ENERGY: REFERENCE NUMBERS
POWERS OF TEN
10
deka (da)
2
10
hecto (h)
103
kilo (k)
6
10
mega (M)
9
giga (G)
10
10 I,2 tera (T)
15
10
peta (P)
18
10
exa (E)
10-1
10-2
10-3
10-6
10-9
10-12
10-15
10-18
deci(d)
centi (c)
milli (m)
micro (11)
nano (n)
pico (p)
femto (f)
atto (a)
When multiplying powers of ten, the exponents add:
103 X 106 = 103+6 = 109
(2xl04) X (4xl05 ) = (2x4)x104+5 = 8x10 9
When dividing, you have to substract the exponents:
103 / 107 103- 7 = 10-4
DISTANCE
1 meter (m) = 100 centimeters (em) = 3.281 feet (ft)
1 mile (mi) = 5280 ft = 1.609 kilometers (km)
1 micron (11) = 10-6 m
1 angstrom (A) = 10-10 m
=
39.37 inches (in)
Example: To convert the diameter of the Earth, which is 7900 miles to kilometers:
(7900 mi) x (1 km / 0.62 mi) = 12700 km
AREA
2
4
. 2
1 square meter (m ) = 100 ern x 100 cm = 10 ern
1 square meter (m") = (3.281 feet)2 = 10.8 square feet
1 square kilometer (km") = 1000 m x 1000 m = 106 m 2 = 0.4 square miles
1 hectare (ha) = 100 m x 100 m = 104 m 2 = 2.47 acres
1 acre = 43560 square feet (fr')
1 bam (b) 10-24 cm 2
Example: To express the area of the Earth, which is 500x106 km", in square miles:
(500 x 106 krn") x (0.4 me / 1 krrr') = 200 X 106 mi 2
VOLUME
1 cubic meter (rrr') = 1000 liters = 264.2 US gallons = 35.31 cubic feet (fr')
1 liter (I) 103 cubic centimeters (cnr' or ml) = 1.057 US quarts
1 acre foot = 1.234 x 103 m 3
1 cord = 128 fe
1 board foot = 2.36 x 10-3 m'
1 cubic mile = 4.17 cubic kilometers (krn')
1 barrel of petroleum (bbl) = 42 US gallons = 0.159 m'
Example: To find the numbers of gallons in cubic kilometers of water:
(1 km') x (10 9 m'zkm") x (264 gal/rn ') = 264 x 109 gal
ENERGY: REFERENCE NUMBERS
MASS AND DENSITY
1 kilogr am (kg) = 2.205 pound s
3
tons
1 metric ton (tonne or MT) ='10 kg = 1.102 short tons = 0.9842 long
1 pound (lb) = 16 ounce s avoird upois (oz) = 453.6 grams (g)
n/km'
Densi ty of water = PWATE R = 1 g/crrr' = 1 kg/lite r = 1 ton/m' = 1 gigato
PAIR AT SEA-LEV EL = 1.2 kg/rrr'
PAIR-DR IED WOOD = 0.7 tons/nr'
PSOIL = 2 tons/m '
PROCK = 3 tons/rrr'
ENER GY
7
2/sec 2
= 10 ergs = 0.2390 calories (cal)
1 joule (1) = 1 kg m
4
I joule (1) = 9.484 X 10- British therm al units (Btu)
1 joule (1) = 1 watt-s econd (Ws)
18
1 joule (1) = 6.242 X 10 electro n volts (eV)
1 joule (1) = 1 newto n-met er (Nm)
6
1 kilowa tt-hou r (kWh ) = 3.6 x 10 J = 3414 Btu
18
15
1 quad = 10 Btu = 1.05 X 10 J
3
1 Calori e ~ 1 kiloca lorie (Kcal) = 10 cal
5
1 therm = 10 Btu
1 foot pound = 1.356 J
12
