallows on Lab Sheet 7. The tower
needs to be at least 30 cm (12 inches) tall. Students should take into consideration where the marshmallows will be
used to connect the spaghetti together, what types of supports may be needed, and the overall design.
2 Give each group of students an “earthquake simulator template” (in the lab manual), 2 pieces of cardboard (~4x6”
earthquake simulator) *, spaghetti, and marshmallows. Tell students to start by taping the template to their desks.
Then place the 2 pieces of cardboard on the template and tape the base of their tower onto the pieces of cardboard.
From there, students can build their tower.
3 Construct the tower according to the plans. Use only spaghetti and marshmallows. Handle the spaghetti carefully
since it is fragile. To insert the spaghetti into the marshmallows, hold it near the end as you push it in. If you need
smaller pieces, you may break the spaghetti.
4 When the tower is completed, draw a picture of it before the “Earthquake test” then after the test. Label the height
and width of the tower (and weight if you can).
5 Test your structure first by pulling the tester apart and pushing it together several times, then by sliding the tester up
and down in opposite directions several times. You can do this slowly and carefully to simulate a small Earthquake or
quickly with more strength to simulate a larger quake. Students can measure how far they moved the cardboard before
the tower snapped.
6 Discuss the results.
Activity 2: Volcano Blast
This activity simulates the erupting of a volcano. When baking soda and vinegar combine, the
chemical reaction occurs and bubbles of carbon dioxide gas are produced. A real volcano
pushes lava, ash, rocks and gases out of the top. Depending on the needs of your class, you
may wish to have students wear safety goggles during this activity (not included).
1. Measure out and place 1 tablespoon of baking soda into the well in the top of the
volcano.
2. The model comes apart, but I would keep it together while “erupting”.
3. Measure ¼ cup of white vinegar (if you like add a few drops of red food coloring and 1 tbs of clear dish
soap).
4. Pour the vinegar into the well with the baking soda.
5. Observe the volcano erupt! Have students draw a diagram of the volcano setup and describe their
observations on the worksheet.
6. Discuss: “How is the eruption of the model like that of a real one?” Both eruptions are a result of a build up
of pressure.
“What causes the internal pressure in our volcano vs. a real one? In the model, the pressure is generated by
the release of carbon dioxide gas. When pressure builds up within the Earth, sometimes the only way out is
through a volcano!” In a real eruption, liquid lava will cool and turn into rock. The foamy liquid produced
by the model will simply dry up as the liquid evaporates.
Homework: Read page 16: Extreme Natural Events and complete worksheet #10: Natural Events (3 pages)
Have students observe their map of active volcanoes on page 19 of the student book. Ask them if the locations form a
pattern and if the volcanoes seem related to any other features on Earth’s surface. (The boundaries of the lithospheric
plates).
What causes an explosive volcano?
a. If gas is trapped and builds pressure
b. Heavy thick lava blocks the vent
c. The vent is blocked
17
Focus Question: What is erosion and what effects does it have on Earth?
Lesson 7: Weathering & Erosion
Background Information:
Concepts:





Weathering and erosion are the
processes that break down the Earth’s
crust.
The process of weathering breaks
down rocks to form sediments. Water,
wind, and living things are the
primary sources of weathering.
Soil consists of sediment, organic
material, water, and air.
Water, glaciers, wind and waves shape
and reshape Earth’s rock and soil in
some areas and depositing them in
others, sometimes in seasonal layers.
Gravity is the driving force behind
erosion which is the transport of
sediment.
The processes that wear away Earth’s surface include weathering
and erosion (2.1g). The process of weathering breaks down rocks to form
sediment (2.1h). Erosion is the transportation of these sediments.
Gravity is the main cause of erosion (2.1i). That is, the pull of gravity
helps force the sediments to move. Gravity, moving water, wind, and
glaciers help carry away sediments (2.1i). Running water, glacier
movement, wind and waves are four main causes of weathering and
erosion that continually help to shape and reshape Earth’s surface. Soil is
made partly from weathered rock or sediments. It also consists of organic
material (plants, dead animals), water, and air (2.1h).
Moving water is the major agent of weathering and erosion.
From gently falling raindrops to rushing rivers and ocean waves, running
water changes more of the Earth’s surface than any other agent of erosion
does. Water as runoff will pick up and carry particles of soil, clay, sand,
and gravel downhill. As the water and sediments run downhill, they cut
into the soil and form many grooves that act as channels for more water.
When there is a great deal of runoff, there is a great deal of erosion The
Grand Canyon is an example of how water weather and erodes the land.
Vocabulary:




Erosion
Weathering
Gravity
Sediment
Glaciers are huge, powerful sheets of moving ice. Glacial ice
affects Earth’s surface by breaking rocks off (weathering) and pushing
parts of the Earth’s crust in front of it (erosion) as it moves. The load of a
glacier helps wear down the land surface by grinding and polishing the
rock it passes over. The Great Lakes represents one type of U-shaped
valley created by glaciers.
Evaluation:


Students will understand what
weathering and erosion is and the four
(4) main causes of erosion.
