CHAPTER 2
Sociology’s Family Tree:
Theories and Theorists
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
For a detailed Study Plan and more Learning Objectives, see
www.wwnorton.com/studyspace.
By the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
• Explain what social theory is.
• Understand how social theory is relevant in individual’s
lives.
• Identify the origins of social theory and its founders—
Comte, Spencer, Martineau.
• Distinguish the four key figures in classical sociological
thought: Freud, Durkheim, Marx, and Weber.
• Provide an overview of the three modern schools of
thought: structural functionalism, conflict theory, and
symbolic interaction.
• Demonstrate an understanding of new theoretical
approaches such as postmodernism, feminist theory,
and queer theory.
CHAPTER SUMMARY
This chapter provides an overview of the theorists and theoretical perspectives that make up the foundation for social
thought. This chapter aims to summarize quickly complex abstract concepts that many students may find uninteresting,
but it includes engaging examples and details about the theorists’ lives to capture students’ attention. Ferris and Stein begin
by defining theory and using the example of society’s changing attitudes about mental illness to illustrate a practical consequence of theory. The first theorists discussed are referred to
as the roots of sociology’s family tree—Comte, Martineau,
and Spencer. The trunk of the tree consists of Durkheim, Marx,
Weber, and Freud. After covering the life experiences and
ideas of these theorists, the chapter explains the three major
theoretical paradigms: structural functionalism, social conflict theory, and symbolic interaction. The chapter ends by
outlining new theoretical approaches such as feminist theory,
queer theory, and postmodern theory.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
1. What Is a Theory?
a. A theory is an abstract proposition about how
things are as well as how they should be. Theories
are also called approaches, schools of thought,
paradigms, or perspectives.
b. The theoretical paradigm we use affects the way
that we see the world and helps to guide social
research. Each theoretical paradigm has benefits
and limitations. All these paradigms are necessary
for social analysis.
c. Theory affects public policy and treatment of
individuals. Past theories about mental illness
led to horrific treatment of the mentally ill.
Present theories are just as fallible and subject
to modification.
2. Sociology’s Family Tree
a. Sociology’s Roots
i. Auguste Comte: Positivism, scientific method
applied to studying society.
ii. Harriet Martineau: Critiqued U.S. democracy as
flawed and hypocritical for condoning slavery
and denying full citizenship to women.
iii. Herbert Spencer: Social Darwinism, survival
of the fittest; Spencer compared society with
the human body in that all parts are needed
for the function of the whole.
b. Classical Sociological Theory
13
14 | Chapter 2
i. Emile Durkheim: Use of empirical study;
mechanical solidarity versus organic solidarity; study of suicide; anomie; religion as
social solidarity.
ii. Karl Marx: Conflict over resources; social
inequality; capitalism; means of production;
proletariat versus bourgeoisie; alienation;
socialism.
iii. Max Weber: Rationalization; bureaucracies;
disenchantment; verstehen.
iv. Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalysis; libido and
aggression versus sublimation and repression;
discontent.
3. Modern Schools of Thought
a. Structural Functionalism
i. Origins: Comte, Spencer, and Durkheim
ii. Tenets: Society is a stable system of interrelated parts that work together to function as
a whole. Emphasis on social structure and the
functions that each part fulfills.
iii. Offshoots: Parsons, Smelser, Merton’s manifest
and latent functions.
iv. Critiques: The mere persistence of an institution should not be seen as an adequate explanation of its existence. It is a static model that
does not provide insight into social processes.
v. Advantages: Attempts to provide a universal
social theory.
b. Conflict Theory
i. Origins: Marx.
ii. Tenets: Society is an area of conflict and change
motivated by struggle over resources and power.