1 kiloton of TNT (KT) = 4.2 x 10 J
POW ER
1 watt (W) = 1 joule/ secon d = 3.6 kJ/hou r
1 horsep ower (hp) = 0.764 kilow atts (kW)
31.5 MJ/ye ar
PRESSURE
2
1 pascal (Pa) = 1 N/m
5
1 bar = 10 pascal = 0.9869 atmos pheres (atm)
2
1 atmos phere (atm) 76 em of mercu ry 14.7 Ib/in = 760 torr
TEM PERA TURE
Degre es Celsiu s (OC) = 5/9 [degre es Fahren heit (OF) - 32]
Degre es Fahre nheit (OF) = 1.8 degree s Celsiu s (OC) + 32
s + 273.15
Kelvin or absolu te tempe rature scale, Kelvin s (K) = degree s Celsiu
ENERGY: REFERENCE NUMBERS
APPROXIMATE VALUES OF THE MOST COMMON MEASURES OF ENERGY AND
ENERGY FLOW
Reference energy measure: 1 joule (J)
1 British thermal unit (Btu) = 1 kJ
1 million Btu = 1 gigajoule (GJ)
1000 cubic feet of natural gas = 1 gigajoule
1 GJ = 1 gigajoule = 8 gallons of gasoline = 1000 fe natural gas = 33 kg of coal
1 ton of TNT = 4 gigajoules
1 barrel of oil (bbl) = 6 gigajoules
1 ton of wood = 15 gigajoules
1 ton of coal = 30 gigajoules
1 ton of oil = 45 gigajoules
1 "quad" = 1,000,000,000 gigajoules = 1 exajoule
Reference energy-flow measure: 1 watt (W) = 1 joule per second
1 million bbl of oil per day = 70 gigawatts = 2 exajoules/year
1 billion tons of coal per year = 1 terawatt = 30 exajoules/year
ENERGY FLOWS
Flow
Value (10 12 W)
Energy radiated by sun into space
Solar radiation incident on top of Earth's atmosphere
Solar radiation reflected back to space from Earth
Solar radiation reflected back to space from Earth's atmosphere
Solar radiation absorbed in atmosphere
Rate at which latent heat flows from Earth's surface to atmosphere
Rate at which infrared radiation leaving Earth's surface flows directly to space
Rate at which convective heat flows from Earth's surface to atmosphere
Wind, waves, ocean currents
Net primary productivity on Earth
Energy conducted from Earth's interior to its surface
World energy consumption (1980)
U.S. energy consumption (1980)
Energy content of food consumed by world's human population (1980)
World electricity production (1980)
U.S. electricity production (1980)
3.7 X 10 14
175,000
53,000
46,000
44,000
42,000
10,200
8,600
500-2,000
75-125
20-40
10
2.5
0.55
0.87
0.26
ENERGY: REFERENCE NUMBERS
EARTH'S NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES
Resource
Petroleum
Natural Gas
Coal
Tar sands
Oil shale
Uranium in non-breeding
light water reactors
Thorium and uranium in
breeder reactors
Deuterium and lithium in
seawater (for fusion power)
Estimated stock (1980) (l0
21
J)
Consumption (1980) (10 18 J/yr)
World
U.S.
