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APES midterm review 2015
MIDTERM 2014-2015
AP ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
Topics that will be covered on exam
-
Summer assignment (environmental history, invasive species, famous people) (chapters 1+2_
Chemistry / Physics / Thermodynamics
Geology
Soil
Atmosphere / climate / weather / El Nino
Human Population / Population Ecology
Community Ecology / Ecosystems Diversity
Aquatic Life Zones / Biomes
Biogeochemical cycles
Math
Chapters Covered (not all chapters are covered in their entirety but come from the following)
1: Environmental Problems and Causes, 2: Science, Matter, Energy and Systems 3: Ecosystems
what are they and how do they work 4: Biodiversity and Evolution 5: Biodiversity, Species
Interactions and Population Control 6: Human Population and Impact 7: Climate and
Biodiversity 8: Aquatic Biodiversity 9: Sustaining biodiversity 10: Sustaining Terrestrial
Biodiversity 11: Sustaining Aquatic Biodiversity 14.1 Rock Cycle
Historical
• Tribal Era: During Native American Times
- North American population was 5-10 million tribal people
- Hunter-gatherer lifestyle and followed their food sources and planted.
- Burn and clear agriculture.
•
Conservationist Era: Between 1832 and 1960
- concern over resource use
- preservation of public land
- public health incentives
- environmental restoration
•
Preservationist movement: 1870-1930
- advocated the protection of wilderness on public lands from human exploitation.
- Led by John Muir (founder of the Sierra Club)
-­‐
•
Green Revolution: 1950s introduction of new technology, crop variety, farming practices
- Increased output per unit area (in US avg hectare upped its corn output 5x)
-­‐ Believed it would be the key to ending starvation in the developing world.
PROS
CONS
Food
inorganic fertilizers
Technology
Fossil fuel use
Prevent starvation
increase energy use by 80%
Prevent deforestation
pesticides and resistance
The Environmental Era: 1960 to today
- then environmental movement
- creation of ecology
- spaceship earth worldview
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•
Sagebrush Rebellion:
- political campaign against government regulations to land use
- goal was to remove public lands from federal control
- Led by Ronald Reagan
People
• John Muir
o Founder of the Sierra Club
o Believed that “wilderness areas should be left untouched”
o Preservationist who advocated for the protection of large areas of wilderness on public
lands from human exploitationà promotes low-impact activities.
o 1916 his dream of the creation of National Park System (2 years after death)
•
Teddy Roosevelt
o Known as the president of The Golden Age of Conservation
o Led “wise-use” conservationist which believed that “all lands shall be managed wisely and
scientifically to provide resources”
o Designated presidential power to designate public land to Federal Wildlife Refuge
o Created US Forest Service in 1905
o Named 16 national parks, increased national forest 3x
•
Franklin Roosevelt
-­‐ FDR tried to get out of the Great Depression in several ways:
-­‐ Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC). Provide jobs by the following ways:
o Plant trees
o Develop and maintain parks and recreation areas
o Restore waterways
o Building levees and dams
§ HOOVER DAM- migration to Las Vegas of unemployed of the country
• Provide jobs, flood control, electricity, and irrigation.
• Over 3250000 cubic yards of concrete
• Rather unsafe job
• 5128 men working 7 days a week at 50 cents an hour
o Control soil erosion
o Protect wildlife
-­‐ Tennessee Valley Authority- Created to provide jobs in Tennessee valley
o Replant forest
o Build dams
•
Ronald Reagan
o Sagebrush rebellion
o Cut funding on conservation and renewable energy research.
o Removed tax incentives and gas mileage standards
o Appointed those against enviro laws.
o Increase in private energy and mineral dvpt.
•
Jimmy Carter
o Created Dept of Energy in an attempt to come up with a long-term alternative to weed us
off of foreign oil.
o Superfund and Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and Liability Act
o Expanded the Nat’l park and wilderness system under Antiquities Act.
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•
Rachel Carson
o Wrote Silent Spring and brought public awareness to the negative and deadly impacts to
pesticides such as DDT
o Huge impact to modern environmental movement.
