LAYSI
A
RAWAK
SA
IVE RSIT
N
U
I
MA
Faculty of Economics and Business
UN
I M AS
Faculty of Economics and Business
CONSUMER PERCEPTIONS TOWARDS SALES PROMOTION
TOOLS APPLIED BY HYPERMARKET IN KUCHING
Chai Fang Fang
Bachelor of Business with Honours
(Marketing)
2009
CONSUMER PERCEPTIONS TOWARDS SALES PROMOTION TOOLS
APPLIED BY HYPERMARKET IN KUCHING
CHAI FANG FANG
This project is submitted in partial fulfilment of
the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Business with Honours
(Marketing)
Faculty of Economics and Business
UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SARAWAK
2009
Statement of Originality
The work described in this Final Year Project, entitled
“Consumer Perceptions towards Sales Promotion Tools Applied by Hypermarket in
Kuching”
is to the best of the author’s knowledge that of the author except
where due reference is made.
20th April 2009
Date
Chai Fang Fang
16049
ABSTRACT
CONSUMER PERCEPTIONS TOWARDS SALES PROMOTION TOOLS
APPLIED BY HYPERMARKET IN KUCHING
By
Chai Fang Fang
Sales promotion has been constantly growing since the 1960’s and today, it is one of
the key factors in the promotional mix. Since the hypermarket format is very new in
Kuching retail industry, the choice of appropriate sales promotion tools is important
decisions for the retailers. The purpose of this study is to provide a general
understanding on consumer hypermarket shopping behaviour in Kuching. This study
identifies the consumer segments that visit the hypermarket in Kuching, the sales
promotion tool that is favoured most when applied in the hypermarket format, and
the effects of seven sales promotion tools, namely sample, coupon, cash refund offer,
price-off, premium, patronage reward, and contest and sweepstake on consumers’
purchase intentions. The data base comprising a total of 285 hypermarket consumers
in Kuching, Sarawak were surveyed using structured questionnaire. The results show
that price-off is the most favoured sales promotion tool but it does not have any
effect on consumes’ purchase intentions. Cash refund offer, coupon, premium, and
contest and sweepstake are associated with consumers’ purchase intentions. Details
of the findings and the implications are discussed.
iv
ABSTRAK
PERSEPSI PELAGGAN TERHADAP ALAT PROMOSI JUALAN YANG
DIGUNAKAN OLEH PASAR RAYA BESAR
Oleh
Chai Fang Fang
Promosi jualan telah berkembang sejak tahun 1960an. Kini, ia merupakan salah satu
faktor penting dalam promosi campuran. Oleh kerana format pasar raya besar masih
baru di Kuching, maka pilihan alat promosi jualan yang bersesuaian adalah penting
kepada pihak peruncit. Tujuan kajian ini adalah untuk membekalkan secara umum,
pemahaman tentang tabiat membeli-belah pelanggan pasar raya besar di Kuching.
Kajian ini mengenal pasti segmen pelanggan yang melawat pasar raya besar di
Kuching, alat promosi jualan yang paling diminati apabila digunakan oleh pasar raya
besar, dan kesan-kesan tujuh alat promosi jualan iaitu sampel, kupon, bayaran balik
tunai, potongan harga, premium, ganjaran naugan, serta pertandingan dan cabutan
undi terhadap niat membeli pelanggan. Pangkalan data seramai 285 orang pelanggan
pasar raya ditinjau dengan menggunakan borang kaji selidik berstruktur. Keputusan
menunjukkan bahawa potongan harga paling diminati tetapi tidak mempunyai kesan
ke atas niat membeli pelanggan. Bayaran balik tunai, kupon, premium, dan
pertandingan dan cabutan undi adalah berhubungkait dengan niat membeli
pelanggan. Hasil temuan dan implikasi turut dibincang.
v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I have been working very hard on writing this Final Year Project for the last nine
months, a time full of both expected and unexpected challenges. This project has
brought me new impressions and influenced the way I look at research and sales
promotions. When this project is finally complete, I hope it can contribute to better
understanding of sales promotion tools. I would like to express sincere appreciation
to people who have helped and supported me during this project writing.
Thank you, Mr Puah Chin Hong, my dedicated supervisor for reserving time for my
project consultation and providing me with valuable information regarding project
writing. I would like to give my heartiest thanks to him for his active supervision and
support throughout the time I was working on my project writing. Without him, this
project is impossible to complete.
I would like to express my appreciation to my family members for their unending
support and encouragement throughout my journey to complete this study. They
have given me the precious motivation and warmth needed in completing this
project.
I would also like to extend my appreciation to the lecturers who have provided me
with generous advice, friends and seniors who have given unrelenting help in my
endeavour, the staff of Faculty Economics and Business and anyone who has had a
hand, either directly or indirectly in the accomplishment of this project.
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF TABLES................................................................................................ ix
LIST OF FIGURES.............................................................................................. x
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.0
Hypermarkets............................................................................................. 1
1.1
Hypermarkets in Kuching.......................................................................... 5
1.2
Why Sales Promotion?............................................................................... 9
1.3
Problem Statement.................................................................................... 16
1.4