Marx encouraged social change and equal access for all people. False consciousness versus
class consciousness.
iii. Offshoots: Critical theory (Frankfurt school,
neo-Marxism), including theorists such as
Habermas, Adorno, Marcuse; feminist theory,
critical race theory.
iv. Critiques: Overlooks commonalities and shared
values.
v. Advantages: The principle of praxis, or practical
action.
c. Symbolic Interactionism
i. Origins: George Herbert Mead and the Chicago
School, Herbert Blumer, Erving Goffman, and
Harvey Sacks.
ii. Tenets: Face-to-face interaction is the building
block for all of society. Through interaction
we create a meaningful reality. Meanings
are negotiated and modified through social
interaction.
iii. Offshoots: Dramaturgy, ethnomethodology,
conversation analysis.
iv. Critiques: Often dismissed by macrosociologists
as being unscientific, astructural, and less rigorous than structural functionalism and conflict
theory.
v. Advantages: Allows for versatility in addressing any sociological issue. Explores meaning
and truly connects the individual to the social.
4. New Theoretical Approaches
a. Feminist theory focuses on enhancing scholarly
understanding of gender inequality in our society.
b. Queer theory proposes that the predominant categories of sexuality are simplistic social constructs
that need to be replaced with more fluid notions of
identity.
c. Postmodern theory is an interdisciplinary theory
that argues that there are no absolute universal
truths from which we can interpret the meaning of
existence. Instead, we need to embrace multiplicity,
fluidity, complexity, and multi-dimensionality.
LECTURE SUGGESTIONS
Many students groan at the thought of reading a chapter on
theory. The authors’ approach helps students understand that
theory is shaped by individual experience as well as by cultural and historical contexts. Another technique that I employ is to make sure that students realize that theory doesn’t
exist in a vacuum and instead is applicable to their everyday
lives on many different levels. I begin by arguing that they
can use theories as a basic map for understanding whatever
they are studying. Because sociology is a study of society, its
theories can be explained as ways of looking at interaction
that help to guide research and analysis.
The authors use theories of mental illness to illustrate how
theory can affect treatment of other human beings. The example I use in class of virtual communities and building relationships online demonstrates how theory can affect individual
interactions and relationships. An individual’s assumptions
about cyberspace interaction influence the way that he or she
interacts online. Some see their virtual identities as an extension of their actual identities. Thus, when they post online, they
do so earnestly, with as much integrity and honesty as they
would in their real life interactions. Others see online interactions as a joke, and thus their virtual identities are free to
engage in behavior without consequences. In many cases, those
who see online interaction as unreal tend to lie, act rudely or
spitefully, or violate rules simply because they do not believe
that their actions have costs or penalties. Problems arise when
these two perspectives on cyberspace interaction collide.
Sociology’s Family Tree: Theories and Theorists | 15
“A Rape in Cyberspace” by Julian Dibbell (www.julian
dibbell.com/texts/bungle.html) is a classic piece documenting an extreme case of what occurs when people approach
interaction using drastically different theories. As a side note,
the same article is an excellent illustration of applied postmodernism. Dibbell details an incident in a cybercommunity
where an outsider, applying the perspective that interaction in
cyberspace is not real interaction, uses words to simulate sexual assaults on members of the community. Dibbell captures
the outrage that stems from the violated members’ humiliation
and horror at this virtual rape. On one level, this research
provides a fascinating example for students to understand the
impact that theory can make on individuals and their interactions. On another level, this research can help illustrate a
postmodern concept: Is rape where no bodies are actually
involved still an act of violence?
On a much lighter note, I like to give the following example to explain Merton’s manifest and latent functions. To
extend the book’s example of education’s manifest and latent functions, I detail the manifest and latent functions of
college. Generally, for manifest functions of college, I will
show the students the school’s mission statement. Then, I
will show them examples of common understandings of college life from clips of such movies as Animal House, Rvenge
of the Nerds, Van Wilder, and from some current television
ads portraying college as a beer-soaked orgy. Then I explain
to them that college does serve a latent function as a prescribed time and somewhat safer place to experiment with
drinking, drugs, and casual sex. Outside the context of college
(and the traditional age of college attendance), excessive drinking, rude behavior, and pranks are no longer considered appropriate. The movie Old School provides a funny account of what
occurs when married men in their thirties decide to return to
the attitudes and behaviors of their college years.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
Short Discussion
I particularly like the eighth Question for Review as the
topic for a short class discussion. Symbolic interactionism
argues that meanings are not inherent in things or gestures,
but are socially derived and negotiated through interactions.