•
Gifford Pinchot
o 1st chief of the National Forest Service and referred to as the “father” of modern
conservation movement.
o restructured and professionalized the management of the national forests, as well as greatly
increased their area and number
o “greatest good for the greatest number” and “in the long run” 2 of his mottos
•
Thomas Malthus
o populations will grow much faster than their food supply and therefore overshoot carrying
capacity and lead to a drastic drop in population size.
Ideas
•
The tragedy of the commons
o Belief that if resources are used by all they will become depleted unless utilized sustainably
o If each individual utilizes for their own good but does not consider the good of the whole
resources quickly become depleted.
1. Overgrazing
2. Overfishing
3. Water depletion from aquifers
•
The law of tolerance
o the existence, abundance and distribution of species depends on the tolerance level of each
species to physical and chemical factors
RANGE OF TOLERANCE: Organisms can tolerate (or survive within) a certain
range of a particular factor, but cannot survive if there is too much or too little of
the factor
Limiting factor principle
• To much or too little of any abiotic factor can limit or prevent population growth even if all
other factors are at or near the optimal range of tolerance
o Environmental factors determine limit organisms
•
•
Exclusionary Principle (competitive exclusion principle)
• when two or more organisms are in the same niche and are competing for the same type of
resources one will outcompete or utilize the resources more efficiently leading to the other
organism to find a new resource, move, or become extinct.
•
Ecological (carbon) Footprint
• Utilizes consumption of an individual to make projections on how many Earths would be
required if everyone lived the same as you.
•
Feedback loops
• Positive feedback amplifies a situation.
• Negative feedback: tries to remedy a situation, negates or opposes the original stimuli
•
Ecosystem Services
• Economic benefits that are provided from natural areas
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APES midterm review 2015
o Oxygen, carbon sinks, food, building material, storm protection
Environmental Issues
•
Climate Change
• Caused by an increase in GHG emissions
• Can see a gradual increase in CO2 in atmosphere and temperature changes. Fluctuates with
seasonal variation and rate of photosynthesis and utilization of fuel.
•
Ozone (O3) Depletion
• Caused by ozone depleting compounds (which have nothing to do with climate change and
greenhouse gases)
• Tropospheric ozone = bad and traps heat
• Stratospheric ozone = good
• Primarily due to CFC which release a Cl- which creates ClO and O2 and then prevents Ofrom binding with O2 preventing the creation of more O3
• Leads to increase skin cancer, cataracts because increase in the amount of UV radiation
entering the troposphere
•
Ocean Acidification:
- oceans- dissolve the CO2 in the water, which is removed through photosynthesis. COs
reacts with seawater to create CO32- and HCO3- but this is altered to H2CO3
•
Coral Bleaching
• Occurs when corals are under stress primarily due to temperature increase or pH decreases
• Corals expel zooxanthellae (algae that provides the food for corals)
• Results in death of corals
•
Invasive species
• Outcompete their competitors and therefore take over
• Normally have fast reproduction times
• Larger fundamental niches
• Normally generalist species
•
Reasons for species extinctions: HIPPO
• Main causes of species and biodiversity loss caused by humans
o Habitat Lass
o Introduces invasive Species
o Pollution
o Population Growth
o Overuse
Trophic levels
•
NPP and GPP
o GPP = total energy converted from solar energy to biomass by plants (rate of
photosynthesis)
o NPP = amount of biomass available after all cellular and metabolic processes
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o NPP = GPP – respiration rate
•
Energy flow (and law of conservation of energy Rule of 10%)
o inefficient in its transfer of energy
o Each level of transfer “loses” energy in the form of heat
• second law of thermodynamics.
• Through tropic levels 10% of energy is transferred to the next level
because the rest is either lost as heat or utilized in that stage.
•
Producers
•
Primary consumers
•
Secondary consumers
•
Scavengers
•
Decomposers
1st Law of thermodynamics:
- energy is not created or destroyed.