Objective of the Study............................................................................... 19
1.4.1
General Objective.......................................................................... 19
1.4.2
Specific Objectives........................................................................ 19
1.5
Significance of the Study........................................................................... 20
1.6
Scope of the Study..................................................................................... 21
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0
Introduction............................................................................................... 24
2.1
Sales Promotion........................................................................................ 25
2.2
Findings Related to Sales Promotion........................................................ 27
2.3
Sales Promotion Trends............................................................................ 28
2.4
Sales Promotion Tools.............................................................................. 30
2.4.1
Samples......................................................................................... 31
vii
2.4.2
Coupons........................................................................................ 32
2.4.3 Cash Refund Offers....................................................................... 35
2.4.4 Price-off (Price Packs).................................................................. 36
2.4.5 Premiums...................................................................................... 38
2.4.6 Patronage Rewards (Frequency Programmes)............................. 40
2.4.7 Contests and Sweepstakes............................................................ 42
2.5
Purchase Intentions....................................................................... 44
2.6
Theoretical Underpinnings........................................................... 45
2.6.1
Attitude............................................................................. 47
2.6.2
Subjective Norms.............................................................. 47
2.6.3
Perceived Behavioral Control........................................... 48
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
3.0
Introduction.............................................................................................. 50
3.1
Research Framework................................................................................ 51
3.2
Research Design....................................................................................... 54
3.3
3.4
3.2.1
Population..................................................................................... 54
3.2.2
Sample.......................................................................................... 55
Research Instrument................................................................................. 57
3.3.1
Item............................................................................................... 58
3.3.2
Measurement Scale....................................................................... 61
Data Analysis............................................................................................ 62
3.4.1
Descriptive Statistics..................................................................... 62
3.4.2
Mean............................................................................................. 63
viii
3.5
3.4.3
ANOVA........................................................................................ 63
3.4.4
Reliability Test.............................................................................. 64
3.4.5
Factor Analysis............................................................................. 65
Hypothesis Statements............................................................................. 65
CHAPTER FOUR: EMPIRICAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.0
Introduction............................................................................................... 68
4.1
Feedback from Questionnaires................................................................. 68
4.2
Descriptive Analysis................................................................................. 69
4.2.1
Analysis on Respondent Profile (Objective two)......................... 69
4.2.1.1 Gender.............................................................................. 70
4.2.1.2 Age................................................................................... 71
4.2.1.3 Marital Status................................................................... 72
4.2.1.4 Highest Level of Education............................................. 73
4.2.1.5 Income Level................................................................... 75
4.2.1.6 Occupation....................................................................... 76
4.2.1.7 Race................................................................................. 78
4.2.1.8 Religion........................................................................... 80
4.3
Cross Tabulation (Objective one and two).................................. 81
4.4
Mean (Objective three)................................................................ 89
4.5
One-way ANOVA (Objective four)............................................. 91
4.6
Reliability Test............................................................................. 97
4.7
Factor Analysis (Objective five).................................................. 98
ix
CHAPTER FIVE: RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
5.0
Introduction............................................................................................... 105
5.1
