What Would Happen in the Future?
Middle
Africa
East
Latin
6%
6%
America
5%
Transition
Economies
8%
ETC
1%
8.3 billiion
OECD
40%
Asia
34%
2007
2030
2030
6.7 billiion
50 %
2000
2008
Transition
economics
4.5 billiion
2005
Total Primary Energy Supply
Energy Demands
Seoul National University
1980
1990
World Population
Ozone Hole over the Antarctica
World Population
Environmental
Problems
WCU C2E2 Program
What Would Happen in the Future?
Middle
Latin Africa East
6%
America 6%
5%
Transition
Economie
s
8%
ETC
1%
8.3 billiion
OECD
40%
Asia
34%
2007
2030
2030
6.7 billiion
Richard E. Smalley
50
% Laureate in Chemistry
Nobel
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Smalley
Transition
economics
2008
2000
4.5for
billiion
"What are humanity's top 10 problems
the next 50 years?”
2005
Total Primary Energy Supply
1980
“Energy!!”
World Population
1990
Ozone Hole over the Antarctica
“In the 2050, almost half the energy consumption might be replaced by
Environmental
Renewable
Energy.”
Energy Demands
World Population
Problems
Seoul National University
WCU C2E2 Program
Energy Conservation & Renewable Energy
Energy Conservation
Increase in Efficiency
Renewable Energy
Alternatives to Fossil Fuel
Transportation
Electric Cars
Hybrid Cars
Residential
LED
ZEB
Bio Mass
Solar Energy
Wind Energy
Tidal Energy
Energy Star
Industrial
Seoul National University
...
Green Processes
WCU C2E2 Program
Sources for Global Energy Supply: Oil, Gas, Coal
http://www.theglobaleducationproject.org/earth/energy-supply.php
Seoul National University
WCU C2E2 Program
Oil Reserves: Discovery-Consumption
Even though the early oilmen worked with
primitive exploration techniques, the peak
year for discoveries of giant oil fields
(ultimate recovery of 500 mbbl oil or
more) in the U.S. was 1930—in the world,
1962. 80% of the oil produced in 1995 was
found before 1973. We now find one
barrel for every four we consume.
In the last 20 years, only three fields (in Norway, Columbia and Brazil) have been found with more than one billion
barrels each. None produce more than 200,000 barrels a day. From 1990 to 2000 a total of 42 billion barrels of new
reserves were discovered. In the same period the world consumed 250 billion barrels.
"The rig count over the last 12 years has reached bottom. This is not because of low oil price. The oil companies are
not going to keep rigs employed to drill dry holes. They know it but are unable ... to admit it. The great merger
mania is nothing more than a scaling down of a dying industry in recognition that 90% of global conventional oil has
already been found." (Goldman Sachs - August 1999)
Seoul National University
WCU C2E2 Program
Sources for Global Energy Supply: Oil Production
Seoul National University
WCU C2E2 Program
Distribution of Global Energy Usage
Seoul National University
WCU C2E2 Program
Distribution of Energy Consumption in US
Seoul National University
WCU C2E2 Program
Countries with Highest Carbon Dioxide Emission
The United States' "400-plus coal-fired power
plants emit more toxins into the air than any
other single source; some 42% of the US total,
according to the 2002 Toxic Release Inventory
(TRI)"
Half of all Americans live within 30 miles of a
coal-burning power plant "...which, in addition
to mercury, emit more than 361,000 tons of
other toxins including vanadium, barium, zinc,
lead, chromium, arsenic, nickel, hydrogen
fluoride, hydrochloric acid, ammonia and
selenium.”
Seoul National University
WCU C2E2 Program
Why use Fossil Fuels? All about the Benjamins
Lewis, N. MRS Bulletin 2007, 32, 808
Seoul National University
WCU C2E2 Program
Illustration of the Energy Landscape
MRS Bulletin (2008)
Seoul National University
WCU C2E2 Program
Green Buildings: A Solution to Energy Demand
http://convergence.ucsb.edu/files/articles/building-better-buildings/building-blowup.jpg
Seoul National University
WCU C2E2 Program
Green Buildings: Integrated Solutions
Siting and structure design efficiency
Materials efficiency
Indoor environmental
quality enhancement
Energy efficiency
Operations and
maintenance
optimization
Water efficiency
Waste reduction
Seoul National University
WCU C2E2 Program
Green Buildings
Siting and structure design efficiency
See also: Sustainable design
The foundation of any construction project is rooted in the concept and design stages. The concept stage, in fact, is one of the
major steps in a project life cycle, as it has the largest impact on cost and performance.[8] In designing environmentally optimal
buildings, the objective function aims at minimizing the total environmental impact associated with all life-cycle stages of the
building project. However, building as a process is not as streamlined as an industrial process, and varies from one building to
the other, never repeating itself identically. In addition, buildings are much more complex products, composed of a multitude
of materials and components each constituting various design variables to be decided at the design stage. A variation of every
design variable may affect the environment during all the building's relevant life-cycle stages.[9]
Energy efficiency
Main articles: Low-energy house and Zero-energy building
Green buildings often include measures to reduce energy use. To increase the efficiency of the building envelope, (the barrier
between conditioned and unconditioned space), they may use high-efficiency windows and insulation in walls, ceilings, and floors.
Another strategy, passive solar building design, is often implemented in low-energy homes. Designers orient windows and walls and
place awnings, porches, and trees[10] to shade windows and roofs during the summer while maximizing solar gain in the winter. In
addition, effective window placement (daylighting) can provide more natural light and lessen the need for electric lighting during the
day. Solar water heating further reduces energy loads.
Onsite generation of renewable energy through solar power, wind power, hydro power, or biomass can significantly reduce the
environmental impact of the building. Power generation is generally the most expensive feature to add to a building.