2nd Law of thermodynamics
- When energy is changed from one form to another some useful energy is degraded to a lower
quality, more dispersed, less useful energy
- AKA energy is lost as heat
- Based off of 1st law of thermodynamics energy cannot be created or destroyed
- Energy efficiencyà measure of how much useful work is accomplished by a given energy
input
Geology
• Convergent Faults
o Plates move toward each other
o Location of mountain formation
§ Volcanic activity
•
Divergent Faults
o Movement of plates away from each other
o Valleys and rifts
•
Transform Faults
o Sliding faults
o Location of earthquakes
•
Earthquakes
o Epicenter
§ Location above the focus.
§ Point of initial movement on Earth’s surface
o Richter Scale
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§
§ Measurement of the intensity of an earthquake.
10-fold scale a measurement of 5 is 10 times greater than a measurement of 4 and
100 times greater than a measurement of 3.
•
Tsunamis
o Secondary effect of earthquakes
o Begins in ocean as giant waves that lead to significant damage when come in contact with
land.
•
Volcanoes
o The Ring of Fire
§ located in the Pacific Ocean
§ creation of island chain due to volcanic activity at
converging faults
Soil: Mixture of geologic and organic compounds. Needed for plant
Growth, water filtration, habitat and biogeochemical cycles
•
Layers of soil horizons
•
How to use a soil triangle
- clay percentage follow across
- silt percentage follow downward angle toward sand
- sand percentage upward angle toward clay
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APES midterm review 2015
• Component of soil: all following help to determine the texture, consistence, and water holding
abilitiy.
o Sand: largest particle >0.05 mm
o Silt medium sized 0.05-0.002mm
o Clay: smallest sized < 0.002 mm
o Humus: mixture of organic leaf litter
•
Texture/consistence
Texture: % sand/silt/clay soil has
Consistence: ability for soil to resist pressure (plastic, firm, loose, pliable)
•
Permeability vs Porosity
Permeability: V % pore space. The smaller the particle the large the pore space (hold
more water)
Porosity: ability to absorb water and let water pass through
Cycles:
o Nitrogen: most abundant element in the atmosphere (78%) but we cannot use atmospheric nitrogen N2
o We have altered the nitrogen cycle by the increase in inorganic fertilizers, burning of fuel and
removal of N from soil through harvesting.
- converted into useful forms by following processes
•
•
Nitrogen Fixationàchanging N2 into NH3 with the use of cyanobacteria and rhizobium
•
Nitrificationàconversion of ammonia (NH3) into toxic nitrite (NO2-) or nontoxic nitrate (NO3-)
•
Assimilationà absorption of NH3, NH4+, NO3- by plants
§ plants then use the N to create amino acids, proteins, and DNA
•
Ammonification à taking the N rich organic matter and breaking it into NH3 and NH4+
•
Denitrificationà conversion of NH3 and NH4 into NO2 and NO3 then into N2 and NO2 through
the use of bacteria then put back into the atmosphere
Carbon/oxygen: conversion of inorganic carbon to organic forms.
o carbon is the basic building block of life and CO2 makes up about .036% of atm.
o Photosynthesis:
§ Producers remove COs and create C6H12O6
o Respiration
§ Consumers use the glucose to create energy and then release carbon dioxide back
into the atm.
o Fossil fuel formation
§ Due to extreme temperature and pressure.
§ Metamorphic process
o Combustion
§ Carbon sinks à locations of carbon reserves
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§ fossil fuels, coal, oil etc. and carbon dioxide is released back into the atmosphere
through extraction and burning
§ increased amounts of CO2 and CH4 both greenhouse gases which trap heat in the
atmosphere
o Phosphorous: little phosphorus is in the atmosphere because it is not normally in gas form.
o
mainly found as salts in the form of PO43- also located in fertilizers.
o
Very slow cycle
o
Impacting the phosphorus cycle because of the mining of phosphorus from rocks,
decreasing amount available by removing trees which therefore increases amount in runoff.
o
Increasing amount of phosphorus in water sources due to runoff from livestock feedlots and
commercial fertilizer use, as well as in discharge of waste material.
o Water: hydrologic cycle powered by sun and gravity.
- evaporationà water changes to water vapor 84%
- transpirationà evaporation of water through leaves
- condensationà water vapor changes to water droplets
- precipitationà rain, sleet, hail, snow
- infiltrationà downward movement of water into the soil.