10
10
250
>2
2,000
135
60
90
0
0
41
20
15
0
0
20
6.3
3.1
10,000
0
0
10
0
0
10
ENERGY CONTENT OF SELECTED SUBSTANCES
Substance
Energy content (10 6 Jlkg)
Natural gas
Gasoline
Petroleum (crude)
Typical animal fat
Coal
Charcoal
Paper
Dry biomass
Air-dried wood or dung
Crop wastes (20% moisture)
Bread
Milk
Beer
3.9 x 10 J/m3
48
43 (6.1 x 109 Jlbbl)
38
29.3
29
20
16
15
13
12
3
1.8
7
Appendices
Approximate conversion factors
Units
Crude oil'
1 metnc tonne. 220462 Ib
1 kllolitre • 62898 barrels
1 ktlocalone (kcal). 4187 kJ • 3968 Btu
1 kilOjoule (kJ) • 0239 kcal ·0948 Btu
1 British thermal umt (Btu) = 0252 kcal • 1 055 kJ
1 kilowatt-hour (kWh) • 860 kcal • 3600 kJ • 3412 Btu
To
toores
Tonnes (metric)
Kilolltres
Barrels
US gallons
Barrels/day
tomes/
US
(mellic)
kilolilfes
0.858
0136
000325
1165
1
0159
00038
year
gallons
barrels
Mutliply by
7.33
6.2898
1
00238
From
308
264
42
1
498
'Based on WOfldwlde average gravity
Products
Toconvert
barrels
10tonnes
to tonnes
kltolitres
tonnes
to kilolitres
0542
0740
0806
0839
0939
1844
1 351
1240
1 192
1.065
toMeS
to barrels
Multiplyby
LPG
0.086
0118
0128
0133
0149
Gasoline
Kerosme
Gas ou/oreser
Fuel all
11.6
85
78
75
6.7
Calorific equivalents
One tonne of all egulvalent eguals approKimately
Heat units
10 million kilocalories
42 gigaJoules
40 million Blu
Solrd luels
1.5 tonnes of hard coal
3 lonnes of lignite
Gaseous fuels See Natural gas and LNG table
Electncrty
12 megawatt-hours
One mtllion tonnes of oil produces about 4000 91gawatt
hours of electricity in a modern power station
Natural gas and LNG
To
billioncubic
metres NG
billioncubic
feel NG
1
0028
1.111
138
0028
016
353
1
392
487
098
561
From
1 billion eucre metres NG
1 billion cutnc feet NG
1 million tonnes all eqUivalent
1 million tonnes LNG
1 trillion British Ihermal uruts
1 million barrels oil egulvalent
million iomes
oil equivalent
million tonnes
LNG
Multiply by
073
090
0021
0026
1
0805
1
1 23
0.025
0.02
014
012
trillion British
thermal unltS
million barrels
011 equivalent
36
103
404
520
1
58
6.29
018
7.33
868
017
1
Definitions
Statistics published In this Review are taken from
government sources and published data. No use
East and Southern Africa
Terntories on the east coast of Africa from Sudan to
is made of confidential information obtained by
Repubhc of South Alnca Also Madagascar, MalaWI
Namibia, Uganda, Zambia. Zimbabwe
BP Amoco in the course of its business.
West Alrica: Nlgena
Asia Pacific: lnoonesra
South America: Venezuela
(Srnce Ecuador and Gabon have Wllhdrawn Irom OPEC
North America
Asia Pacific
Brunei. Cambodia. China. China Hong Kong SAR".
they are excluded from all OPEC tala Is )
USA (exciudlng Puerto RICO). Canada and MeXICO
South and Central America
indonesia. Japan. Laos. Mafaysla. Mongolia.
North Korea. Phmppmes. Srngapore. South ASia
European Union members
Austrra. Belqiurn. Denmark. Fmlano France Germany
Canbbean (inCludIng Puerto RICO) Central and
South Amerrca
Western Europe
European members of OECD (apart from Czech
RepUblic. Hungary and Poland) plus Cyprus. Grbraltar
and Malia
(Afghantslan. Bangladesh. India. Myanmar. Nepal.
Greece. RepubliC of Ireland. Italy. Luxembourg
Pakistan and Sn Lanka]. South Korea. Taiwan. Thailand.
Vietnam, Ausuana. New Zealand, Papua New GUinea
Netherlands. Portugal. Spam. Sweden. UK
and the SOUlh West Pacinc Islands
EMEs (Emerging Market Economies)
Sooth & Central America. Central Europe, Fonner Soviet
'Speciat Administrative Region
Australasia
Union, Arnca. Middle East and Non-DECO ASia PaolI(
In ttus Review. the term 'Other EMEs excludes Cent! al
Australia. New Zealand
Europe and Former Soviet Union
Albania. Bosnra-Herzeqovrna. Bulgaria. Croatia,
Czech Republic Hungary. Former Yugoslav Republic
Country groupings are made purely for statistical
purposes and are not intended to Imply any
Other terms
of Macedorua. Poland. RomalTla. Slovakia. Slovenia.
Yugoslavia
judgement about political or economic standings.