Students will understand that erosion
can break down, then deposit rock and
debris in other areas.
MST:
1.SI.1a
1.SI.1b
1.SI.1c
4.PS.2.1g
4.PS.2.1h
4.PS.2.1i
6.M.2a
6.M.2b
6.M.2c
Materials:
Lab #7 Rates of Erosion
2 – cups 16oz., support bar
Soil, grass seed, grid
1 - “waste” container*
1 – Aluminum tray w/tubing
1 – T-pin
Aluminum pan – lasagna
Sand, houses, rubber animals, toothpicks,
thread*, Water
Book: Earth’s Movements pages 12 - 14
Wind is the most active agent of erosion in deserts, plowed fields
and on beaches. In these areas, loose bits of sand, dust and silt are picked
up and carried away by the wind. Larger particles roll or bounce along the
ground. Both large and small particles wear away exposed rocks. When
the wind slows, the particles are deposited further away and can form new
sand dunes.
Waves cause weathering and erosion by the force of the water that
hits existing rocks knocking fragments off. The chemical action of the salt
in ocean water helps dissolve rocks. Waves carry sand and rock fragments
from one area of the shoreline and deposit it to build it up in another.
Optional: Use overheads #14 & #15.
Book: Erosion, Delta Reader would be good here
Discussion:
1. What happens to sediment as a result of erosion?
Sediment is moved from one spot and deposited in
others.
2. What is the major cause of erosion? running
water
3. What are the five main factors of weathering and
erosion? gravity, water, glaciers, wind, and waves.
18
Activity: Use Lab 8: “Erosion” – Teacher Demo with student input
The teacher has a large “erosion table” to use as a demo or as part of the lesson. The tray will have to be elevated
to help with the water flow. It may be interesting to use different levels to observe the rate of erosion.
Students can use Lab Sheet 8 which has directions to follow.
1. Place the clear grid into the end of the erosion table near the hole.
2. Pour the potting soil in one end of the stream table (opposite the hole) and
smooth it out so it fills half way down the table.
3. Plant the grass seed on one side of the stream table (The seed can be
planted in any pattern. If students want to compare horizontal vs. vertical
planting or random, thick or thin planting all would be good comparisons
see illustration). Then, moisten all the soil using spray bottle to keep both
sides consistent. Enough water should be added so that the soil is damp
but not soggy. The amount of water added is very important: Too much
water could cause the seeds to rot and too little water will prevent the seeds
from germinating.
4. Have students water the seeds every other day for the next ten (10) days and
observe growth. Remember to water both sides for consistency. Use lab sheet
#8 to record their observations.
5. After ten (10) days, attach one end of tubing to the hole in the table and let the
other end hang down into a container (bucket) on the floor.
6. Draw a trough with your finger in both sides of the table to simulate a stream
bed (see illustration – one side shown).
7. Elevate the table at a specific angle (your choice) with books.
8. Attach the pegboard 1" from the end of the stream table with tape. (See
illustration)
9. Fill the 16 oz cups with tap water. Place each cup over the test sections so that they
rests on the pegboard and edge of the table and is centered over the trough (see
illustration). Poke a hole in the bottom of the paper cups with a T-pin. Different
diameters will create different erosion patterns. You may want to measure the
diameter of the hole for comparison purposes later.
10. Let the water run and observe the amount of erosion that occurs. An air bubble
may prevent the water from coming out, tap the cup until the bubble is forced out.
Use the grid as a guide to determine the amount of erosion.
Demo optional:
How do glaciers change the land?
1.
2.
3.
4.
Put some sand in a small Dixie cup.
Fill the cup with water and freeze.
Remove the block from the cup.
Holding the ice with paper towels, rub the ice, sand down, over a bar of
soap (see example below).
5. Observe what happens to the surface of the soap.
Discussion:
Based on observations, ask students how they think glaciers could erode
land. (Accept any reasonable answers regarding scraping or grinding the
Earth, pushing the land in front, etc.)
Continue on to Activity 2 – Wave Erosion 
19
Activity # 2 – Use lab 9: Wave Erosion
This activity simulates how waves can weather (break down) beachfront causing damage
and erode (carry away) the sand and property near the shore line. Use Lab Sheet 9.
For Groups of 4 Students:
1. Place 1 cup of moist sand into one side of the rectangular tin. Form the sand so that it looks
like a beachfront.
2. Place some buildings and animals on your “beach front property”.
3. Add other things for fun, toothpicks work well for telephone poles. Students can add trees,
bushes, or maybe even a boat!
3. Add enough water to fill the other side of your pan to about ¼ inch (~ ½ cup).
4. Gently shift the pan back and forth or in a rocking motion about 6 times
to create gentle waves. Observe the beach erosion and what happens. Some sand will be
washed back into the water.
5. Gently shift the pan again until the houses begin to move. Observe what happens. More
of the sand erodes eventually reaching the house and other structures.