Water efficiency
Reducing water consumption and protecting water quality are key objectives in sustainable building. One critical issue of water
consumption is that in many areas, the demands on the supplying aquifer exceed its ability to replenish itself. To the maximum
extent feasible, facilities should increase their dependence on water that is collected, used, purified, and reused on-site. The
protection and conservation of water throughout the life of a building may be accomplished by designing for dual plumbing that
recycles water in toilet flushing. Waste-water may be minimized by utilizing water conserving fixtures such as ultra-low flush toilets
and low-flow shower heads. Bidets help eliminate the use of toilet paper, reducing sewer traffic and increasing possibilities of reusing water on-site. Point of use water treatment and heating improves both water quality and energy efficiency while reducing the
amount of water in circulation. The use of non-sewage and greywater for on-site use such as site-irrigation will minimize demands
on the local aquifer.[11]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_building
Seoul National University
WCU C2E2 Program
Green Buildings
Materials efficiency
See also: Sustainable architecture
Building materials typically considered to be 'green' include rapidly renewable plant materials like bamboo (because bamboo grows quickly)
and straw, lumber from forests certified to be sustainably managed, ecology blocks, dimension stone, recycled stone, recycled metal, and
other products that are non-toxic, reusable, renewable, and/or recyclable (e.g. Trass, Linoleum, sheep wool, panels made from paper flakes,
compressed earth block, adobe, baked earth, rammed earth, clay, vermiculite, flax linen, sisal, seagrass, cork, expanded clay grains,
coconut, wood fibre plates, calcium sand stone, concrete (high and ultra high performance, roman self-healing concrete[12]) , etc.[13][14]) The
EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) also suggests using recycled industrial goods, such as coal combustion products, foundry sand, and
demolition debris in construction projects [15] Building materials should be extracted and manufactured locally to the building site to
minimize the energy embedded in their transportation. Where possible, building elements should be manufactured off-site and delivered to
site, to maximise benefits of off-site manufacture including minimising waste, maximising recycling (because manufacture is in one
location), high quality elements, better OHS management, less noise and dust.
Indoor environmental quality enhancement
See also: Indoor Air Quality
The Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ) category in LEED standards, one of the five environmental categories, was created to provide
comfort, well-being, and productivity of occupants. The LEED IEQ category addresses design and construction guidelines especially: indoor
air quality (IAQ), thermal quality, and lighting quality.[16]
Indoor Air Quality seeks to reduce volatile organic compounds, or VOC's, and other air impurities such as microbial contaminants.
Buildings rely on a properly designed HVAC system to provide adequate ventilation and air filtration as well as isolate operations (kitchens,
dry cleaners, etc.) from other occupancies. During the design and construction process choosing construction materials and interior finish
products with zero or low emissions will improve IAQ. Many building materials and cleaning/maintenance products emit toxic gases, such
as VOC's and formaldehyde. These gases can have a detrimental impact on occupants' health and productivity as well. Avoiding these
products will increase a building's IEQ.
Personal temperature and airflow control over the HVAC system coupled with a properly designed building envelope will also aid in
increasing a building's thermal quality. Creating a high performance luminous environment through the careful integration of natural and
artificial light sources will improve on the lighting quality of a structure.[11][17]
Seoul National University
WCU C2E2 Program
Green Buildings
Operations and maintenance optimization
No matter how sustainable a building may have been in its design and construction, it can only remain so if it is operated responsibly and
maintained properly. Ensuring operations and maintenance(O&M) personnel are part of the project's planning and development process
will help retain the green criteria designed at the onset of the project.[18] Every aspect of green building is integrated into the O&M phase
of a building's life. The addition of new green technologies also falls on the O&M staff. Although the goal of waste reduction may be
applied during the design, construction and demolition phases of a building's life-cycle, it is in the O&M phase that green practices such
as recycling and air quality enhancement take place.
Waste reduction
Green architecture also seeks to reduce waste of energy, water and materials used during construction. For example, in California nearly
60% of the state's waste comes from commercial buildings[19] During the construction phase, one goal should be to reduce the amount of
material going to landfills. Well-designed buildings also help reduce the amount of waste generated by the occupants as well, by providing
on-site solutions such as compost bins to reduce matter going to landfills.
To reduce the impact on wells or water treatment plants, several options exist. "Greywater", wastewater from sources such as dishwashing
or washing machines, can be used for subsurface irrigation, or if treated, for non-potable purposes, e.g., to flush toilets and wash cars.
Rainwater collectors are used for similar purposes.
Centralized wastewater treatment systems can be costly and use a lot of energy. An alternative to this process is converting waste and
wastewater into fertilizer, which avoids these costs and shows other benefits. By collecting human waste at the source and running it to a
semi-centralized biogas plant with other biological waste, liquid fertilizer can be produced. This concept was demonstrated by a settlement
in Lubeck Germany in the late 1990s. Practices like these provide soil with organic nutrients and create carbon sinks that remove carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere, offsetting greenhouse gas emission. Producing artificial fertilizer is also more costly in energy than this
process.[20]
Energy Supply Text Sources:
1. Chrisitan Science Monitor, "In Bid to Cut Mercury, US Lets Other Toxins Through", www.csmonitor.com/2005/0331/p13s01-sten.html;
2. Energy Information Administration, www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/ieo/index.html;
References: BP Statistical Review of World Energy, www.bp.com; www.currentconcerns.ch; www.dieoff.org; www.hubbertpeak.com; Association for the Study
of Peak Oil, www.peakoil.net; The 'Oil & Gas Journal, http://ogj.pennnet.com/home.cfmwww.greatchange.org
Seoul National University
WCU C2E2 Program
Energy as a Commodity
Coal: cheapest fuel to extract (from surface mining)
inexpensive to store and transport within-between continents
difficult to use cleanly and efficiently; used mainly as electric utility fuel
Oil: more expensive to recover, easily transported (and spilled!) by pipeline and
supertanker, exclusive fuel for transportation, next substitute for electricity
in place of coal
Gas: recovered from wells, highest price because of greater cost of recovery, not
easily shipped, or stored, widely used because of ease of use, efficiency and
cleanliness
Oil and gas have higher energy densities (~46 MJ/kg & 53.6 MJ/kg)
Compared to coal (~15-30 MJ/kg) and wood (18 MJ/kg)
Seoul National University
WCU C2E2 Program
Petroleum Supermajors: “Big Oil”
Seoul National University
WCU C2E2 Program
Big Oil and the Environment
Exxon Valdez Oil Spill
11-32 million gallons of oil spilled into the
Prince William Sound
Initially $5 billion in damages reduced to ~
$500 million; significant amt of clean up
covered by insurnace
Exxon Revenue (2009) ~ $310 billion
^ Bandurka, Andrew; Sloane, Simon (March 10, 2005). "Exxon Valdez – D. G. Syndicate 745 vs. Brandywine Reinsurance
Company (UK) - Summary of the Court of Appeal Judgment". Holman Fenwick & Willan.