Tonnes: Metric tons
Central Europe
Western Europe and Central Europe
OECO members
-f
Europe: Austria. Belgium Czech Republic. Denmark.
Finland, France. Germany. Greece Hungary. Iceland.
Middle East
Republic of Ireland. Italy. Luxembourg. Nelherlands.
Norway. Poland, Portugal. Sparn. Sweden. Swuzertand.
Europe
Arabian Peninsula Iran, Iraq. Israel. Jordan,
Lebanon, Syna
North Africa
Temtones on the north coast of Africa from Egypt to
Western Sahara
West Africa
Terruones on the west coast of Aluc a lrom Meuntarua
10 Angola, lflcludHlg Cape Verde Islands
Turkey, Untted Kingdom
Other member countries' Austraua. Canada Japan.
MeXICO. New Zealand. South Korea. USA
Percentages
Calculated berore rounding of actuals All annual
changes and shares of totals are on a weight t)aStS
except on pages 16. 17 and 18
Rounding differences
Because of rounding. some totals - mcludinq HIe 1998
share of total - might not agree exactly wrttt the sum of
their component parts
US processinq gains
OPEC members
Gains In volume occur
In tne relining 01 crude all mto
products For the USA, WhiCh accounts Ior most of tI\(;
Middle East: Iran. Iraq Kuwait. Oatar Saudi Arabia
Uruted Arab Emnates (Abu Dhabi Duoa.. Ra,·al
world's processing qarns II
Kharman and Shaqah)
these gams from voiurnerr«: consumpnon level:-, to
North Arrrca Algena. Libya
convennonat to dee1uc!
reflect more accurately the eflectrve demand
all resources
ntu, /zwww /)pamo((J comlwo{feJenergylappendlces
IS
011
crude
499
CONVERSION TABLES
Energy conversion factors
CONVERSION TABLES
These tables provide multiplicative factors for converting from one energy or
power unit to another. For example, to convert a quantity from kcal to Btu, find
the original unit at the left edge of the table on p. 499 and read across to the
column headed by the desired final unit. This tells one to multiply by 3.968. Thus
4.5 kcal equals 4.5 x 3.968 Btu (17.86 Btu). Caution should be used in conversions involving the energy values offuels (coal, petroleum, and natural gas).
The energy content of such fuels varies by 10% or more according to the quality
of the source and the method of production. When accuracy is required in
calculations involving fuels, specific data should be obtained.
Watt
Gigajoule (GJ)/yr
Quad/yr
Petroleum. tonne/yr
Petroleum. bbllday
Quad/yr
I
3.16 x 10- 2
31.69
3.34 x 1010
1394
7.06 x 10"
2.99 X 10- 11
9.49 x 10- 10
1.05 x 10"
44.0
2.23 x 1()3
I
I
4.17 x 10-'
2.11 x 10-'
Petroleum,
tonne/yr
Petroleum,
bbllday
7.17 x 10-'
2.27 X 10-2
2.40 x 107
I
50.6
1.42 X 10-5
4.49 x 10-<
4.73 x 10"
1.98 X 10-2
I
kcal
I
1.055 x 10-'
3.60 x 10-'
4.186 x 10-'
9.48 x 10'
I
3413
3.968
278
2.93 x 10-4
I
1.163 x 10'
2.39 x I(}'
0.252
860
I
Coal. tonne" (MT)
Coal. ton"
28
25.4
2.65 x 10'
2.41 x 10'
7.78 x II}'
7.(}6 x II}'
6.69 x 10'
6.07 x 10'
I
0.907
1.10
I
Petroleum. tonne {M]")
Petroleum. bbl
44
6.1
4.17 x 10'
5.8 x 10'
1.22 x 1(1'
1.70 x 10"
1.05 x 10'
1.46 x 10'
1.57
0.218
1.73
0.240
0.034
0.129
3.22 x I(}'
1.22 x I<Y'
9.45
:15.4
8.13 x J(}'
:1.08 x Ill'
4.60 x 10
1.34 x 10-'
.'.07 x 10
56
0.040
1.06 x 10-'
5.31 x 10'
:1.79 x I(}'
1005
1.56 x I(}'
11.1
0.295
1.34 x 10'
9.56 x II}'
253
2.00
1.43 x 10-"
3.79 x 10-'
2.20
1.57 x 10-"
4.17 x 10-"
Gigajoule (GJ)'
Btu
kW-hr
kcal
Gasoline. liter
Gasoline. gal"
Natural gas. tonne (MT)
.~(\/\-t&l
498
KCI/iev' 5'
I/\,{.