6. Can students rebuild and think of ways to keep sand from eroding?
Grass, break-walls, docks etc…
Before
After
Activity #3 – Use lab 10: “Weathering Park” Model
This model simulates how different parts of the Earth are weathered by rain, roots, gravity, and ice. Ask students if they
have ever seen roots growing into a rock. Students should think about causes of weathering and discuss places they have
seen this at home, in school or around town. After completing the model use the discussion questions to explain the
concepts. Use Lab Sheet 10 (3 pages).
1. Cut out the large rectangle of the “Weathering Park” template.
2. Cut open all 4 of the flaps along the three heavy black lines. One side of each rectangle
will remain uncut. HINT: Fold the paper, snip an opening, and then insert the scissors to
more easily cut out the flaps.
3. Fold back each flap along the dashed line, crease well, and then close.
4. Repeat steps 1-3 for page 2 of the model.
5. Repeat step 1 for page 3 of the model.
6. Stack all three rectangles on top of one another. They should be in the same order as their
original pages as shown. A bit of glue between the flaps will help.
7. Line up all the edges and hold while taping or gluing together. (By overlapping the tape
from the top page to the bottom page, the middle page will be sandwiched inside).
Discussion Questions:
1. Ask students what they see on the top page of the model. Answers will vary regarding weathering.
2. Have students predict what might happen to each of the parts of the park. Answers will vary, hopefully some students
Step 6: “Stacking”
will see that the trees might fall, the seeds might take root, water might get into the crack,
and statue might get defaced.
3. When you open the top flaps what do you see? Agents of weathering.
4. What types of weathering do they see? Erosion and gravity causing rocks and trees to
fall (mechanical weathering), rain or acid rain “melting” away the statue (chemical
weathering), roots growing between rocks (mechanical weathering, and water getting into
cracks of rocks (mechanical weathering).
5. Have students open the last flaps and interpret the long-term effects of weathering. The
cliff starts to degrade with rocks, trees, and soil tumbling down under the pull of gravity to a
pile of rubble at the bottom. The seeds that land and take root will slowing grow bigger roots that push against the rocks,
enlarging old cracks and forming new ones. As the rain falls it can dissolve away minerals in the statue wearing away the
carvings on the rock. The cracks in rocks can fill with water that freezes into ice. Freezing water expands and pushes
open cracks that can break and turn into rubble.
Homework: Read about weathering and erosion page 20 and complete worksheet #11.
20
TYPES OF WEATHERING
WAVE EROSION
Continue to Lesson 8 
21
Lesson 8: The Rock Cycle
Concept:


Rocks continually break down and
build up to form new rocks. This is
called the rock cycle.
Smaller rocks come from the
breakage and weathering of
bedrock and larger rocks.
Vocabulary:




Weathering
Rock cycle
Erosion
Bedrock
Evaluation:

Students will understand the rock cycle
and be able to describe the changes that
a rock may undergo.
MST:
1.SI.1a
4.PS.2.2h
6.M.2a
6.M.2b
Materials:
Lab #4 Model of the Rock Cycle
Book: Rocks and Minerals, Delta Reader
Activity 1:
7 dram vial, Water*, Kaolinite chips (1
large or 3 small pieces). You will have to
break up the pieces.
Activity 2: Lump of clay*,Votive candle,1
box
2 tart pans, clothes
pins (for holding the heated pie tin),
c
Activity 3: Waxed paper, hot water*,
Masking tape*,Crayon stubs*,1 empty
coffee can with plastic lid*
*supplied by teacher
Book: Earth’s Movements, page 15
Focus Question:
How do we keep a balance of the amount of rocks on Earth?
Background Information:
The rock cycle shows how types of rock or rock material may be
changed from one type of rock to another (2.2h). Smaller rocks come
from weathering and erosion of bedrock and larger rocks. Over time
these sediments are buried and compacted deep within the crust and
mantle. Heat and pressure can turn the old rock into new rock.
Eventually, these new rocks will be brought to the surface by volcanic
eruptions, mountain building and other actions caused by plate tectonics.
The new rock can be broken down again, starting the process all over.
The continuous breaking down and reforming rocks, changing them from
one type to another is called the rock cycle.
An example of the rock cycle can be explained starting with the
magma that is found deep within the Earth. When it is forced to the
surface through an eruption, igneous rocks are formed. These rocks are
constantly subjected to physical and chemical conditions that break them
down into smaller pieces or sediments. These sediments keep piling up
causing extreme pressure on the lower layers creating sedimentary rocks.
Sedimentary rock may become buried deep in the crust by more sediment
and changed by heat and pressure into metamorphic rock. The new
metamorphic rock is eventually brought to the surface and the agents of
erosion will begin again, starting the cycle over again. Such recycling
has been going on since the Earth was formed. The rocks of the Earth’s
crust have gone through the rock cycle many times.
Optional: Use overhead #16.
Discussion:
Ask students what they think happens to all of
the rocks on Earth. (they are recycled and
formed into new rock)
Ask; If all the rocks keep piling up, why
doesn’t the Earth get bigger and bigger and the ocean fill in? (Because of
the rock cycle)
Activity 1: Use Lab 11: Weathering and Sedimentation
Students will be making models of one part of the rock cycle. This will
show the weathering and sedimentation process.