- Percolationà downward movement of water through soil through the permeable rock into
aquifers.
- Runoffà movement of surface water.
Characteristics of a system
o One way flow of energy
o Inputs
o Cycling of nutrients
Weather/climate
Weather: short term properties of the troposphere at a given place. Reliant on temperature,
pressure, humidity, precipitation, sunlight, cloud cover, wind)
Climate: The general pattern of atmospheric or weather
conditions over a long period of time. Often
characterized by average temperature and precipitation.
o Atmospheric levels
o troposphereà is the first layer above the surface and
contains half of the Earth's atmosphere.
- Weather occurs in this layer.
o stratosphere àbecause it is very stable. Also, the
ozone layer absorbs harmful rays from the Sun.
o mesosphereà Meteors or rock fragments burn up in
the mesosphere.
o thermosphere is a layer with auroras. It is also where
the space shuttle orbits.
o exosphere. This is the upper limit of our atmosphere.
o Prevailing winds
• Trade winds move toward equator.
§ Move from East to West in both hemispheres
• Westerlies are found between 30 and 60 N and S latitude
§ winds move from the west to east
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• all appear to be bending due to the coriolis effect
APES midterm review 2015
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o Coriolis effect
• Due to tilt of the earth and the uneven speed of movement around axis
• Northern Hemisphere storms move counterclockwise (high pressure to low pressure from
left to right)
• Southern Hemisphere move clockwise (H to L pressure from right to left)
o Altitude
• Elevation above sea level
• as altitude increases the
temperature decreases
• as altitude increase the pressure
decreases
o Latitude
• distance North or South of
equator.
• Farther from the equator
becomes cooler temperatures.
• Less variation in vegetation.
o Winds / Convection cells
•
Hadley: Hot moist air rises at
equator. Condensation and
precipiatiton air moves toward
30oN and S where it drops (dry)
•
Ferrel: Between Hadley and Polar Cells. Air at 60oN and S rise and move toward 30o
where they lose moisture and drop back down to surface before they move back toward
poles.
•
Polar: Wet moist air at 60oN and S rises and precipitates. Air moves toward 90oN and S
where dry air drops again.
o Warm fronts/ Cold Fronts
• Cold front: thunder and high winds, nasty stormy weather.
• Warm front: warm less dense air, prolonged steady rain
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APES midterm review 2015
o Pressure systems:
• Low pressure system: associated with bad weather, hurricanes and rain because low
pressure
• High pressure system: associated with good weather
o Relative Humidity
• Amount of moisture in the air as a percentage of what can be held
• As air rises it can hold more so the same amount of moisture in the air would lead to a
lower relative humidity than at lower temperature
Ecosystems
Range of tolerance: - all organisms thrive in optimum conditions. Bell shaped curve, zone of intolerance,
zone of stress and optimum zone.
Indicator species: species which serves as an early warning sign of damage to an ecosystem
• Amphibians
• Fish species
• Lichen in some ares
• Birds in coal mines
Keystone Species: species which has an extremely large impact on an ecosystem. If they are removed
then the ecosystem would collapse.
• Zebra Mussels cleaning water for other organisms
• Sea otters controlling the population of sea urchins which allow for healthy kelp forests
• Elephants creating watering holes
• Grey wolves helping to create a healthy ecosystem in Yellowstone
Theory of Island Biogeography
• Idea that if there are island habitats have various levels of biodiversity depending on distance from
mainland and size of island.
§ Islands of the same size the island will have greater species richness and abundance
§ Islands the same distance from shore: the island that is larger will have greater biodiversity.
Evolution: change over time, which lead to the creation of new species due to adaptation, natural
selection.
-­‐ Micro= evolution of a single population
-­‐ Macro= evolution of all life on Earth
-
adaptive radiation
o creation of new species from a central species
o Galapagos finches started on mainland but then radiated out toward the various islands,
each species of finches is island specific due to the biotic and abiotic factors of the
island.
o Type of divergent evolution
-
convergent vs divergent
o convergent evolution: is when different organisms are in similar environments and
therefore develop similar features/ characteristics
o NOT RELATED SPECIES
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o
Divergent evolution: evolution of new species from old ones. Put into new
environments.