http://www.hfw.com/l3/new/newl3a100305.html. Retrieved March 10, 2008.
^ "Exxon Corporation 1993 Form 10-K". EDGAR. U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. March 11, 1994.
http://yahoo.brand.edgar-online.com/fetchFilingFrameset.aspx?FilingID=512563&Type=HTML. Retrieved March 10, 2008.
Shell in Magdalena, Argentina - freshwater contamination
Shell was responsible for the largest oil spill that has ever occurred in freshwater in
the world. On January 15, 1999, a Shell tank ship in Magdalena, Argentina collided
with another tanker, emptying its contents into the lake, polluting the environment,
drinkable water, plants and animals. 5.4 million liters of oil spilled into Lake De Plata.
Royal Dutch Shell (2009) ~ $278 billion
Macalister, Terry (2007-01-31). "Campaigners urge Shell to put profits into clean-up". Business (Guardian News and Media Limited).
http://business.guardian.co.uk/story/0,,2002276,00.html. Retrieved 2007-08-30.
Deepwater Horizon-Gulf of Mexico
Largest spill in history of petroleum
Industry. Estimated 4 million barrels
(180 million gallons)
BP $20 billion spill response fund
$23 billion loss to tourism industry
Proctor, Carleton (2010-08-01). "Big price tag for
recovery of Gulf Coast". Pensacola News Journal.
http://www.pnj.com/article/20100801/BUSINESS/8010
313/Carlton-Procter-Big-price-tag-for-recovery-of-GulfCoast. Retrieved 2010-08-01.
Weisman, Jonathan; Chazan, Guy (2010-06-16). "BP Halts
Dividend, Agrees to $20 Billion Fund for Victims". The Wall
Street Journal (Dow Jones & Company).
http://online.wsj.com/article/SB1000142405274870419800
4575310571698602094.html. Retrieved 2010-06-16.
Royal Dutch Shell (2009) ~ $246 billion
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deepwater_Horizon_oil_spill
Seoul National University
WCU C2E2 Program
Big Oil and the Environment
Environmental damage in Ecuador
From 1965 to 1993, Texaco operated development of the Lago Agrio oil field in
Ecuador. Chevron is now being sued for extensive environmental damage caused by
these operations. An Ecuadorian court could impose a legal penalty of up to $28
billion in a class action lawsuit filed on behalf of Amazonian villagers in the region.
Chevron claims that agreements with the Ecuadorian Government exempt the
company from any liabilities
Chevron Corporation 2008 Annual Shareholders' Report.
Chevron (2009) ~ $275 billion
CononcoPhillips (2008) ~ $246 billion
Total SA (2009) ~ €131 billion
Seoul National University
WCU C2E2 Program
What is Crude Oil?
Greated than 80% is converted directly
into primary fuels
Heavy vs. Light oil
on the viscosity of mixture, light oils
better for gasoline productions
Sweet vs Sour oil
on content of sulfur and sulfur
derivatives (e.g., SOx)
http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/kids/energy.cfm?page=oil_home-basics
Petroleum is a mixture of a very large number of different hydrocarbons; the most
commonly found molecules are alkanes (linear or branched), cycloalkanes, aromatic
hydrocarbons, or more complicated chemicals like asphaltenes. Each petroleum variety
has a unique mix of molecules, which define its physical and chemical properties, like
color and viscosity.
The alkanes, also known as paraffins, are saturated hydrocarbons with straight or
branched chains which contain only carbon and hydrogen and have the general
formula CnH2n+2. They generally have from 5 to 40 carbon atoms per molecule,
although trace amounts of shorter or longer molecules may be present in the
mixture. The alkanes from pentane (C5H12) to octane (C8H18) are refined into
gasoline (petrol), the ones from nonane (C9H20) to hexadecane (C16H34) into diesel
fuel and kerosene (primary component of many types of jet fuel), and the ones
from hexadecane upwards into fuel oil and lubricating oil. At the heavier end of
the range, paraffin wax is an alkane with approximately 25 carbon atoms, while
asphalt has 35 and up, although these are usually cracked by modern refineries
into more valuable products. The shortest molecules, those with four or fewer
carbon atoms, are in a gaseous state at room temperature. They are the
petroleum gases. Depending on demand and the cost of recovery, these gases are
either flared off, sold as liquified petroleum gas under pressure, or used to power
the refinery's own burners.
The cycloalkanes, also known as naphthenes, are saturated hydrocarbons
which have one or more carbon rings to which hydrogen atoms are attached
according to the formula CnH2n. Cycloalkanes have similar properties to
alkanes but have higher boiling points.