1. Have students place one large piece or a few small pieces of
Kaolinite in the 7 dram vial. Kaolinite is a mineral. We are using it
to simulate a “rock” that is being weathered or broken down
2. Pour enough water to cover the “rock”.
3. Observe what happens to the “rock” in the water.
Discussion: These questions are on the student lab sheet:
1. How is the process used to disintegrate the “rock” similar to one
portion of the rock cycle? It shows that weathering can create
sediments that will ultimately be pushed together to form sedimentary
rock.
2. Describe other processes that might be used to model other parts of
the rock cycle. Cementing particles together to form sedimentary
rock, heating up samples to melt them similar to metamorphic rock.
22
Activity 2: “Model of the Rock Cycle –Igneous Rocks” – Possible Teacher Demo
This activity is completed as a teacher demonstration; however, depending upon the maturity of the students and the
teacher’s own judgment, the activity can be accomplished in small groups. Additional candles, crayons, and clothes pins
will be needed. A tray can be made using aluminum foil.
1. Emphasize to students that this is a model of the formation of igneous rock. The candle
represents the heat from the Earth’s interior and the process takes many, many years to
develop in nature.
2. Break up a variety of crayons into small pieces (about 1 cm long).
3. Mold the clay around the base of the candle in the center of one of the pans to prevent the
candle from tipping.
4. In the second pan, place the crayon pieces.
5. Students record on their Journal Page what the crayons look like and what they think will happen to the crayons when
they are heated.
6. The teacher lights the candle. Wear goggles as a model of safe practice.
7. Using a clothes pin, CAREFULLY hold the pan with the crayon pieces over the lit candle. The crayons will melt into a
smooth mass. This simulates how igneous rocks melt within the magma. It shows the cooling as related to Obsidian which
is very smooth “volcanic glass”, but it does not show the crystallized structure like Basalt or Granite.
8. Students observe and record the properties of the crayons during heating.
9. Allow crayons to cool for about five minutes.
Activity 3: “Model of the Rock Cycle –Metamorphic Rocks” – Possible Teacher Demo
This activity is completed as a teacher demonstration; however, depending upon the maturity of the students and the
teacher’s own judgment, the activity can be accomplished in small groups. Additional materials will be needed.
1. Place the plastic lid from the coffee can on the table- rim facing up.
2. Cut a piece of waxed paper to cover the lid.
3. Remove paper from crayons, break into smaller pieces and place on the waxed paper covering
the lid.
4. Cut another piece of waxed paper and place over the crayons to sandwich them.
5. Place the closed end of coffee can on the sandwiched crayons and lid (waxed paper, crayons,
waxed paper).
6. Pour very hot water into the coffee can and press down. CAUTION: Do not use water so hot that students could get
burned!
7. You may have to pour water in two or three times.
8. After crayons have been pressed, call students up to observe the new arrangement of the crayons.
9. Ask students: How have the crayons (rock) changed? (Heat and pressure changed the crayons – same as heat and
pressure produces metamorphic rock. The crayons don’t melt as smoothly as the igneous example and the pressure
clumps the crayons with a rough texture.
10. Ask the students how the heat traveled from the hot water to the crayons. (This is an opportunity to review
conductivity—the heat traveled from the hot water through the coffee can to the crayons. The coffee can conducted the
heat.
Homework:
Have the students read about the rock cycle page 22 and do worksheet #12.
http://www.amithompson.com/2009/rock-cycle-version-of-the-incredible-journey/ - this is a link to a rock cycle game
similar to Project Wet’s Water Cycle game.
23
Lesson 9: Rocks of the Lithosphere
Concept:


Background Information:
Rocks are made from minerals.
The way a rock is formed tells you
what type of rock it is.
Vocabulary:





Mineral
Igneous
Sedimentary
Metamorphic
Magma
Evaluation:

Students will understand the rock cycle
and be able to describe how different
rock types are formed.
MST:
1.SI.1a
4.PS.2.1e
4.PS.2.1f
Focus Question: How can we identify the rocks of the lithosphere?
6.M.2a
6.M.2b
4.PS.2.2g
Materials:
Book: Rocks and Minerals
Rock Samples labeled A-F
Obsidian, Pumice, Limestone Coquina,
Sandstone, Gneiss, Slate
Magnifiers
1 oz cups & medicine droppers
Vinegar (in cups, drops needed)
Fossils
Shells – included (or other specimens)*
Petroleum Jelly
Plaster
4 oz paper soufflé cups
9 oz paper cups
Plastic spoons
Food coloring
Water*
*Teacher supplied
A rock is a piece of the earth’s crust. Rocks are usually made
up of a combination of two or more minerals mixed together (2.1e).
Only a few minerals are used to make most of the rocks on Earth
(2.1e). Rocks come in all different sizes, shapes and colors, and each
has its own history. This history shows how it was formed, how old
it is, and how it has changed over time. Rocks have been classified
into 3 main categories based on the way they were formed or their
origin; igneous (IG-nee-us), sedimentary (SED–i-men-tarry), and
metamorphic (MET–uh-MOR-fik). These rocks have specific
characteristics to help identify them (2.2g).