-
geographic isolation
o Creation of new species due to physical barrios that prevent populations from breeding
§ Mountains, rivers, bridges, valleys, etc
Coevolution: Evolutionary adaptations in one species causes related adaptations in another species.
- predator-prey interactions
- pollinator-pollinated
Speciation: due to natural selection which leads to the creation of new and distinct species from older
ancestral species.
- Geographic isolation - physical, geographic features that make mating between populations
impossible and then leads to new adaptations.
- Reproductive isolation- due to divergent evolution that lead to mutations which make
interbreeding impossible between populations.
Natural Selection ability to inherit a trait and pass on that trait, which increases the likelihood of
survival and the ability to reproduce fertile offspring.
- Requires
1. Variation
2. inheritable traits
3. reproductive success.
- 3 types of variation
- Directional- occurs when a change in the environment leads to a shift in allele frequency
in one direction.
§ Peppered moth
§ Antibiotic/ pesticide resistance
- Stabilizing- occurs when there is little change in environmental conditions, leads to the
elimination of the extremes and the “average” is favored
§ Human birth weight
- Diversifying- occurs when environmental conditions favor the two phenotypic extremes
and eliminates the average
§ Goat and sheet coat color
Adaptations characteristics that are passed on through time which increase likelihood of survival in a
given area
Species Interactions
o Commensalisms: Two or more organisms, which interact with each other. One species benefits
and the other in unharmed.
§ Remora and Shark
§ Lion and vulture
§ epiphytes
o Predation: Interaction between two or more organisms where one benefits and the other is
harmed.
o Mutualism: Interaction between two or more organisms where both benefit.
• Reasons for mutualisms include
§ reproduction (bees and flowers)
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§
§ nutritional (lichen, mychorizae and plant roots)
protection (clown fish and sea anemones)
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o Competition: Interaction where fighting for limited resources.
§ Intraspecific- competition between members of the same species
• Toxins secreted by plants
• Mating
§ Interspecific- competition between members of different species when they share
an overlapping niche.
o Parasitism: Interaction between two or more species where one benefits and the other is slowly
harmed.
• Worms
• plants
•
Habitat: refers to the abiotic location of an organism
•
Niche: role an organism has in an ecosystem including
- Range of tolerance to abiotic factors
- Type and amount of food or resources consumed
- Interactions with other organisms
- Role it plays in nutrient cycling
Types of Niches:
1. Fundamental: The theoretical role that an organism can have if there was no
competition.
2. Realized: The true niche organisms have due to competition and competitive exclusion
3. Generalistà broad niche. Large fundamental niche where organisms have the ability
to live in a variety of locations, survive on various food sources, and have a large range
of tolerance.
2. Specialistà small fundamental niche. Organisms, which are uniquely adapted to a
stable environment. Live on a single food type, live in one unique landscape and low
range of tolerance.
•
Density dependent / Density independent limiting factors
§ Dependent factors have a greater impact on the population with an increased
popualton density
• Disease, famine, resources available
§ Density independent factors have the same impact on the population no matter the
population density
• Storms, catastrophic events
•
Interspecific vs intraspecific competition:
§ Intraspecific- competition between members of the same species
• Toxins secreted by plants
• Mating
§ Interspecific- competition between members of different species when they share
an overlapping niche.
•
Analyze food web or food chain
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APES midterm review 2015
Succession: predictable series of events and changes, which lead to the creation of a stable new
ecosystem
o Primary: occurs when soil is not present
- 1st species to colonize an area
§ lichen and moss that require little nutrients.
§ Break down the rocks by acid secretions.
§ Ability to withstand intense environment.
- Takes long period of time because need to actually create soil before other forms of life can
exist.
o Secondary: occurs after a disaster that leads soil intact.
- Process of replacement includes the following
§ Facilitation- some species set stage for next by creating conditions that are
favorable for organisms that have a different niche.
