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Electronic Theses, Treatises and Dissertations
The Graduate School
2004
The Effects of Rap Music on the Reckless
Behavior of College Students
Jared Kason Stubbs
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THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF MUSIC
THE EFFECTS OF RAP MUSIC ON THE RECKLESS BEHAVIOR OF
COLLEGE STUDENTS
By
JARED KASON STUBBS
A Thesis submitted to the
School of Music
In partial fulfillment of the
Requirements for the degree of
Masters of Music
Degree Awarded:
Summer Semester, 2004
The members of the Committee approve the thesis of Jared Kason Stubbs
defended on June 7, 2004.
______________________________________
Jayne M. Standley
Professor Directing Thesis
______________________________________
Clifford K. Madsen
Committee Member
______________________________________
Dianne Gregory
Committee Member
The Office of Graduate Studies has verified and approved the above named
committee members.
ii
Trust in the Lord with all thine heart; and lean not unto thine own
understanding. In all thy ways acknowledge him, and he shall direct
thy paths.
---- Proverbs 3: 5-6
iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Praise God from whom all blessings flow, I would not be here if it were not for you
To Dr. Jayne M. Standley, thank you for your patience and belief that I could succeed in
this program. Thank you for giving me a chance.
To Dr. Clifford K. Madsen, thank you for opening my eyes to the joys of education and
learning.
To Dianne Gregory, thank you for being so meticulous and accepting only my best.
To Dr. James Reggie Jackson, thank you for being the brother I never had emotionally
and spiritually. God bless you in your future endeavors.
To Dr. Ricky Fleming, thank you for being another brother in the pursuit of this degree.
God bless you in your future success.
To my father Carrol B. Stubbs, Jr., for being an excellent role model/hero, and stressing
the importance of being a man. I love you, Dad.
To my mother Cheyenne C. Stubbs, for being the worlds greatest mother, unconditional
love, and never giving up on me. I love you, Mom.
To my sister Canonica Stubbs Chinnery, for being constant competition and a best friend
throughout life. I love you, Nonnie.
To the love of my life Chelsa Holmes Stubbs, for being constant encouragement
throughout this demanding ordeal. I love you.
To Mr. & Mrs. Holmes, for being second parents to me and providing a halfway home to
me when I needed a vacation. RIP Mr. Johnnie Holmes (1949-2001).
To Dr. R. B. Holmes & The Bethel Baptist Church, for providing a church experience
like no other away from home.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Tables …………………………………………………………………………...vii
Abstract………………………………………………………………………………….viii
1. INTRODUCTION ………………………………………………………1
2. LITERATURE REVIEW ……………………………………………….3
History of Rap …………………………………………………………………....3
Research on Rap Music ………………………………………………………….9
3. PURPOSE OF STUDY ………………………………………………..14
4. METHOD ……………………………………………………………...15
Subjects ………….……………………………………………………………...15
Design …………………………………………………………………………..15
Measures ……………………………………………………………………......16
5. RESULTS ……………………………………………………………...17
6. DISCUSSION ………………………………………………………....22
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APPENDIX A: CONSENT FORM ……………………………………...25
APPENDIX B: SURVEY ………………………………………………..26
APPENDIX C: SUBJECT RESPONSES ………………………………..27
APPENDIX D: HUMAN SUBJECTS COMMITTEE APPROVAL……..59
REFERENCES ……………………………………………………………60
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH ……………………………………………...64
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LIST OF TABLES
1. Reckless Behavior and Musical Preferences ………………………………………..17
2. Reckless Behavior and Gender ……………………………………………………...18
3. Reckless Behavior and Race ………………………………………………………...18
vii
ABSTRACT
The impact of rap music on college undergraduate student’s reckless behavior
was examined in the following study. When compared with rock music listeners,
subjects that reported rap as being their preferred genre of music reported significantly
higher results when engaging in driving over 80 mph (miles per hour), driving greater
than 20 mph over the speed limit, and having sex without contraception. Overall
significant responses by music preference were discovered for 5 of the 10 survey
questions with rock music listeners being significantly higher in cocaine use and casual
sex. It was concluded that music alone, more specifically rap music, was not the sole
determining factor for students engaging in reckless behavior.