Igneous rocks are formed from magma. Magma is formed
deep in the lower part of the Earth’s crust and in the upper mantle.
When magma moves upward through the crust, cools and hardens it
forms igneous rocks. Igneous rocks form when the minerals in
magma crystallize, or harden. The size of the crystals determines the
texture or roughness of the rock.
Sedimentary rocks are formed from sediments. Sediments
are small pieces of rocks, shells, or the remains of plants and animals.
Layers of sediment usually become covered with new layers. Due to
the weight of the layers above, the underlying particles are squeezed
together to form sedimentary rock. Sedimentary rock is an important
tool in the study of the earth’s history. By studying the fossils,
minerals, plants, seashells, or sandy deposits in rocks, Geologists can
tell of past life, environments, climates, and ancient times (2.1f).
Metamorphic rock is formed when tremendous heat,
chemical change, great pressure, or all three change existing rock.
There are several ways heat, pressure and chemical change can occur.
For example, more layers of sediment creating increased pressure
may cover rocks on the Earth’s surface. Hot temperatures in the
upper mantle effect rocks that are buried deep in the earth’s crust.
Magma or lava from volcanoes can expose existing rock to both
intense heat and pressure changing it to a metamorphic rock. These
factors will change either sedimentary or igneous rock into
metamorphic rock.
Optional: Use Overheads #17, #18, and #19
Activity 1: Use lab 12: Identifying Rocks
1. Rocks are identified by their
characteristics. The following are the characteristics the
students will look for:
a. Texture – smooth, granular, porous, glassy, etc… This is
usually based on the minerals within the sample. It is often
referenced as fine, medium, or course grained.
b. Color – again based on the minerals within the sample.
c. Buoyancy – whether a rock can float. The only rock that floats
is pumice which is an igneous rock.
d. Layers – if a sample has layers that can be seen within the rock
e. Acid – some rocks and minerals will bubble when acid is
applied. The bubbling comes from the type of mineral in the
rock, usually a calcium or calcite mineral.
24
2. Distribute the 6 rocks labeled A-F, magnifiers, vinegar in cups, and
medicine droppers.
3. Starting with rock “A”, observe its texture, color, crystal size, and
composition with and without a hand lens. Record observations in Data
Table 1: Rock Identification.
4. Use the Dichotomous Key to Rock Classification on the lab sheet, to
classify the sample. Begin by reading the first question. Answer Yes or No
based on observations.
5. After the words Yes or No, students will find directions to proceed to
another question, or they will discover to which group of rocks the specimen belongs. If they find directions to
proceed to another question, go to that question, answer it, and follow the directions.
6. Continue working through the key in this way until they come to a statement that allows them to classify their
rock sample.
7. When they have classified all of the samples, answer the rest of the questions.
Optional: You could show students the Reference Tables for Earth Science. This would show students the amount of
information rocks can give a geologist when it comes to identifying them.
Optional Activity: Fossils
specimens (shells, bones*, leaves*), 1 vial petroleum jelly,1 lb. plaster of Paris, blue or red food co
2 oz. paper
7 oz paper cups, 15 plastic spoons,
*
Day 1:
1. Have students find small objects such as bones (chicken wing bones), leaves, or other specimens. Harder
specimens work better. Shells work the best.
2. Give each student a 4 oz paper soufflé cup.
3. Have groups of 2- 3 students work together to mix their plaster. Fill a 7 oz paper cup 2/3 full with water. Add dry
plaster-of-paris 1 spoonful at a time stirring after each addition until the mixture resembles honey in its
consistency. Caution the students not to brush the plaster dust near their eyes
4. Each student in that group should then pour a layer of plaster into their paper soufflé cup (~1/3 – ½ full).
5. Have each student coat a shell or object with a thin layer of petroleum jelly and then lightly press the shell into the
surface of the plaster allowing the plaster to dry overnight. Do not allow the plaster to cover the object they are
pressing in. These kinds of fossils are known as molds. Why is this name appropriate?
Day 2:
1. To model how certain fossils form when the shell that created the fossil dissolves after the sedimentary rock has
formed, have the students remove the shell on the second day and record his/her observations. Describe and
sketch the impression that has been left in the rock (plaster).
2. Each student should then coat the surface of the hardened plaster with another thin layer of petroleum jelly and
half fill a paper cup with water. As before add dry plaster-of-paris one spoon at a time and stir until the mixture
resembles honey. Add a few drops of food coloring and stir. Add the
colored plaster to the petroleum jelly coated and hardened plaster
mold from day one. What does the colored plaster represent?
(Sedimentary rock forming materials.)
Homework: Students can read about the rocks of the lithosphere on page 24
and do worksheet #13.
25
Lesson 10: Minerals on Earth
Background Information:
Concept:


Minerals are naturally forming.
Minerals can be identified using
physical characteristics.
Vocabulary:




Mineral
Inorganic
Streak
Hardness
Evaluation:

Students will be able to use tests to
identify different minerals.
MST:
1.SI.1a
4.PS.2.1e
Focus Question: How can we identify minerals?