§ Inhibition- species prevent growth or establishment of another species. (plant
toxins)
§ Tolerance- older species are not affected by the earlier ones and thrive to create a
climax community.
o Population
•
•
Population changes
§ Irruptive: Occurs when a resource
becomes available or limiting factor
removed
§
Stable: Seen with K selected species
that are around carrying capacity
§
Cyclic: seen with predator prey
interactions or due to seasonal
changes.
§
Irregular: not seen very often in
nature, no pattern to population curve.
Distribution
§
Uniform: seen when resources
are scarce mainly, territorial
organisms
§
Clumped: around resources.
§
Random: abundant resources
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o Community
• All organisms that are in an area that interact with each other (several species)
§
r- strategists
K strategists
Short life
Long life
Rapid growth
Slow growth
Early maturity
Late maturity
Many small offspring
Fewer large offspring
Little parental care
High parental care
Little energy investment in offspring
Lots of energy investment in offspring
Adapted to unstable environments
Adapted to stable environments
Generalists
Specialists
Prey species
Predator species
Lower trophic levels
Higher trophic levels
Annual plants, bacteria, rodents
Trees, humans, elephants
o Ecosystem
o Organism
•
Edge Effect/ Ecotones: the transition zone between two different plant communities, which has a
mixture of species from the two connecting ecosystems. Most species found within the ecotone
are not found within either ecosystem.
Biomes: terrestrial region with characteristic types of natural undisturbed ecological communities
adapted to a specific climate or region.
not only descriptions, but what climatograms would look like, and locations on world map
o Deciduous forests: seasonal forest
- Fluctuation in seasons
- Found along eastern coast of the US
- Europe
- Long warm summers with cold winters
- Year round precipitation
- Vegetation consists of deciduous trees, few tree species by more ground level plant life.
- Slow decay and leaf litter. VERY FERTILE SOIL
o Taiga:
-­‐
-­‐
-­‐
-­‐
-­‐
-­‐
-­‐
Coniferous forest
Located near arctic tundra.
Long dry winters with extreme cold with 6-8 hours of sunlight
Short and mild summers with 19 hour days.
Few species of coniferous trees with little diversity.
Acidic soil with low levels of decomposition.
Waterlogged soil in summer months.
Largest biome in the world
o Tropical rain forests: located around equator.
- Broadleaf evergreen forests
- Warm annual temperature with little variation.
- High humidity and heavy rainfall.
- Extreme diversity with various layers and specialized niches within forest.
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- Rapid rate of decomposition but unfertile soil because nutrients are taken up very rapidly
by plants.
o Deserts: areas where evaporation exceeds precipitation.
- Located around 30o N and S of equator.
- Greatest fluctuation of temperatures between day and night
- Near mountains on interior areas.
- Slow rate of decomposition, chemical cycling and therefore hard to recover after
disturbance.
- Tropical deserts- high yearly temps with rainfall around 1-2 months a year with few plants.
- Temperate deserts- temperature high in summer but cool in winter. More precip than
tropical, sparse and clumped vegetation.
- Cold desert- cold winters with warm or hot summers and low precipitation.
- Semideserts- cross between desert and grassland. Dominated by thorny trees and shrubs.
Long dry spells followed by brief periods of heavy rain.
o Savannas: type of tropical grassland.
- Warm year round with 2 prolonged dry seasons.
- Rain is abundant during the rest of the year.
- Located in S. America, Africa, Australia, SE Asia.
- Animals graze/travel in herds and have specialized eating habits to decrease amount of
interspecific competition.
o Temperate rainforest: coastal coniferous forests.
- Sufficient rainfall with dense fog
- Found in coastal pacific North America
- Temperature controlled by ocean
- Mild winter and cool summers
o Tundra: cold deserts
- Characteristic of permafrost (permanently frozen soil layer)
- Spring time creates bogs
- Low grasses, located above 60o
o Chaparral: Coastal shrub land
- California coast
- Sparse vegetation of waxy cuticle plants
- Fire dependent
Aquatic Ecosystems: determined by salinity and broken into freshwater and marine.