The aromatic hydrocarbons are unsaturated hydrocarbons which have one or
more planar six-carbon rings called benzene rings, to which hydrogen atoms
are attached with the formula CnHn.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum
Seoul National University
WCU C2E2 Program
Refining of Crude Oil
Separation
Heavy petroleum components or "fractions" are on
the bottom; light fractions are on the top. This
difference in weights allows the separation of the
various petrochemicals. Modern separation involves
piping oil through hot furnaces. The resulting liquids
and vapors are discharged into distillation towers.
Conversion
Cracking and rearranging molecules takes a heavy, lowvalued feedstock — often itself the output from an
earlier process — and change it into lighter, highervalued output such as gasoline.
The most widely used conversion method is called
cracking because it uses heat and pressure to "crack"
heavy hydrocarbon molecules into lighter ones.
Cracking and coking are not the only forms of
conversion.
Alkylation, for example, makes gasoline components by
combining some of the gaseous byproducts of cracking.
The process, which essentially is cracking in reverse
Reforming uses heat, moderate pressure, and catalysts
to turn naphtha, a light, relatively low-value fraction,
into high-octane gasoline components.
http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/kids/energy.cfm?page=oil_home-basics
Treatment
The finishing touches occur during the final treatment. To make gasoline, refinery technicians carefully
combine a variety of streams from the processing units. Among the variables that determine the blend are
octane level, vapor pressure ratings and special considerations, such as whether the gasoline will be used at
high altitudes.
Seoul National University
WCU C2E2 Program
What is Coal?
http://www.need.org/needpdf/infobook_activities/SecInfo/CoalS.pdf
Seoul National University
WCU C2E2 Program
Elemental Composition
C
65-95%
H
2-7%
O
<25%
S
<10%
Proximate Analysis
Coal – what is it?
Char 20-70%
N
1-2%
Ash
5-15%
H2O
2-20%
VM
20-45%
• Inhomogeneous organic fuel
formed mainly from
decomposed plant matter.
• Over 1200 coals have been
classified.
• Coalification forms different
coal types:
(Peat)
Lignite
Temperature
Bituminous coal Time,Coal
Rank
Anthracite
(Graphite)
Classifications and Features of Coal
www.teachcoal.org/aboutcoal/articles/coaljourney
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subbituminous_coal
www.teachcoal.org/images/aboutcoal/subbituminous.jpg
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bituminous_coal
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthracite
Higher C-content
Energy content
More “graphitic”
Seoul National University
WCU C2E2 Program
Coal Sources and Relative Abundance
• Coal is the world’s most plentiful fossil fuel.
• Recoverable world coal reserves are estimated at about
1X1012 tons.
7%
5%
United States
32%
7%
Russia
China
8%
Australia
Germany
12%
South Africa
Poland
29%
Seoul National University
WCU C2E2 Program
Coal Sources and Relative Abundance
• Residential & Commercial
Building
• Transportation – steam
engines
• Industry – metal works
• Electricity – power plants
jcwinnie.biz/wordpress/?p=2731
Seoul National University
ogdencameraclub.blogspot.com/
www.homeheatingireland.com/
WCU C2E2 Program
Coal Combustion Air Pollutants
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
CO2
CO
NOx
SOx
Particulate matter
Trace metals
Organic compounds
www.coal-is-dirty.com/.../coal-pollution
Chemical Schematic for the “Coal Macromolecule”
http://www.et.byu.edu/~tom/Papers/Hambly_Thesis.pdf
Solomon et al. Energy and Fuels 1988, 2, 405
Low grade coal material: after “coking” higher aromatic content
Seoul National University
WCU C2E2 Program
Coal Mining Practices and Hazards
There are two ways to remove coal from the ground—surface and
underground mining. Surface mining is used when a coal seam is
relatively close to the surface, usually within 200 feet. The first
step in surface mining is to remove and store the soil and rock
covering the coal, called the overburden. Workers use a variety of
equipment— draglines, power shovels, bulldozers, and front-end
loaders—to expose the coal seam for mining.
Underground (or deep) mining is used when the coal seam is
buried several hundred feet below the surface. In underground
mining, workers and machinery go down a vertical shaft or a
slanted tunnel called a slope to remove the coal. Mine shafts may
sink as deep as 1,000 feet.
One method of underground mining is called room-and-pillar
mining. With this method, much of the coal must be left behind
to support the mine’s roofs and walls. Sometimes as much as half
the coal is left behind in large column formations to keep the
mine from collapsing.
A more efficient and safer underground mining method, called
longwall mining, uses a specially shielded machine that allows a
mined-out area to collapse in a controlled manner. This method is
called longwall mining because huge blocks of coal up to several
hundred feet wide can be removed.
Seoul National University
Mining Hazards:
1) Structural collapse
2) Chronic illness (black lung)
3) Suffocation-gas poisoning
4) Fire/explosion
5) Dust-particulate explosions
WCU C2E2 Program
Coal Consumption of Energy
How Coal Is Used
The main use of coal in the United States is to
generate electricity. In 2008, 92.9 percent of all the
coal in the United States is used for electricity
production. Coal generates almost half of the
electricity used in the U.S. Other energy sources used
to generate electricity include uranium (nuclear
power), hydropower, natural gas, biomass, and wind.
Another major use of coal is in iron and steelmaking.
The iron industry uses coke ovens to melt iron ore.
Coke, an almost pure carbon residue of coal, is used
as a fuel in smelting metals. The United States has
the finest coking coals in the world. These coals are
shipped around the world for use in coke ovens. Coal
is also used by other industries. The paper, brick,
limestone, and cement industries all use coal to
make products.
Coal is no longer a major energy source for heating
American homes or other buildings. Less than half of
one percent of the coal produced in the U.S. today is
used for heating. Coal furnaces, which were popular
years ago, have largely been replaced by oil or gas
furnaces or by electric heat pumps.