6.M.2a
6.M.2b
Materials:
Book: Rocks and Minerals, Delta Reader
4 minerals labeled A-D:
hematite, magnetite, calcite, talc
Magnifiers
Vinegar
1 oz Cups
Medicine droppers
Streak plates
Nail
Penny
Magnet
A mineral is made up of substances that were never alive. In
other words, minerals are inorganic. They are always made by
nature with a specific chemical formula that is the same no matter
where you find the mineral on Earth. Minerals have regular patterns
which gives it a specific crystal shape. Minerals are identified based
on their physical properties such as streak, harness, and reaction to
acid (2.1e). There are other characteristics that can be used to identify
a mineral such as color, texture, luster, and cleavage (where they
break apart).
Streak is the color of a mineral when it is crushed into a powder.
This is best done by rubbing a piece of your mineral across a “streak
plate” or unglazed porcelain. The color of the dust left on the streak
plate will help identify the mineral.
Harness is how easy it is to scratch one mineral compared to
another. In 1824 Friedrich Mohs, created the Mohs Scale of Hardness
for minerals when he noticed that some minerals were easier to
scratch than others. He made a list of minerals, with 1 being the
softest and 10 being the hardest. A list of some minerals follows:
1. Talc 2. Gypsum 3. Calcite 4. Fluorite 5. Apatite
6. Orthoclase 7. Quartz 8. Topaz 9. Corundum 10. Diamond
Acid tests if some rocks and minerals will bubble when acid is
applied. The bubbling comes from the type of mineral in the rock;
usually a calcium or calcite mineral will cause the bubbling.
Other tests can be done to determine the identity of a mineral.
Color, texture, luster, and cleavage can be studied but they should
always be done with streak, hardness, and acid to help identify a
mineral. For example fluorite can be colored green, purple, or yellow.
Optional: Use Overhead #20.
Activity 1: Use Lab 13: Mineral Identification
Minerals are identified by their characteristics. The
following are the characteristics the students will
look for:
a. Color – the color of the mineral is helpful,
but not the only characteristic that should be
looked at. Some minerals come in different
colors.
b. Texture – the texture will help to identify a mineral. Examples
include smooth, greasy, rough, and soft.
c. Luster – determines how a mineral shines. Examples include;
pearly, glassy, metallic, dull, and earthy.
d. Hardness – is based on how a mineral scratches the surface of
something. For example, Moh’s hardness scale determines the
softest mineral, talc at a hardness of 1 and diamond at 10.
e. Cleavage – if the mineral has nice, flat, sides and layers that break
apart cleanly and easily.
f. Magnetism – if a mineral contains loadstone, it will be magnetic.
26
1. Distribute the 4 minerals, magnifiers, vinegar in cups, goggles*, medicine droppers, streak plates and the hardness
tools (nail, penny), and a magnet.
2. Starting with mineral “A” in your kit, determine if it is metallic or nonmetallic. (Remember, a mineral must look like
a metal or metal flakes if it is metallic.) Begin filling in Data Table 1: Mineral Identification with descriptions of your
minerals.
3. Continue filling in the data table with the different tests for each mineral. Examples of common characteristics are
listed in the student lab manual. This will help them with their observations.
4. When they are done with the tests, work through the dichotomous key for minerals until they determine the name of
each mineral sample.
5. Write the name of the minerals in the data table. If they are unable to correctly identify the mineral, skip it and move
onto the next mineral sample.
6. Check answers with the teacher. Re-do any minerals that were incorrectly identified.
7. Answer the follow-up questions with their partner.
Optional: You could show the students the Reference Tables for Earth Science. This will show them different names and
ways to identify minerals.
Homework: Students can read about minerals on page 26 of the student manual and complete worksheet #14.
27
GLOSSARY
Atmosphere – a mixture of gases that surround a planet, such as Earth.
Bedrock – the layer of rock beneath soil.
Condensation – the change of state from a gas to a liquid.
Continental Drift – the theory that continents can drift apart from one another and have done so in the past.
Convection Currents – the circulation of a liquid or gas caused by unequal density (due to heating in this unit).
Core – the central, spherical part of Earth below the mantle.
Crust – the thin, outermost layer of the Earth, or the uppermost part of the lithosphere.
Earthquake – the sudden movement of Earth’s crust.
Erosion – the removal and transport of material by wind, water, gravity or ice.
Evaporation – the change in state from a liquid to a vapor.
Faulted – a break in the Earth’s crust along which blocks of the crust slide due to tectonic forces.
Folded – the bending of rock layers due to stress in the Earth’s crust.
Gases – a state of matter composed of molecules in constant random motion.
Gravity – the force that pulls objects towards each other due to those objects have mass and occupying space.
Greenhouse Effect – the natural heating process of a planet by which gases in the atmosphere trap heat.
Hardness – the resistance of a mineral to being scratched.
Hydrosphere – all the Earth’s water including surface water, groundwater, ice, and water vapor.
Igneous – rock that forms from the cooling of magma.
Inner core – the solid, dense center of the Earth.
Inorganic – chemical compounds that do not contain carbon or not dealing with living or once living
organisms.