Ask students to think of some recent fashion trend. Ask them
to describe this trend in terms of what it means to those who
embrace it. Also ask what sort of interactions produce and
maintain this meaning.
Long Discussion
Returning to the text’s recurring theme of reality television,
show students the current listings of reality shows such as
the one at www.realitytvcalendar.com, and have small groups
each select a familiar show. Ask each group to select one of
the three major theoretical perspectives best suited to analyze
its chosen show. Make sure that students are able to support
their decisions adequately.
SOCIOLOGY IN PRACTICE DVD
See www.wwnorton.com/studyspace for Sociology in Practice
DVD quizzes and streaming video clips.
The Coffee-Go-Round (6:09)
Bullfrog Films; produced by Television Trust for the Environment,
2004
Try showing The Coffee-Go-Round. This clip elucidates the
contradiction between the increasing amounts of coffee being
consumed each year and the economic crisis that coffee growers face. It also helps to illustrate how students can use theory
in framing issues connected to items found in their everyday
lives. In fact, you can take a quick hand-raise poll about how
many students have a cup of coffee with them in class and
how many students had a cup of coffee that day. You can use
the clip as a springboard for discussion about how to apply the
different theoretical perspectives to the problem of coffee
production.
Precarious Peace: God and Guatemala (4:47)
Written and produced by Rudy and Shirley Nelson, 2003
Alternatively, if you’ve used The Coffee-Go-Round in Chapter 1, Precarious Peace: God and Guatemala presents a variety of Christian views on Mayan spirituality in Guatemala. The
clip includes interviews with religious leaders and scholars
about the El Shaddai Church, a movement that originated in the
United States and has now spread to upper-class Guatemalan
Protestant churches.
• According to structural functionalism, the beliefs and
practices associated with a religion serve a number of
functions. What are some of the functions that religion provides for the people in this video? Are there
any dysfunctions?
• How might a conflict theorist analyze the experiences
of the people in this video?
DATA WORKSHOP GUIDE
Interactive Data Workshops are available at www.wwnorton.
com/studyspace.
16 | Chapter 2
For Instructors: Analyzing Mass Media and Popular Culture:
“Theories of Celebrity Gossip”
Data Collection: Approximately 30 minutes
This Data Workshop aids students in understanding how something that is usually seen as academic and abstract can be
applied to a phenomenon like celebrity gossip. Students are
asked to pick five entries from a celebrity gossip blog of their
choice and answer questions that will allow them to analyze
these entries from each of the three theoretical perspectives.
The data collection for this workshop should take about 30
minutes, and can be done from the convenience of any place
that has internet access. Because it is a fairly easy assignment,
and because celebrity gossip readily sparks class discussion,
I suggest using Option 1.
HANDOUT 2.1
Data Workshop 2.1
Analyzing Mass Media and Popular Culture: “Theories of Celebrity Gossip”
Each of these Data Workshops requires you to do original sociological research, using methods and concepts covered in the
course. Please refer to Chapter 3 of the textbook for instructions on how to conduct social research. Refer to the textbook
chapter listed under each topic for information on the concept to which it is related. You will be expected to support your
discussion using specific terms and concepts from that chapter. You should not use any other supplemental sources for this
paper.
Chapter 2 of The Real World emphasizes the importance of social theory in analyzing the world around us. Although many
can dismiss celebrity blogs such as www.perezhilton.com and www.wwtdd.com as frivolous and mean, the popularity and
prevalence of these websites have a considerable social impact on our world today. For this Data Workshop, you will be
analyzing entries in a celebrity blog, using one of the three major social paradigms.
Step 1: Collectng Data
Choose a celebrity blog and pick five entries. Scrutinize the pictures, read the headlines and text carefully, and review the
reader comments.
Step 2: Thinking about and Analyzing the Data
For the five entries that you have selected, answer the following questions from each of sociology’s three major theoretical
perspectives.
DATA-COLLECTION FORM FOR “THEORIES OF CELEBRITY GOSSIP”
Data Workshop 2.1
Name:
Class Section:
Date:
1. Structural Functionalist Theory:
What is the function (or functions) of celebrity gossip blogs for society? What purpose(s) do they serve, and how do
they help society maintain stability and order? Do celebrity gossip blogs have manifest and latent functions? Are any
dysfunctions built into such publications?