Seoul National University
WCU C2E2 Program
How is Coal Utilized for Energy?
Releasing Coal's Energy
The process of converting coal into electricity
has multiple steps and is similar to the process
used to convert oil and natural gas into
electricity:
1) A machine called a pulverizer grinds the
coal into a fine powder.
2) The coal powder mixes with hot air, which
helps the coal burn more efficiently, and the
mixture moves to the furnace.
3) The burning coal heats water in a boiler,
creating steam.
4) Steam released from the boiler powers an
engine called a turbine, transforming heat
energy from burning coal into mechanical
energy that spins the turbine engine.
5) The spinning turbine is used to power a
generator, a machine that turns mechanical
energy into electric energy. This happens when
magnets inside a copper coil in the generator
spin.
6) A condenser cools the steam moving
through the turbine. As the steam is
condensed, it turns back into water.
7) The water returns to the boiler, and the
cycle begins again
Seoul National University
http://www.thebluemarble.org/images/content/cleancoal2.jpg
http://www.teachcoal.org/aboutcoal/articles/coalconvert.html
WCU C2E2 Program
What is a steam turbine?
A steam turbine is a mechanical device that extracts thermal energy
from pressurized steam, and converts it into rotary motion. Its modern
manifestation was invented by Sir Charles Parsons in 1884.[1]
It has almost completely replaced the reciprocating piston steam
engine primarily because of its greater thermal efficiency and higher
power-to-weight ratio. Because the turbine generates rotary motion, it
is particularly suited to be used to drive an electrical generator – about
80% of all electricity generation in the world is by use of steam
turbines. The steam turbine is a form of heat engine that derives much
of its improvement in thermodynamic efficiency through the use of
multiple stages in the expansion of the steam, which results in a closer
approach to the ideal reversible process. 88% of all electricity in US
generated from steam turbines
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_turbine
Whereas Hero's steam turbine called for steam to be jetted from the
perimeter of the object to be rotated, early 19th century engineers
proposed directing steam straight onto blades attached to the
perimeter of a wheel. However, steel was not yet strong enough to
hold up to the stress of such rapid rotation. In 1884, British engineer
Charles Algernon Parsons put new steel technology to use. He created
a turbine capable of using compounded steam that turned a dynamo
at 18,000 revolutions a minute. In 1890, his steam turbine and
accompanying electric generator were installed in the Forth Banks
power station. The technology soon spread through Europe.
Modern turbines use supercritical steam (at very high temp, pressure,
steam is liquid-like again) to generate sufficient number of revolutions
For efficient power generation.
http://science.howstuffworks.com/electricity.htm
Seoul National University
WCU C2E2 Program
What is an electrical generator?
In electricity generation, an electric generator
is a device that converts mechanical energy to
electrical energy. The reverse conversion of
electrical energy into mechanical energy is
done by a motor; motors and generators have
many similarities. A generator forces electrons
in the windings to flow through the external
electrical circuit. It is somewhat analogous to a
water pump, which creates a flow of water but
does not create the water inside. The source of
mechanical energy may be a reciprocating or
turbine steam engine, water falling through a
turbine or waterwheel, an internal combustion
engine, a wind turbine, a hand crank,
compressed air or any other source of
mechanical energy.
Seoul National University
WCU C2E2 Program
Chemical Feedstocks from Coal
“syngas” = synthetic gas = mixture of
gases from CO + H2
Direct utilization of syngas
Methanol, formaldehyde
Fischer-Tropsch Process
Production of liquid hydrocarbons from
syngas
n CO + (1 + 2n)H2
Cn H2n+2 + n H2O
Generation of liquid fuels from coal!
Seoul National University
WCU C2E2 Program
Environmental Concerns from Coal
Environmental Concerns
The major disadvantage of using coal as a fuel or raw material is its potential to pollute the environment in
both production and consumption. This is the reason why many coal-producing countries, such as the United
States, have long had laws that regulate coal mining and set minimum standards for both surface and
underground mining. Coal production requires mining in either surface (strip) or underground mines. Surface
mining leaves pits upon coal removal, and to prevent soil erosion and an unsightly environment, operators
must reclaim the land, that is, fill in the pits and replant the soil. Acid mine water is the environmental
problem associated with underground mining. Water that seeps into the mines, sometimes flooding them,
and atmospheric oxygen react with pyrite (iron sulfide) in the coal, producing acid mine water. When pumped
out of the mine and into nearby rivers, streams, or lakes, the mine water acidifies them. Neutralizing the mine
water with lime and allowing it to settle, thus reducing the presence of iron pyrite before its release, controls
the acid drainage.
Coal combustion emits sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, both of which cause acid rain . Several methods
will remove or reduce the amount of sulfur present in many coals or prevent its release into the atmosphere.
Washing the coal before combustion removes pyritic sulfur (sulfur combined with iron or other elements).
Burning the coal in an advanced-design burner known as a fluidized bed combustor, in which limestone
added to coal combines with sulfur in the combustion process, prevents sulfur dioxide from forming.
Scrubbing the smoke released in the combustion removes the sulfur dioxide before it passes into the
atmosphere. In a scrubber, spraying limestone and water into the smoke enables the limestone to absorb
sulfur dioxide and remove it in the form of a wet sludge. Improved clean coal technologies inject dry
limestone into the pipes leading from the plant's boiler and remove sulfur dioxide as a dry powder (CaSO 3 )
rather than a wet sludge. Scrubbing does not remove nitrogen oxides, but coal washing and fluidized bed
combustors that operate at a lower temperature than older plant boilers reduce the amount of nitrogen
oxides produced and hence the amount emitted.
http://www.chemistryexplained.com/Ce-Co/Coal.html
Seoul National University
WCU C2E2 Program
Acid Rain Origins and Effects
Acid rain is a rain or any other form of precipitation that
is unusually acidic, i.e. elevated levels of hydrogen ions
(low pH). It can have harmful effects on plants, aquatic
animals, and infrastructure through the process of wet
deposition. Acid rain is caused by emissions of
compounds of ammonium, carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur
which react with the water molecules in the atmosphere
to produce acids.