.i'>, Wr-11l. ~ch.
\/0\
'2. f'al(o
in·J.
A-H,: CA
X
10-.1
3.94 x 10-'
4.15 x 10-'
1.42
X
10-4
1.65 x 10-'
Petroleum.
Gasoline.
liter
Gasoline.
gal''
Nat. gas.
Nat. gas.
Nat. gas.
bbl
tonne (MT)
m:l,-
ft:l
2.27 x 10-'
8.18 x 10-'
9.51 x 10-'
0.164
1.73 x 10-'
5.90 x 10-'
6.86 x 10-'
29.4
3.10 x 10-,'
0.106
1.23 X 10- 4
7.75
8.18 x 10-'
2.79 x 10- 2
3.24 x 10-:>
0.0179
1.88 x 10-'
6.43 x 10-'
7.48 x 10-'
25.0
2.64 x 10-'
9.00 x 10-'
1.05 x 10-'
94:1
9.95 x 10-<
:1.40
3.95 x 10-'
Coal. tonne" (MT)
Coal. torr
0.636
0.577
4.59
4.16
824
747
217
197
0.50
0.454
700
635
2.64 x 10"
2.40 x I(}'
Petroleum. tonne (MT)
I
0.139
7.21
I
1290
179
341
47.3
0.786
0.109
1100
152
4.15 x I(}'
5.76 x I(}'
Gasoline, liter
Gasoline. gal"
7.73 x 10-'
5.57 x 10-'
2. II
I
3.79
0.264
I
6.07 x 10-'
2.30 x 10-"
0.850
3.22
32.1
2.93 x 10-:1
Natural gas. tonne (MT)
Natural gas, rrr'
1.27
9.09 x 10-'
2.41 x 10-'
9.18
6.56 x 10-'
1.74 x 10-'
I
7.14 x 10- 4
1.89 x 10-'
1.40 x II}'
1
2.65 x 10-'
5.28 x I(}'
37.7
I
Gigajoule (GJ)'
Btu
kW-hr
kcal
Petroleum. bbl
~
bOne tonne
M, S'; "",""'GoA S) e.tJ
A/VI.....G1-l ·~~lfi~ o.u J ·fl\e")~.
1.21
x 10-'
x 10-'
x 10--'1
x 10-'
Petroleum.
'One GJ
>
3.57
3.77
1.29
1.50
tonne (MT)
Natural gas, £13
\ ;';:'ltu.,Jer) j
tool"
kW-hr
Power conversion factors
GJ/yr
Coal.
Btu
Natural gas. m3
Natural gas. ft:l
Watt
Coal.
tonne (MT)h
GJ'
2.40 x 10-11
X
10-2
1.65 x II}'
1.18
3.12 X 10-2
434
0.310
8.22 x JO-:J
10' Joules.
»
1000 kilograms. The value of energy content given here is typical of a bituminous coal.
COne ton = 2000 pounds. The value of energy content given here is typical of a bituminous coal.
'US gallon ~ 3.78 liters.
-At ere. and a pressure of 760 mm.
'At 60"F. and a pressure of 30 inches of mercury.
f
122
so •
FIGURE 9.1. Example Data ~heet
Physical Constants and Conversion" .undcrlinc.:
\vi,h
I P
CONVERSION FACTORS
For physical constants and conversions, there's nothing better than The
Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. It comes out every year, but, because
physical laws and constants rarely change, even an old version of this work is
so you should pick one up at a used bookstore. Virruallv all libraries
have a copy of this book on the shelf.