2. Social Conflict Theory:
What forms of inequality are revealed in celebrity gossip blogs? In particular, what do celebrity gossip blogs have to
say about gender, race, and class inequalities? Who suffers and who benefits from the publication of celebrity gossip
blogs?
3. Symbolic Interactionist Theory:
What do celebrity gossip blogs mean to society as a whole? What do they mean to individual members of society?
Can they have different meanings for different individuals or groups of individuals? How do those meanings get
constructed in interaction? And how do celebrity gossip blogs shape and influence our everyday lives?
Sociology’s Family Tree: Theories and Theorists | 19
For Instructors: Analyzing Everyday Life: “Shopping for
Theoretical Perspectives at Wal-Mart”
Completion Time: Approximately 1 hour
This workshop aids students in applying theoretical perspectives to their personal knowledge and to data that they collect at a familiar social institution, Wal-Mart. If a Wal-Mart is
not available, suggest that students use another big-box store.
By asking and answering differing sets of questions about
the same topic, they are able to see how different theoretical
assumptions can allow analysis of the same object to yield
multiple interpretations. You may want to have students refer
to the glossary at the end of the textbook for quick reference
to the relevant terms.
Because this is a complex and involved Data Workshop,
I suggest assigning this exercise as a group project. It may
be useful to assign a perspective to each group and allow
the groups to share their findings with the rest of the class.
After allowing time for the group work, I would suggest
using Option 2, the more formal assignment, as a write-up
to ensure that each student grasps the three main theoretical
perspectives.
HANDOUT 2.2
Data Workshop 2.2
Analyzing Everyday Life: “Shopping for Theoretical Perspectives at Wal-Mart”
Each of these Data Workshops requires you to do original sociological research, using methods and concepts covered in the
course. Please refer to Chapter 3 of the textbook for instructions on how to conduct social research. Refer to the textbook
chapter listed under each topic for information on the concept to which it is related. You will be expected to support your
discussion using specific terms and concepts from that chapter. You should not use any other supplemental sources for this
paper.
In this Data Workshop, you will be asking and answering theoretically driven questions about a familiar social institution:
Wal-Mart. Wal-Mart Stores, Inc., the highest-grossing company in the United States, has had a major social impact on the
country. Although many see Wal-Mart as a convenient retail store with prices cheaper than most for everyday household
items, it also has the effect of driving out of business locally owned shops that can’t compete with the low prices and huge
selection. The company has also been accused of underpaying and exploiting its low-wage workers. At any given time,
multiple lawsuits are pending against this corporate giant for its labor practices.
Step 1: Collecting Data
Think about your own shopping experiences (if not at Wal-Mart, at another big-box retailer). You might even want to visit
your local store. Walk up and down the aisles and observe the other shoppers. Note how and where the goods are displayed.
How do the shoppers and staffers interact with the products and with each other? If you get a chance, try to view several of
Wal-Mart’s television commercials as well.
Step 2: Thinking about and Analyzing the Data
Immediately after the experience (perhaps while you are still in the parking lot), sit down with the data-collection form and
write out your answers. This activity should help you see how making different theoretical assumptions can allow us to
analyze the same object but come up with different interpretations.
DATA-COLLECTION FORM FOR “SHOPPING FOR
THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES AT WAL-MART”
Data Workshop 2.2
Name:
Class Section:
Date:
1. Functionalist questions
a. What are the functions of Wal-Mart for society?
b. Are they the same or different from the functions of Wal-Mart in our individual lives? How do the two types of
functions connect?
c. Does Wal-Mart have both manifest and latent functions?
d. Does Wal-Mart have any dysfunctions for society? If so, what are they? How might these dysfunctions become
incentives or catalysts for social change?
2. Conflict questions
a. Does Wal-Mart affect every group in society in the same way?
b. If not, what are the differences?
c. Does Wal-Mart perpetuate the inequalities (of gender, race, class, religion, age, sexual orientation, and so on) in
our society? If so, how?
d. Does Wal-Mart contribute to conflict between unequal groups in our society? If so, how?
e. How might Wal-Mart contribute to social change, or the amelioration of inequalities in society?