Gas phase chemistry
In the gas phase sulfur dioxide is oxidized by reaction with
the hydroxyl radical via an intermolecular reaction [5]:
SO2 + OH· → HOSO2· which is followed by:
HOSO2· + O2 → HO2· + SO3 In the presence of water, sulfur
trioxide (SO3) is converted rapidly to sulfuric acid:
SO3 (g) + H2O (l) → H2SO4 (l) Nitrogen dioxide reacts with OH
to form nitric acid:
NO2 + OH· → HNO3
Chemistry in cloud droplets
When clouds are present, the loss rate of SO2 is faster than
can be explained by gas phase chemistry alone. This is due to
reactions in the liquid water droplets.
Hydrolysis Sulfur dioxide dissolves in water and then, like
carbon dioxide, hydrolyses in a series of equilibrium
reactions:
SO2 (g) + H2O SO2·H2O SO2·H2O H+ + HSO3− HSO3− H+ + SO32−
http://www.epa.gov/acidrain/images/origins.gif
Jizera Mountains, Czech Republic
Gavin Power Plant, OH
Prevention: use of “scrubbers” for desulfurization
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rain
Seoul National University
WCU C2E2 Program
Global Natural Gas Production
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Natural_gas_production_world.PNG
Seoul National University
WCU C2E2 Program
How is Natural Gas Found & Extracted
Seoul National University
WCU C2E2 Program
How is Natural Gas Found & Extracted
The search for natural gas begins with geologists, who study
the structure and processes of the Earth. They locate the
types of rock that are likely to contain gas and oil deposits.
Today, geologists' tools include seismic surveys that are used
to find the right places to drill wells. Seismic surveys use
echoes from a vibration source at the Earth’s surface (usually
a vibrating pad under a truck built for this purpose) to collect
information about the rocks beneath. Sometimes it is
necessary to use small amounts of dynamite to provide the
vibration that is needed.
Gas extraction achieved by digging wells often where
Other oil deposits are found
http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/energy.cfm?page=natural_gas_home-basics
http://www.ehow.com/how-does_4900022_natural-gas-extracted-processed-refined.html
Seoul National University
WCU C2E2 Program
Natural Gas Production-Transmission-Distribution
Gas pipelines in Alaska
Seoul National University
WCU C2E2 Program
Hydraulic Fracturing and Natural Gas
Hydraulic fracturing (called "frac jobs"[1] or
"frac'ing" in the industry[2][3][4] and recently,
"fracking" by the media) is a process that results in
the creation of fractures in rocks, the goal of which
is to increase the output of a well. The most
important industrial use is in stimulating oil and gas
wells, where hydraulic fracturing has been used for
over 60 years in more than one million wells. On the
other hand, high-volume horizontal slickwater
fracturing is a recent phenomenon. The fracturing is
done from a wellbore drilled into reservoir rock
formations to enhance oil and natural gas recovery.
As estimated 90% of the natural gas wells in the
US use hydraulic fracturing to produce gas at
economic rates.
In April 2010 the state of Pennsylvania banned
Cabot Oil & Gas Corp. from further drilling in the
entire state until it plugs wells believed to be the
source of contamination of the drinking water of
14 homes in Dimock Township PA. The
investigation was initiated after a water well
exploded on New Year's Day in 2009. The state
investigation revealed that Cabot Oil & Gas
Company "had allowed combustible gas to escape
into the region's groundwater supplies."[22]
Seoul National University
www.allaroundthehouse.com/lib.vw.w8.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydraulic_fracturing
WCU C2E2 Program
Hydraulic Fracturing in Eastern Pennsylvania-US
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TwT_H9XD
YQQ
Seoul National University
WCU C2E2 Program
Nuclear Energy: Fission and Fusion
http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/kids/energy.cfm?page=nuclear_home-basics
Source: NASA (public domain)
In nuclear fission, atoms are split apart to form smaller atoms, releasing
energy. Nuclear power plants use this energy to produce electricity.
In nuclear fusion, energy is released when atoms are combined or fused
together to form a larger atom. This is how the sun produces energy.
Fusion is the subject of ongoing research, but it is not yet clear that it
will ever be a commercially viable technology for electricity generation.
http://atropos.as.arizona.edu/aiz/teaching/a250/pp.html
Seoul National University
WCU C2E2 Program
Nuclear Energy: Fission and FUSION
lighter elements converted to heavier elements as lighter nuclei merge
merged nucleus has less mass than starting pieces, so energy is released
even so it requires tremendous particle energies to overcome electric repulsion of protons
unlike fission, cannot occur spontaneously -- extreme physical conditions required, such as tens of millions of degrees
goal of a controlled fusion reaction, but reactor materials melt at a few thousand degrees!
http://atropos.as.arizona.edu/aiz/teaching/a250/pp.html
Seoul National University
WCU C2E2 Program
Solar Fusion Processes
http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/kids/energy.cfm?page=nuclear_home-basics
Source: NASA (public domain)
proton-proton fusion form deuterium,
positron, neutrino
Seoul National University
WCU C2E2 Program
Nuclear Energy: FISSION and Fusion
http://atropos.as.arizona.edu/aiz/teaching/a250/pp.html
Seoul National University
WCU C2E2 Program
Uranium Based Nuclear Fission Fuels
The fuel most widely used by nuclear plants for
nuclear fission is uranium. Uranium is
nonrenewable, though it is a common metal
found in rocks all over the world. Nuclear
plants use a certain kind of uranium, referred
to as U-235. This kind of uranium is used as
fuel because its atoms are easily split apart.