Summary of the Study................................................................... 105
5.2
Recommendations......................................................................... 108
5.3
Limitations and Future Research.................................................. 112
REFERENCES
APPENDIXES
x
LIST OF TABLES
Table
Page
Table 1.1: Floorspace and Product Range in West German
Hypermarkets January 1982............................................................ 3
Table 4.1:
Portion of Questionnaires................................................................ 68
Table 4.2: Cross Tabulation Test on Demographic Variables versus
Types of Retail Outlets.................................................................... 81
Table 4.3: Cross Tabulation Test on Demographic Variables versus
Frequency of Visit........................................................................... 83
Table 4.4: Sales Promotion Tools Rank............................................................ 89
Table 4.5: Value of One-Way ANOVA for Sales Promotion Tool towards
the Purchase Intentions.................................................................... 92
Table 4.6: Reliability Statistics.......................................................................... 98
Table 4.7: KMO and Bartlett’s Test.................................................................. 99
Table 4.8: Factor Analysis on Response towards Sales Promotion.............. 100
xi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
Page
Figure 3.1: Research Framework......................................................................... 51
Figure 4.1: Percentage of Respondents’ Gender................................................. 70
Figure 4.2: Percentage of Respondents’ Age....................................................... 71
Figure 4.3: Percentage of Respondents’ Marital Status..................................... 72
Figure 4.4: Percentage of Respondents’ Highest Level of Education............. 73
Figure 4.5: Percentage of Respondents’ Income Level..................................... 75
Figure 4.6: Percentage of Respondents’ Occupation......................................... 76
Figure 4.7: Percentage of Respondents’ Race.................................................... 78
Figure 4.8: Percentage of Respondents’ Religion.............................................. 80
xii
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.0
Hypermarkets
Hypermarkets are defined slightly different by individual national agencies, but the
definitions are attempted to characterize hypermarkets in essentially the same way.
International Chamber of Commerce defined hypermarkets as a retail establishment
of a minimum sales area of 2,500 m2 selling mainly in self-service way, with a wide
range of foods and non-foods products at very competitive prices, and having in
place adequate parking facilities (Findlay and Sparks, 2002).
Global supercenters or hypermarkets are large format stores offering grocery
products in combination with general merchandise and successfully capturing
substantial market share from traditional grocery stores as well as mass
merchandisers (Morganosky, 1997; Arnold and Luthra, 2000; Seiders et al., 2000);
and Graff, 2006). Due to the supercenters’ or hypermarkets’ ability to offer low
prices, they often appeal to lower income, large households (Carpenter, 2008).
Additionally, the large format stores’ one-stop shopping convenience also attracted
time-pressed consumers. Nevertheless, recent reports in the trade literature specify
several interesting changes in the makeup of the hypermarket customer base
including a sales decline to lower-income households and sales growth to affluent
consumers (Grocer, 2005) as well as considerable growth in supercenter patronage
among males (Duff, 2003).
1
While these definitions refine the fundamental nature of the hypermarket, the
hypermarket concept is not just a large unit with a mix of foods and non-foods
products. There are many other characteristics present in various hypermarkets.
According to Findlay and Sparks (2002), among the few commonly present mix of
features of the hypermarkets are:-
(i)
At least 2,500 m2 of sales area
In the UK, the name hypermarket is limited to only units with over 5,000 m2,
whereas stores with a sales area of 2,500 to 5,000 m2 are sometimes termed as
superstores. On the other hand, in the US, the term combination store is used to
describe units similar to the hypermarkets and large hypermarkets there have sales
areas in excess of 20,000 m2. The average size of a hypermarket is of 3,500 m2 gross
floor space.
(ii)
The merchandise mix results in at least 35% of sales area and normally more
than 50% of this sales area is given to non-food items
In the US, the hypermarkets (alternatively termed as combination stores) are defined
to have 40% of floor space in non-foods products. While a comparison of British and
French surveys show that respectively, 50% and 55% of sales space are allocated to
non-foods. This shows that in the hypermarkets, non-foods take up a larger
proportion of the sales area than food products do.
2
(iii)
Gross floor space ranges from more than twice the sales area to around 20%
more than sales area
Sales area accounts for a larger percentage of the gross floor space. This could range
from 50% to around 80% of the gross floor space. In a survey of British
hypermarkets, sales space takes up 62% of gross floor space and this proportion
increased with store size. As quoted in Findlay and Sparks (2002), see Table 1.1, the
proportion of space and of sales in non-foods increases with sales space.
Table 1.1: Floorspace and Product Range in West German Hypermarkets
January 1982
Sales space m2
Percentage of floor
Percentage of
Number of lines
space in
gross area in