There are certain facts that I use frequently. For example, I often need to convert English units to metric units and vice versa. To help this process along, I
1 ron {t] 1,000
1 atomic mass unit 1.6606e-24
1 m = 3.281 fr 39 ..37 in 1e6 r
1 km 0.6214 rni 0.5400 naur rm I fr =
1 m2 = 10.76 ft2 1e28 barn 1 km2 = 100
1 mi2 2.590 km2 = 640 acres" 1 ft2 = 929.0.3 cm2
m3 = 999.97 liter =.35.31 ft.3 = 264.2 gal ., 1 ac-fr = 1233 m.3
(1 liter = 1 kg of H20 at 4
C;
of H20 at this T 1S
1 cord = 128 ft3 3.625 m3 1 bushel
1 m/s = 3.281 ftls 2.237 mph = 1.944 knots" 1
1 cfs 0.0283 m.3!s 449 gpm = 724 ac-ft/yr ' 1
memorize the most commonly used conversions and keep the rest on a one-page
data sheet for ready reference. I recommend compiling such a sheet for your
own use that contains the conversions most useful to your work. The hour or
so of work needed to compile this page will be repaid many times over in the
convenience of not having to dig deeply into obscure reference books whenever
you need to do a calculation. See Figure 9.] for an example data sheet.
EXERCISE
Compile a data sheet for your own use after thinking for a week or two
about the numbers you use most frequently. Pass It around to your coworkers to get their suggestions. Print
for them when you're
done, to share the wealth.
newton (N) le5 dynes = 0.2248 lbtforce) " 1 pascal (Pa) = 1 N!m2 lc-S bar
1 arm 1.01 .325 Pa = 10.33 t(foree)!m2 = 14.696 Iblin2 = 760 mm Hg 10
= torr
= 0.01 gray
1 curie tCil 3.7e10 dis/s = 3.7el0 becquerel {Bq] ., 1 rad = 100
.ur
1 gray (Gy) 1 Jlkg , 1 roentgen (R) -> 2.58e-4 coulombt-. or
roentgen-equivalent-man (rem) :::; rads x quality factor ~, I sicvcrr
::: lOn rem
EARTH: R
km; A = 5 1O.1e6 km2 (oc .361.3. lei 14S.5, icc-free lei 1.3;
Asia
Africa 30.3,
22.4, S. America 17.S, Oceania S.5,
4.9);
t (oc l.4d8, ice 2.geI6, arm 5.2eI5, Ikslstr 1..3e14,
M=
CPP 200. NPP 1001
E @ top of arm 172,000 TW (surf 88,000, evap 41 ,000, wind
elev 8848 m; avg elevation = 840 m; deepest ocean = I 1,000 m.
of latitude = 111 km; 1 minute e 1.85 km. Solar constant ::: 13hH W!m2.
ATM: @ sea lvl 1.225 kgim3, 288 K, mol wt 28.96, 2.55e19 molecules/crn.s. sound speed
331.4 m/s; percent by vol N2 78.09%, 02 20.95%" A 0.9.3%; ppm-C02 340, Nt 18, lie
CH4 2.9, Kr 1.1, N20 0.5, CO 0.1,030.01; attn water vapor & clouds 1.3e13 t.
Heat can of air 1 j/g-K. Tropopause: h 11 km, p = 0.23 arm, T = 217 K. Wet-air
lapse rate 6.5 K/km, dry = 10 K/km. Viscosity = 1.5e-4 dync-scc/crn.l.
~M,s~~{i;a~?;~&,>;,'~-~
Doto, Data, Dote' I
heat cap = 1 cal!g-K; heat vapn = 539.6
C). Oen vol = 1.35e9 km3;
(15 C) = 1.026
15, Li 0.17, P
can't moke bricks without cloy!
-
SHERLOCK HOLMES
g
N = 6.022c23/!llo!L· . .-::: 2.4YHcIO . .-m!"
s=
W!m2-K4' K = C + 27.1.15 F = I.SxC +
kg = 931.5 MeV" e = 1.602e-19 coulomb h c 0.';2';e·14
oj-