Though uranium is quite common, about 100
times more common than silver, U-235 is
relatively rare.
Most U.S. uranium is mined in the Western
United States. Once uranium is mined, the U235 must be extracted and processed before it
can be used as a fuel.
http://atropos.as.arizona.edu/aiz/teaching/a250/pp.html
Seoul National University
WCU C2E2 Program
Uranium Supply and Production
The worldwide production of uranium in 2009 amounted to 50,572 tonnes, of which 27.3% was mined in Kazakhstan. Other
important uranium mining countries are Canada (20.1%), Australia (15.7%), Namibia (9.1%), Russia (7.0%), and Niger (6.4%).[45]
Uranium ore is mined in several ways: by open pit, underground, in-situ leaching, and borehole mining (see uranium mining).[6]
Low-grade uranium ore mined typically contains 0.01 to 0.25% uranium oxides. Extensive measures must be employed to extract
the metal from its ore.[46] High-grade ores found in Athabasca Basin deposits in Saskatchewan, Canada can contain up to 23%
uranium oxides on average.[47] Uranium ore is crushed and rendered into a fine powder and then leached with either an acid or
alkali. The leachate is subjected to one of several sequences of precipitation, solvent extraction, and ion exchange. The resulting
mixture, called yellowcake, contains at least 75% uranium oxides. Yellowcake is then calcined to remove impurities from the
milling process before refining and conversion.[48]
Commercial-grade uranium can be produced through the reduction of uranium halides with alkali or alkaline earth metals.[8]
Uranium metal can also be prepared through electrolysis of KU5 or UF4, dissolved in molten calcium chloride (CaCl2) and sodium
chloride (NaCl) solution.[8] Very pure uranium is produced through the thermal decomposition of uranium halides on a hot
filament.[8]
Australia has 23% of the world's uranium ore reserves[54] and the world's largest single uranium deposit, located at the
Olympic Dam Mine in South Australia.[55]
It is estimated that 5.5 million tonnes of uranium ore reserves are economically viable at US$59/lb,[49] while 35 million
tonnes are classed as mineral resources (reasonable prospects for eventual economic extraction).[50] An additional 4.6 billion
tonnes of uranium are estimated to be in sea water (Japanese scientists in the 1980s showed that extraction of uranium from
sea water using ion exchangers was technically feasible).[51][52]
In 2005, seventeen countries produced concentrated uranium oxides, with Canada (27.9% of world production) and Australia
(22.8%) being the largest producers and Kazakhstan (10.5%), Russia (8.0%), Namibia (7.5%), Niger (7.4%), Uzbekistan (5.5%),
the United States (2.5%), Argentina (2.1%), Ukraine (1.9%) and China (1.7%) also producing significant amounts.[58] Kazakhstan
continues to increase production and may have become the world's largest producer of uranium by last year (2009) with an
expected production of 12,826 tonnes, compared to Canada with 11,100 tonnes and Australia with 9,430 tonnes.[59][60]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium
Seoul National University
WCU C2E2 Program
What is the Uranium Enrichment Process?
Natural abundance of 238U (99.284), 235U (0.711)
For energy applications, enrichment levels of 3-5% 235U sufficient
For nuclear weapons, ~80% enrichment needed
Most common forms of uranium oxide (UO2, U3O8)
At room temperatures, UF6 has a high vapor pressure, making it useful in the gaseous diffusion
process to separate uranium-235 from the common uranium-238 isotope. This compound can be
prepared from uranium dioxide and uranium hydride by the following process:[67]
UO2 + 4 HF → UF4 + 2 H2O (500 °C, endothermic)
UF4 + F2 → UF6 (350 °C, endothermic
The resulting UF6, a white solid, is highly reactive (by fluorination), easily sublimes (emitting a nearly
perfect gas vapor), and is the most volatile compound of uranium known to exist.[67]
Isolation of enriched UF6 achieved by separation methods: centrifugation common
The Zippe centrifuge is an improvement on the standard gas centrifuge, the
primary difference being the use of heat. The bottom of the rotating cylinders is
heated, producing convection currents that move the 235U up the cylinder, where it
can be collected by scoops. This improved centrifuge design is used commercially
by Urenco to produce nuclear fuel and was used by Pakistan in their nuclear
weapons program.
U3O8 → UF6 → enrichment → UO2 for fuel
BUT, many different forms of nuclear fuel: uranium nitrides, mixed
oxides, metallic alloys (UrZrH), carbides, molten salts
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium
Seoul National University
WCU C2E2 Program
Boiling Water Nuclear Reactor
The heat given off during fission in the reactor core is used to boil
water into steam, which turns the turbine blades. As they turn, they
drive generators that make electricity. Afterward, the steam is cooled
back into water in a separate structure at the power plant called a
cooling tower. The water can be used again and again.
In a typical commercial boiling water reactor
(1) the reactor core creates heat, (2) a steamwater mixture is produced when very pure
water (reactor coolant) moves upward through
the core absorbing heat, (3) the steam-water
mixture leaves the top of the core and enters
the two stages of moisture separation where
water droplets are removed before the steam
is allowed to enter the steam line, (4) the
steam line directs the steam to the main
turbine causing it to turn the turbine generator,
which produces electricity. The unused steam
is exhausted to the condenser where it is
condensed into water. The resulting water is
pumped out of the condenser with a series of
pumps, reheated, and pumped back to the
reactor vessel. The reactor's core contains fuel
assemblies which are cooled by water, which is
force-circulated by electrically powered pumps.