Landmass – a large, continuous area of land, such as a continent or a very large island.
Lithosphere – the outermost, rigid layer of the Earth.
Magma – the hot liquid that forms when rock partially or completely melts.
Mantle – the layer of the Earth between the crust and the core.
Metamorphic – rock that forms when the texture and composition of preexisting rock changes due to heat or
pressure.
Mineral – a naturally occurring, inorganic solid with a crystalline structure.
Molten – to be melted such as the melted rock that is beneath the lithosphere.
Outer core – the liquid layer of the Earth’s core that lies beneath the mantle and surrounds the inner core.
Pangaea – the supercontinent made up of all the world’s present landmasses as they are thought to have been
joined.
Plate Boundary - the area where one lithospheric plate ends.
Plate Tectonics – the theory that the Earth’s lithosphere is divided into tectonic plates that move.
Precipitation – solid or liquid water that falls from the air to the Earth.
Rock cycle – the process by which one rock type changes into another rock type.
Sediment Sedimentary – rock that forms when sediments are compacted and cemented together.
Seismic Waves – waves of energy that travel through the Earth.
Streak – the color of a mineral in powdered form.
Vibrational – rapid motions of a particle or an elastic solid back and forth causing waves.
Volcanic Eruption – when molten rock, called magma, is forced to the Earth’s surface through a volcano.
Water cycle – the continuous movement of water that cycles all the Earth’s solid, liquid and gaseous water
together.
Weathering – the breakdown of rock into smaller and smaller pieces by mechanical or chemical means.
28
RESOURCES
BOOKS:














To the Core...: Earth's Structure by Lisa Trumbauer, 2006, Heinemann-Raintree, ISBN-13: 9781410925770
Air by Dana Meachen Rau, 2008, Cavendish, Marshall Corporation, ISBN-13: 9780761430421
The Earth: Its Structure & Its Changes by Tom Derosa, 2010, New Leaf Publishing Group, ISBN-13: 9780890515914
Water Cycle by: Bobbie Kalman, 2008, Crabtree Publishing Company, ISBN-13: 9780778777199
Water Cycle by Helen Frost, 2000, Coughlan Publishing, ISBN-13: 9780736848749
Investigating Plate Tectonics by Greg Young, 2007, Shell Educational Publishing, ISBN-13: 9780743905596
Plate Tectonics, Volcanoes, and Earthquakes by John P. Rafferty, 2010, Rosen Publishing Group, Incorporated, The, ISBN13: 9781615301065
The Rock Cycle by Melanie Ostopowich, 2010, Weigl Publishers, Incorporated, ISBN-13: 9781605969688
What Are Sedimentary Rocks?, Vol. 3 by Natalie Hyde , 2010, Crabtree Publishing Company, ISBN-13: 9780778772354
What Are Igneous Rocks?, Vol. 1 by Molly Aloian, 2010, Crabtree Publishing Company, ISBN-13: 9780778772330
What Are Metamorphic Rocks?, Vol. 2 by Molly Aloian, 2010, Crabtree Publishing Company, ISBN-13: 9780778772347
Weathering and Erosion by Steven M. Hoffman, 2011, Rosen Publishing Group, Incorporated, The, ISBN-13:
9781448827114
Minerals by Sally M. Walker, 2006, Lerner Publishing Group, ISBN-13: 9780822559467
Rocks and Minerals Spotter's Guide: With Internet Links by Alan Woolley, 2007, EDC Publishing , ISBN-13:
9780794513047
WEBSITES:
http://www.eram.k12.ny.us/education/components/docmgr/default.php?sectiondetailid=17500& - this school
website has great animations relating to earth science.
http://plainedgeschools.org/swells/power_point_links.htm - this site has many power point presentations on
different earth science topics.
http://scign.jpl.nasa.gov/learn/plate1.htm - this site has an animation on plate movement.
http://science.pppst.com/layers.html - the layers of the Earth in power point is included on this site.
http://geology.com/rocks/ - this is a great site for the different types of rocks. It includes pictures and descriptions
of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks.
http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/historical.html#anchor9464740 – this site has several links to aspects of plate
tectonics, Pangaea, and other geologic events.
http://www.learner.org/interactives/dynamicearth/structure.html - this site has great animations and interactive
images
http://www.classzone.com/books/earth_science/terc/content/investigations/es0602/es0602page02.cfm - this is a great
set of animations for the rock cycle.
http://www.agiweb.org/education/ies/dp/invest4.html#plates – this link has several additional links to Earth’s
processes.
29
OTHER NYS LEARNING STANDARDS
STANDARD 1: Mathematical Analysis, Scientific Inquiry, Engineering Design
Mathematical Analysis:
Key Idea 1: Abstraction and symbolic representation are used to communicate mathematically.
Key Idea 3: Critical thinking skills are used in the solution of mathematical problems.
Scientific Analysis:
Key Idea 1: The central purpose of scientific inquiry is to develop explanations of natural phenomena in a continuing,
creative process.