•
Limiting factors of aquatic ecosystems: temperature, salinity, sunlight penetration, amount of
dissolved oxygen, pH
• Phytoplankton
o producers of aquatic food chain made of cyanobacteria and photosynthetic algae
•
Zooplankton
- 1o or 2o consumers, which feed on the phytoplankton or on each other.
- Protists and small invertebrate
•
Benthos
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- bottom dwellers
- lobster, crabs, worms
•
Decomposers: bacteria
•
Nekton: independently free swimming organisms
- fish, turtles, whales, etc.
•
Open ocean:
- cover 71% of Earth’s surface
- 99.5% of Earth’s habitable volume
- 25000 known species
- less than 5% of the open ocean has been mapped or explored.
- Lowest NPP per unit area but large overall
•
Coral Reef:
- .1% of ocean’s area
- most diverse and productive ecosystems
- ¼ of all marine life found here.
- Vulnerable to destruction because they grow slowly, disrupted easily, require only
clear, warm shallow water with high salinity.
- #1 threat to coral reefs is human activity.
•
Estuary
- a partially enclosed area of coastal water where seawater mixes with freshwater
and nutrients from rivers, streams, and runoff.
- Temperature and salinity vary due to tides, seasonal water flow, storms, typhoons,
hurricanes.
- One of the most productive ecosystems because of the constant water movement
which mixes the nutrients.
- Coastal wetlands- land areas covered by water all or part of the year.
•
Intertidal zone
- area that exists between the tides
- must be able to survive flooding out and then being left dry as well as be able to
cope with changes in salinity.
- Rocky shores- constantly pounded by waves and has many small pools that have
many species and separate communities
- Sandy shores- barrier beaches that have gentle slope. Dunes and back dunes with
vegetation to prevent erosion.
•
Abyssal plain
- lowest part of the ocean below the euphotic zone (upper level where photosynthesis
takes place) and below the bathyal zone (middle zone)
- dark and cold with little dissolved oxygen.
- Nutrient rich due to abundant number of decomposers.
- Deposit feeders take the mud and muck from the floor into their gut and remove
nutrients from.
Marine
Fresh Water (break down of each)
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• Lotic: Moving water
• Rivers- water and fed through watersheds or drainage basinsà area that drains into a stream.
- source-à head water, turbulent and fast moving
- dissolved oxygen from the air is brought into the water.
- Location of fish that require cold water with lots D.O
- Plants and algae which stick to surface of rocks.
- Flattened bodied fish and organisms, which are able to survive under rocks.
- Transition zoneà wider deeper than source with a smaller slope
- Warmer temperature water with more producers
- Location of species that withstand cool or warm water.
- Lower oxygen needs than those in the source
- Floodplainà wider, deeper, meandering, slow moving water.
- High temperature with low levels of D.O
- High particle count with lots of sediment due to erosion.
- Location of photosynthetic bacteria, algae, plants
•
Lentic: free standing water
o Seasonal characteristics: seasonal variation within lakes
§ thermal stratificationà temperature layering
o epilimnionà upper layer with warm water and rich in D.O.
o thermoclineà rapid change in water temperature with medium levels of
D.O. barrier between the epilimnion and hypolimnion
o hpolimnionà lowest layer with cold dense water and low D.O. levels
§ fall and spring overturn allow for nutrient cycling because of cooling and
warming of surface water allowing for thermal stratification to be removed.
o Swamps: type of inland wetland which is covered with freshwater part or entire year
and not near coastal areas.
• Mainly grasses
o Marshes: type of inland wetland
-­‐ mainly comprised of trees and shrubs
§
Lakes: large natural bodies of standing water from either precipitation or surface runoff, or
ground water infiltration.
- Created by glaciers, crustal displacement, volcanic activity.
- 4 lifezones within lakes
§ littoral- shallow waters near the shore
o location of photosynthesis and where rooted plants are located
o high in diversity
§ limnetic- water surface where photosynthesis occurs
o out than littoral
o majority of producers are located here
§ Profundal- deep open water
o Not enough light penetration for photosynthesis to occur
o Cooler temperatures
o Low levels of dissolved oxygen
§ Benthic- bottom
o very cold
o oxygen poor
18
APES midterm review 2015
- oligotrophic lakes: younger lakes which are poorly nourished and have clear blue water
with low NPP.