Emergency cooling water is supplied by other
pumps which can be powered by onsite diesel
generators. Other safety systems, such as the
containment cooling system, also need electric
power.
http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/nuclear/page/nuc_reactors/bwr.html
Seoul National University
WCU C2E2 Program
Pressurized “Light Water” Nuclear Reactor
(1) the reactor core generates heat, (2) pressurized-water in the primary coolant loop carries the heat to the
steam generator, (3) inside the steam generator heat from the primary coolant loop vaporizes the water in a
secondary loop producing steam, (4) the steam line directs the steam to the main turbine causing it to turn
the turbine generator, which produces electricity. The unused steam is exhausted to the condenser where it
is condensed into water. The resulting water is pumped out of the condenser with a series of pumps,
reheated, and pumped back to the steam generator. The reactors core contains fuel assemblies which are
cooled by water, which is force-circulated by electrically powered pumps. Emergency cooling water is
supplied by other pumps, which can be powered by onsite diesel generators. Other safety systems, such as
the containment cooling system, also need power.
http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/nuclear/page/nuc_reactors/pwr.html
Seoul National University
WCU C2E2 Program
Nuclear Fuel: Uranium for Nuclear Fission
Most of Our Uranium Is Imported
Owners and operators of U.S. civilian nuclear power reactors
purchased the equivalent of 53 million pounds of uranium during
2008. Uranium delivered to U.S. reactors in 2008 came from six
continents:
14% of delivered uranium came from the United States
86% of delivered uranium was of foreign-origin:
42% was from Australia and Canada
33% originated in Kazakhstan, Russia and Uzbekistan
11% came from Brazil, Czech Republic, Namibia, Niger, South
Africa, and the United Kingdom
Seoul National University
Uranium is nonrenewable, though it is a common metal
found in rocks all over the world. Uranium occurs in
nature in combination with small amounts of other
elements.
Nuclear plants use a certain kind of uranium, U-235, as
fuel because its atoms are easily split apart. Though
uranium is quite common, about 100 times more common
than silver, U-235 is relatively rare.
Economically recoverable uranium deposits have been
discovered principally in the western United States,
Australia, Canada, Africa, and South America. Once
uranium is mined, the U-235 must be extracted and
processed before it can be used as a fuel. Mined uranium
ore typically yields one to four pounds of uranium
concentrate (U3O8 or "yellowcake") per ton, or 0.05% to
0.20% U3O8. The Nuclear Fuel Cycle describes uranium
processing in more detail.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium
WCU C2E2 Program
Waste Management Issues with Nuclear
Radioactive wastes are classified as low-level and high-level. The radioactivity in these wastes can range
from just above natural background levels, as in mill tailings, to much higher levels, such as in spent
reactor fuel or the parts inside a nuclear reactor. The radioactivity of nuclear waste decreases with the
passage of time through a process called radioactive decay. The amount of time necessary to decrease the
radioactivity of radioactive material to one-half the original level is called the radioactive half-life of the
material. Radioactive waste with a short half-life is often stored temporarily before disposal in order to
reduce potential radiation doses to workers who handle and transport the waste, as well as to reduce the
radiation levels at disposal sites.
Hannes Alfvén, Nobel laureate in physics, described the as yet unsolved dilemma of high-level radioactive
waste management: "The problem is how to keep radioactive waste in storage until it decays after hundreds of
thousands of years. The geologic deposit must be absolutely reliable as the quantities of poison are
tremendous. It is very difficult to satisfy these requirements for the simple reason that we have had no
practical experience with such a long term project. Moreover permanently guarded storage requires a society
with unprecedented stability."[8]
High-level radioactive waste management concerns management and disposal of highly radioactive
materials created during production of nuclear power and nuclear warheads. The technical issues in
accomplishing this are daunting, due to the extremely long periods radioactive wastes remain deadly to
living organisms. Of particular concern are two long-lived fission products, Technetium-99 (half-life 220,000
years) and Iodine-129 (half-life 15.7 million years),[1] which dominate spent nuclear fuel radioactivity after a
few thousand years. The most troublesome transuranic elements in spent fuel are Neptunium-237 (half-life
two million years) and Plutonium-239 (half-life 24,000 years).[2]
Seoul National University
WCU C2E2 Program
Waste Management Issues with Nuclear: Geologic Disposal Sites
Geologic disposal
The process of selecting appropriate
permanent repositories for high level waste
and spent fuel is now under way in several
countries with the first expected to be
commissioned some time after 2017.[18]
The basic concept is to locate a large, stable
geologic formation and use mining
technology to excavate a tunnel, or largebore tunnel boring machines (similar to
those used to drill the Chunnel from
England to France) to drill a shaft 500–
1,000 meters below the surface where
rooms or vaults can be excavated for
disposal of high-level radioactive waste.
Seoul National University
WCU C2E2 Program
Three Mile Island Nuclear Accident: Partial Meltdown
“meltdown” refers to an accident where
the reactor core ceases to be properly cooled
to the extent that the sealed nuclear fuel
assemblies – which contain the uranium or
plutonium and radioactive fission products –
begin to overheat and melt. This can cause
undesirable release of radioactive materials
into the environment
Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating
Station in Dauphin County,
Pennsylvania near Harrisburg.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Mile_Island_accident
Seoul National University
WCU C2E2 Program
Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Disaster
Your Assignment:
Read up on the causes of the
Disaster (on-line resources)
How does this differ than earlier
incidents?
What lessons were (re)learned?
Seoul National University
WCU C2E2 Program
Seoul National University
WCU C2E2 Program
References
• Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, AP-42,
Fifth Edition, Volume I: Stationary Point and Area
Sources (http://www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/ap42/ch01/).
• “Fundamentals of coal combustion: for clean and
efficient use”, edited by L. Douglas Smoot, Elsevier
Science Publishers, 1993.
• Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, Shanton 54, 2003
(http://www.cbs.gov.il).