3. Interactionist questions
a. What kind of symbolic world are you likely to encounter inside a Wal-Mart store? How does that affect the
shopper’s experience?
b. How does Wal-Mart influence our interpersonal interactions?
c. How do interpersonal interactions shape the Wal-Mart experience for shoppers? for workers?
d. How does Wal-Mart contribute to our socially constructed reality?
24 | Chapter 2
EVERYDAY SOCIOLOGY BLOG EXERCISE
For more exercises from everydaysociologyblog.com, see
www.wwnorton.com/studyspace.
Have your students read Sally Raskoff, “Cognitive Dissonance and Sociology Classes,” 5/22/2009, at http://nortonbooks.
typepad.com/everydaysociology/2009/05/cognitive_
dissonance_and_sociology_classes.html. This blog entry could
facilitate a discussion about how learning about the new perspectives and theories from the first two chapters of The Real
World can lead to a paradigm shift that may cause students
discomfort. The blog entry addresses how this newfound discomfort can facilitate change and improvement. At the end of
semester, numerous students have approached me to recount
how the class changed their lives. The idea that an Introduction to Sociology class can affect student’s lives beyond the
classroom should be presented early on in the class. Students
may react with eye-rolling and skepticism, but it will give them
fair warning.
Additional relevant blog posts for this chapter include:
SUGGESTED READINGS
Charmaz, Kathy. 2006. Constructing Grounded Theory:
A Practical Guide through Qualitative Analysis. New
York: Sage.
Hill Collins, Patricia. 2007. Black Feminist Thought:
Knowledge, Consciousness, and The Politics of
Empowerment. New York: Routledge.
Kivisto, Peter. 2007. Illuminating Social Life: Classical
and Contemporary Theory Revisited. Thousand Oaks,
CA: Pine Forge Press.
Lemert, Charles. 2007. Thinking the Unthinkable: The
Riddles of Classical Sociological Theories. Boulder,
CO: Paradigm.
Meyers, Diana Charles. 1996. Feminists Rethink the Self.
Theory and Politics Series. Cambridge, MA: Westview
Press.
Ritzer, George. 2007. Sociological Theory. 7th ed. New
York: McGraw-Hill.
SUGGESTED FILMS
Sally Raskoff, Fractals, Theories, and Patterns, 12/12/2007
Raskoff muses that although it may be tempting to apply the
theory of fractals, natural small patterns writ large, to human
sociology, this is not the most appropriate theory. With humans,
the sum of the parts may be more than the whole.
C. N. Le, Applying Social Science in the Combat Zone,
1/11/2008
Le discusses how the U.S. military uses social scientists to
help fight terrorists in Afghanistan and Iraq. Although some
criticize this practice as another weapon, Le favors it because it will make the military more sensitive to the local
population.
SERVICE LEARNING EXERCISE
For this stage of service learning, have your students select
a volunteer organization that they will devote their semester
to. Have them write a short essay detailing why they have
chosen this organization and what theoretical perspectives
they believe will aid them in their analysis throughout the
course. You can guide them toward the questions in the Data
Workshop “Shopping Theoretical Perspectives at Wal-Mart”
(p. 20) to help them figure out how to apply theory to their
experiences in their service learning organization.
Moulin Rouge. 2001. This film is mentioned in the textbook as an example of postmodernism. Showing several
scenes in class may help students to visualize the concept.
When the Levees Broke. 2006. Spike Lee’s documentary about
the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina provides an interesting
companion to the Data Workshop in this chapter.
SUGGESTED WEBSITES
ASA Theory Section Website
www.asatheory.org
This site has been online since 2003, offering news and resources to fans and practitioners of sociological theory of all
kinds. It introduces the Theory Section, its members, and
their work to those outside this field.
The SocioWeb: Sociological Theories
www.socioweb.com/directory/sociological_theories
The SocioWeb is an independent guide to the sociological
resources available on the internet. It was founded in the belief that the internet can help to unite the sociological community in powerful ways. Originally launched in October, 1995,
the SocioWeb has grown at a steady pace. This site provides a
list of recommended sociology sites that specialize in theory.