- eutrophic lakes: older lakes which are well nourished due to sediment, decomposition
and nutrients
Populations
•
Age structure diagrams
•
Demographic transition: Movement from pre-industrial to industrial society
o Stage I: pre industrial
§ High birth rate and high death rate
§ Low total population growth
§ Agricultural based society
o Stage 2: transitional
§ Death rate drops but birth rate remains high
§ Population growth is at its greatest increase
o Stage 3: industrial
§ Birth rate slows and catches up to the
§ Population growth still high, but
slowing down
o Stage 4: Post Industrial
§ Birth rate and death rate low
§ Population growth is stable or
declining
•
•
•
Calculating natural rate of increase or population
growth
o CBR-CDR
10
Rule of 70
o 70 / % growth rate = doubling time
Survivorship curves
low death rate
19
APES midterm review 2015
Complete the following on the below images of the Earth:
•
Draw the various convection currents that exist in the atmosphere.
•
Identify latitudes that are associated with dry and wet climates.
•
The direction of prevailing winds and how Coriolis effect would occur.
•
identify location of El Nino
•
Identify areas where Volcanic Island Chains have formed (what process of the earth is
associated with these islands?
20
•
APES midterm review 2015
Identify the layers of the cross section below.
o Give a characteristic of each layer (composition or physical property)
•
Draw the convection currents that occur within the earth.
§
Explain what these convection currents result in.
21
APES midterm review 2015
Math
Dimensional analysis Practice
Conversions Factors
1 hr = 60 min
1 min = 60 sec
1 ton = 2000 lbs
7 days = 1 week
24 hrs = 1 day
1 kg = 2.2 lbs
1 gal = 3.79 L
264.2 gal = 1 cubic meter
1 mi = 5,280 ft
1 kg = 1000 g
1 lb = 16 oz
20 drops = 1 mL
365 days = 1 yr
52 weeks = 1 yr
2.54 cm = 1 in
1 L = 1000 mL
3
0.621 mi = 1.00 km 1 yd = 36 inches
1 cc is 1 cm
1 mL = 1 cm3
1.) How many miles will a person run during a 10 kilometer race?
10km x .621 miles =6.21 miles
km
2.) The moon is 250,000 miles away. How many feet is it from earth?
2.5 x 105 miles x 5280 ft = 1.32 x 109 feet
miles
3.) A family pool holds 10,000 gallons of water. How many cubic meters is this?
10,000 gal x
m3 = 37.85 m3
264. 2 gal
4) Lake Michigan holds 1.3 x 1015 gallons of water. How many liters is this?
1.3 x 1015 gal x 3.79 L
= 4.927 x 1015 L
gal
5) Chicago uses 1.2 x 109 gallons of water /day. How many gallons per second must be pumped from the
lake every second to supply the city?
1.2 x 109 gal
x
day
x hrs
x min
= 1.39 x 106 gal
24 hrs
60 min 60 sec
sec
Recognizing the prefix of different units
Complete the chart below
Symbol
Prefix
Multiplication Factor
G
Giga
109
M
Mega
106
k
Kilo
103
m
milli
10-3
µ
micro
10-6
n
nano
10-9
22
APES midterm review 2015
Use the chart from the previous page to answer the questions below
1) Convert 10 GW (gigawatt) to MW (Megawatts).
10 GW = 10,000 MW
2) Convert 4 kilograms to micrograms.
4 kg = 4,000,000,000 µg
Natural Increase Rate Practice
1) A population has a crude birth rate of 42 and a crude death rate of 25, what is the natural rate of
increase for that population?
42 – 25 = 1.7%
10
2) If the crude death rate of a country is 13 and the population is growing at a rate of 3%, what is the crude
birth rate for that nation?
X – 13 = 3%
10
30 = x -13
x = 43
Rule of 70 Practice
1) In 1900, the US was growing at a rate of 2%. In what year did that population double.
70
2
= 35 years
1900
+ 35
1935
2) A population doubled in 10 years. What is the growth rate of this population?
70 = 10
10x = 70
x = 7% growth
x