Key Idea 2: Beyond the use of reasoning and consensus, scientific inquiry involves the testing of proposed
explanations involving the use of conventional techniques and procedures and usually requiring considerable ingenuity.
Key Idea 3: The observations made while testing proposed explanations, when analyzed using conventional
and invented methods, provide new insights into phenomena.
Engineering Design:
Key Idea 1: Engineering design is an iterative process involving modeling and optimization (finding the best solution
within given constraints); this process is used to develop technological solutions to problems within given constraints.
STANDARD 6—Interconnectedness: Common Themes
Students will understand the relationships and common themes that connect mathematics, science, and technology
and apply the themes to these and other areas of learning.
Key Idea 1: Through systems thinking, people can recognize the commonalities that exist among all systems and how
parts of a system interrelate and combine to perform specific functions.
Key Idea 2: Models are simplified representations of objects, structures, or systems used in analysis, explanation,
interpretation, or design.
STANDARD 7—Interdisciplinary Problem Solving
Students will apply the knowledge and thinking skills of mathematics, science, and technology to address real-life
problems and make informed decisions.
Key Idea 2: Solving interdisciplinary problems involves a variety of skills and strategies, including effective work habits;
gathering and processing information; generating and analyzing ideas; realizing ideas; making connections among the
common themes of mathematics, science, and technology; and presenting results.
SCIENTIFIC SKILLS:
1. follow safety procedures in the classroom and laboratory
3. use appropriate units for measured or calculated values
4. recognize and analyze patterns and trends
5. classify objects according to an established scheme and a student-generated scheme
6. develop and use a dichotomous key
7. sequence events
8. identify cause-and-effect relationships
9. use indicators and interpret results
PHYSICAL SETTING SKILLS:
1. given the latitude and longitude of a location, indicate its position on a map and determine the latitude and
longitude of a given location on a map
2. using identification tests and a flow chart, identify mineral samples
3. use a diagram of the rock cycle to determine geological processes that led to the formation of a specific rock type
4. plot the location of recent earthquake and volcanic activity on a map and identify patterns of distribution
30
NEW YORK STATE LEARNING STANDARDS
SCIENCE: PHYSICAL SETTING FOR INTERMEDIATE LEVEL
STANDARD 4: SCIENCE
Key Idea 2: Many of the phenomena that we observe on Earth involve interactions among components of air, water, and
land. Students should develop an understanding of Earth as a set of closely coupled systems. The concept of systems
provides a framework in which students can investigate three major interacting components: lithosphere, hydrosphere,
and atmosphere. Processes act within and among the three components on a wide range of time scales to
bring about continuous change in Earth’s crust, oceans, and atmosphere.
2.1a Nearly all the atmosphere is confined to a thin shell surrounding Earth. The atmosphere is a mixture of
gases, including nitrogen and oxygen with small amounts of water vapor, carbon dioxide, and other trace gases.
The atmosphere is stratified into layers, each having distinct properties. Nearly all weather occurs in the lowest
layer of the atmosphere.
2.1b As altitude increases, air pressure decreases.
2.1c The rock at Earth’s surface forms a nearly continuous shell around Earth called the lithosphere.
2.1d The majority of the lithosphere is covered by a relatively thin layer of water called the hydrosphere.
2.1e Rocks are composed of minerals. Only a few rock-forming minerals make up most of the rocks of Earth.
Minerals are identified on the basis of physical properties such as streak, hardness, and reaction to acid.
2.1f Fossils are usually found in sedimentary rocks. Fossils can be used to study past climates and
environments.
2.1g The dynamic processes that wear away Earth’s surface include weathering and erosion.
2.1h The process of weathering breaks down rocks to form sediment. Soil consists of sediment, organic
material, water, and air.
2.1i Erosion is the transport of sediment. Gravity is the driving force behind erosion. Gravity can act directly or
through agents such as moving water, wind, and glaciers.
2.1j Water circulates through the atmosphere, lithosphere, and hydrosphere in what is known as the water cycle.
2.2a The interior of Earth is hot. Heat flow and movement of material within Earth cause sections of Earth’s
crust to move. This may result in earthquakes, volcanic eruption, and the creation of mountains and ocean
basins.
2.2b Analysis of earthquake wave data (vibrational disturbances) leads to the conclusion that there are layers
within Earth. These layers, the crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core, have distinct properties.
2.2c Folded, tilted, faulted, and displaced rock layers suggest past crustal movement.
2.2d Continents fitting together like puzzle parts and fossil correlations provided initial evidence that continents
were once together.
2.2e The Theory of Plate Tectonics explains how the “solid” lithosphere consists of a series of plates that
“float” on the partially molten section of the mantle. Convection cells within the mantle may be the driving
force for the movement of the plates.
2.2f Plates may collide, move apart, or slide past one another. Most volcanic activity and mountain building
occur at the boundaries of these plates, often resulting in earthquakes.
2.2g Rocks are classified according to their method of formation. The three classes of rocks are sedimentary,
metamorphic, and igneous. Most rocks show characteristics that give clues to their formation conditions.
2.2h The rock cycle model shows how types of rock or rock material may be transformed from one type of rock
to another.
31