sales space
Food
Non-food
Food
Non-food
2,500-3,999
45
55
79
7,100
13,400
4,000-4,999
39
61
80
8,300
19,100
5,000-6,999
36
64
82
8,700
23,200
7,000-9,999
32
68
79
11,400
26,900
10,000 and over
24
76
80
10,600
36,100
Source: Institut fűr Selbstbedienung und Warenwirtshaft (1982).
(iv)
Involves a wide assortment of product range but with shallow range of
lines with relatively few brands, colours, and sizes of any of them
A product range is also known as product line, which is defined as a group of
products that are closely related because they function in a similar manner, are sold
to the same customer groups, are marketed through the same types of outlets, or fall
within a given price ranges (Kotler and Armstrong, 2006). For example, Maggi
produces several lines of packaged food products. Each product line has got its
varieties of items. Take for example the seasoning lines, which consist of products
such as ketchup sauce, chilli sauce, soy sauce and others. The ketchup sauce can be
3
divided into different brands, sizes, and colours. A shallow range of lines means that
within a particular product line (e.g. seasoning), there are little variations in terms of
brands (e.g. Maggi, Ayam Brand, and others). Statistics on the US from the Food
Marketing Institute suggests that the hypermarkets with 3,500 m2 gross floor space
carry an average number of 22,500 regular items. The Mammout chain in France
carries approximately 2,000 food lines, 1,200 toiletries and cosmetics, and 13,000
non-food lines, but summing up altogether, there are around 9,000 extra-seasonal
lines. Another well-known hypermarket in France with exceptionally large stores of
over 15,000 m2 is Carrefour, which carries more than 40,000 lines of non-foods and
4,000 lines of food and cosmetics items. Again, as shown in Table 1.1, product range
is positively related to store size. Product range increases with store size.
(v)
The merchandising policy is mass, scrambled merchandising with relatively
low margins and high sales volume
The grocery items in hypermarkets are often priced lower (low-margin sales) than a
regular supermarket. Normally, hypermarkets have business model which focus on
high volume but low-margin sales. However, the higher margins on non-foods offset
the lower sales per m² in the non-food sector.
(vi)
Car parking space is near or close to the store site
It is common to have parking space over 1,000 cars, with parking ratios less than ten
places per hundred m² sales space.
4
(vii)
Locations in out-of-town positions are previously favoured
Earlier on, locations in out-of-town or edge-of-town positions are favoured, but
recently hypermarkets have been operating in all types of locations such as inner
cities, within all kinds of shopping centres, and in small towns. Favours in edge-oftown locations were simply the result of land-cost differentials. Besides that, many
hypermarkets choose suburban or out-of-town locations due to the store’s large size
and the need for many of its shoppers to carry large quantities of goods to be easily
accessible by automobile.
1.1
Hypermarkets in Kuching
Among the few famous hypermarkets in Malaysia are Carrefour, Giant, Jusco, The
Store, Makro Cash and Carry, and Tesco. Whereas in East Malaysia, there are a
fewer number of hypermarkets. There are not many hypermarkets in Malaysia as
compared to other regions, partly due to government policy.
Over the past few years, foreign hypermarket companies have swept through Asia,
bringing controversy (Pristay, 2002). Take for example the Thai government. After
local retailers reported a drastic drop in business, the Thai government planned to
consider putting limits on the number of hypermarkets. Malaysia is also taking up
the battle as well. Malaysian officials are currently freezing applications from new
hypermarket companies and studying possible industry controls. This may involve
restricting the expansion by existing operators and barring new market entrants.
5
According to Prystay (2002), retail analyst worry this would scare foreign investors
as most of the hypermarket chains are run by foreign concerns including the Francebased Carrefour, Dutch-owned Makro and Britain’s Tesco. The government
restrictions were partly the results of the continuing economic slowdown and the
declining numbers of the traditional retail-distribution channel, which is by 38%
from 46,544 in 1992 to 28,659 in 2001 (according to a private study conducted by
ACNielson for a client as quoted in Prystay (2002)). The decreasing number of
children taking over family-run business has lead to the latter. In addition, the
growing numbers of hypermarkets from 1 in 1995 to 21 in 2001 has also contributed
to the controversy.
According to Anton van Gorp, again as quoted in Prystay (2002), managing director
of the Malaysian unit of Makro, “It has been proven that hypermarkets do kill a lot
of small businesses,” and “Expansion should be regulated.” However, hypermarkets
do contribute a lot to the local economy. For instance, Carrefour employs 2,300
people at its six Malaysian stores, and sources about 80% of its goods in Malaysia.
President of the Thai Retailers’ Association, Pittaya Jearavisitkul said that the
government should help Thai retailers to modernize, beef up selection and compete,
but not just by beating competition back. He urged that this kind of situation is
severe and they should think of other consumers and not just by protecting operators
who are less efficient.
6
Although over the past decades, there is no hypermarket in Kuching (until recently
only one has been established - Boulevard Hypermarket and Departmental Store),
however, there are many supermarkets and retail outlets serving to the needs of the
consumers. Among the famous ones are:

Sarawak Plaza; one of Kuching’s older malls and is located next to
Holiday Inn at Jalan Tunku Abdul Rahman.

Tun Jugah; which is also located at Jalan Tunku Abdul Rahman and is
located at the opposite of Sarawak Plaza.

Riverside Mall - Parkson Grand; which is another shopping outlet located at
Jalan Tunku Abdul Rahman with Parkson Department Store and Giant
Supermarket under one roof.

Wisma Saberkas; is located at the junction of Jalan Tun Abang Haji
Openg and Jalan Rock; and is a round tower on the outskirts.

Hock Lee Centre; is located at Jalan Abang Abdul Rahim, with a
supermarket in the basement.

Crown Square; is situated along the road towards Pending and is also
opposite Hock Lee Centre.

Kenyalang Park; which is a very old place consisting of a cluster of shop
houses and only one enclosed area.

Wisma Satok; which is one of the older malls in Kuching, holding a
departmental store and supermarket.

Wisma Hopoh; is located at Jalan P. Ramlee, near Syariah Court. It is still
frequented by shoppers although it is a small and old shopping centre.
7
Despite the fact that there is currently only one hypermarket in Kuching, which is
Boulevard Hypermarket and Departmental Store, another one is projected to be
erected in the near future, namely Isthmus Hypermarket Mall. The development of
this mall is part of the Kuching City Extension plan and it will house a hypermarket
and retail shop lots. It is also expected to be the largest shopping mall in the region
upon its completion.
As its name tells, Boulevard Hypermarket and Departmental Store is at present, the
only hypermarket in Kuching. Being the major tenant of Boulevard Shopping Mall,
the hypermarket holds most of the characteristics mentioned in section 1.0. Among
which are; the hypermarket covers over 150,000 square feet of Phase 1 of the mall; it
offers various range of products; and offers nearly 800 parking bays in the basement,
which is just below the mall (Chin, 2007). Upon the completion of Phase 2 in
December 2008, the mall is expected to have a retail space of over 700, 000 square
feet together with 2,011 parking bays. Apart from that, in terms of location, the
hypermarket is also situated at out-of-town position.
Perhaps some of us might think that Ta Kiong (inside The Spring Shopping Mall) is
also categorized as a hypermarket. In fact, it is not a hypermarket but a supermarket
which offers on majority, food products rather than non-food products. On a more
specific term, it is a gourmet supermarket, offering all kinds of food products.
Despite the large size of the supermarket, Ta Kiong is still not in the hypermarket
group.
8
1.2
Why Sales Promotion?
Here, the researcher will talk about how marketing is related to sales promotion tools
and the reason why the researcher chooses to study on sales promotion tools
compared to other promotion tools.
Marketing refers to the process by which companies create value for customers and
build strong relationships in order to capture value from customers in return (Kotler
and Armstrong, 2006). American Marketing Association (AMA) defined marketing
as the process of planning and executing the conception, pricing, promotion, and
distribution of ideas, goods, and services to create exchanges that satisfy individual
and organizational objectives (AMA, 1985). One of the major concepts in modern
marketing is the marketing mix, which is also defined as a set of controllable, tactical
marketing tools that the firm blends to produce the response it wants in the target
market (Kotler and Armstrong, 2006). The marketing mix consists of everything the
firm can do to influence the demand for its products and the many possibilities can
be accumulated into four groups of variables known as the “four Ps”: product, price,
place, and promotion. The authors added that, marketing in today’s society does not
only call for developing a good product (product), pricing it attractively (price), and
making it available to target customers (place), but companies must also
communicate with current and prospective customers (promotion).
All of the companies’ communications efforts must be blended into a consistent and
coordinated communications program. The authors said that good communication is
not just crucial in building and maintaining any type of relationships but it is also a
9
very important element in a company’s efforts to build profitable customer
relationships.
A company’s marketing communications mix (also called its promotional mix)
consist of the specific blend of advertising, sales promotion, public relations,
personal selling, and direct-marketing tools that the company uses to pursue its
advertising and marketing objectives (Kotler and Armstrong, 2006). It is the specific
mix of promotion tools that a company uses. From the same source, the five major
promotion tools are defined as follows:

Advertising: Any paid form of nonpersonal presentation and promotion of
ideas, goods, or services by an identified sponsor (e.g. print, broadcast,
Internet, outdoor and others).

Sales promotion: Short-term incentives to encourage the purchase or sale of a
product or service (e.g. point-of-purchase displays, coupons, premiums,
discounts, specialty advertising, and demonstration).

Public relations: Building good relations with the company’s various publics
by obtaining favourable publicity, building up a good corporate image, and
handling or heading off unfavourable rumours, stories, and events (e.g. press
releases, sponsorships, public affairs, lobbying, investor relations, and special
events).

Personal selling: Personal presentation by a firm’s sales force with the
purpose of creating sales and establishing customer relationships (e.g. sales
presentations, trade shows, and incentive programs).
10

Direct marketing: Direct connections with carefully targeted individual
consumers to both acquire an immediate response and encourage lasting
customer relationships (e.g. catalogs, telephone marketing, kiosks, the
Internet (email), fax and other tools that enable direct communications with
specific consumers).
This study will focus on the sales promotion tools because it often works closely
with another promotion tool - advertising, and sales promotion can be found
everywhere. According to Kotler and Armstrong (2006), there is also a rapid growth
of sales promotion application, whereby in today’s average consumer packagedgoods company, sales promotion accounts for 76% of all marketing expenditures.
Sales promotion tools are not only used by most organizations, but they are also
applied by manufacturers, distributors, retailers, and not-for-profit institutions. They
are widely used in business. They are targeted not just toward final buyers (consumer
promotions), but also toward retailers and wholesalers (trade promotions), business
customers (business promotions), and members of the sales force (sales force
promotions).
Again, this study will focus on consumer markets (consumer promotions) due to
several factors which have also contributed to the rapid growth of sales promotion.
As pointed out by Kotler and Armstrong (2006), the first factor being the growing
pressures that product managers face in increasing their current sales, which occurs
inside the company (internal) and to solve this, promotion is viewed as an effective
short-run sales tool. Secondly, companies are facing with more competitions and
11
competing brands are less differentiated. To solve this problem that occurs outside
the company (external), sales promotion is used to help differentiate their offerings.
Thirdly, advertising efficiency has declined due to the rising costs, media clutter, and
legal restraints, and last but not least, consumers have become more deal oriented,
and ever-larger retailers are demanding more deals from manufacturers.
Apart from that, the researcher believes it is beneficial to study sales promotion tools
rather than other promotion tools due to the communications environment that is
changing. The marketing communications environment today is changing as a result
of two major factors (Kotler and Armstrong, 2006). One is that marketers are
shifting away from mass marketing as a result of the fragmented mass markets and
they are increasingly developing focused marketing programs which are designed to
build closer relationships with customers in a more narrowly defined micro market.
Secondly, huge improvements in information technology (IT) speed up the
movement towards segmented marketing. The ability of the IT today does not only
help marketers to keep closer track of customer needs but the emergence of new
technologies also provide new opportunities and paths for reaching smaller customer
segments with more effective customized messages. These indicate a shift from
mass marketing to segmented marketing and no doubt, this shift has had a dramatic
effect on marketing communications. The authors further added that, just as the
emergence of mass marketing gave rise to a new generation of mass media
communications, the shift towards one-to-one marketing is also initiating and
producing a new generation of a more specialized and highly targeted effort.
12