viii
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Due to recent violent and criminal activity in the world of rap music, it is
no surprise that opinions of the music and on its writers are plenty. In January
2001, rapper/producer Sean “Puffy” Combs (a.k.a “Puff Daddy”) was charged
with illegal weapons possession and bribery after a night club shooting at a New
York nightclub in December 2000 (Nordlinger, 2001). In 1999, rapper Coolio was
sentenced to 10 days in jail for pleading guilty to being a felon in possession of a
firearm (Jet, 1999). In 1998, rapper Old Dirty Bastard (a.k.a. ODB) was arrested
for allegedly threatening to kill his former girlfriend (Jet, 1998). With this much
violent activity adding to the unsolved and coincidental deaths of rap artists
Christopher Wallace (Notorious B.I.G.) and Tupac Shakur (2pac), in 1997 and
1996 respectively, as well as many other rappers arrested on smaller but
noticeable criminal charges, rap music has drawn much attention to itself. Rap
music has managed to stay in the negative public and criminal spotlight since its
entrance into the music scene in the mid seventies. The list of noticeable
incidents include; members of the High Times Crew arrested for break dancing at
a Washington Heights subway in 1980; controversy over a Public Enemy
members (Professor Griff) anti-semetic remarks causing a media furor in 1989;
Florida record store owner and 2 live Crew Leader Luther Campbell, arrested for
the sale of 2 Live Crews “As Nasty as they Wanna Be” album in 1990; rapper IceT sparking controversy with LA police after performing “Cop Killer” at a concert
in 1992 (Potter, 2001).
Government officials, researchers, and the Parents Music Resource Center
(PMRC) are some of raps most popular critics. Forty-seven percent (47%) of
mothers with children in public schools believe that violent messages in rap music
contribute “a great deal” to school violence (Kandakai, Price, Telljohann, and
Wilson, 1999). Johnson, Adams, and Ashburn (1995) found that exposure to rap
music “tends to lead to a higher degree of acceptance of the use of violence.”
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Alternatively, Aldridge and Carlin (1993) argue that rap music gives voice to the
problems of the inner city. In addition, rap music has long provided a platform
for people who feel they lack any other political voice (Ehrlich, 1992).
Tricia Rose (1991), African-American cultural critic, blames the
criticism of rap on “fear of blacks” by whites and the media. Rose states:
Unlike heavy metal’s victims, the majority of rap’s fans are the youngest
representatives of Black presence whose cultural difference is an ongoing internal
threat to America’s cultural development. These differences between the
ideological nature of sanctions against rap and heavy metal are of critical
importance because they articulate the ways in which racial discourses deeply
inform social control efforts in the United States (p. 280).
Perhaps the most compelling argument is one offered by rappers
themselves and echoed by Epstein et al. (1990): namely, that the music “is a
reflection of the social environment of its target population or market …and
simply reflects already existing adolescent sentiments back to the youth
subculture” (p. 382). The effect of rap music on behaviors seems to be a valid
concern that warrants scientific study but, efforts in this direction are few.
2
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
History of Rap
Although views differ as to its actual starting date, the majority of writers and
historians agree that rap music began in the late 1970’s in the rundown, crime and drug
infested slums of the South Bronx, New York. Steven Hager (1984), author of the book,
“Hip-Hop; the Illustrated History of Break Dancing, Rap Music and Graffiti,” states that
there were three major events which took place in the Bronx that led to the birth of rap.
First, in 1959 the commissioner of parks, Robert Moses, approved the building of
an expressway that ran directly through the middle of the Bronx. The new expressway
brought large amounts of traffic and easy access into the Bronx, which at that time was
inhabited by middle class Italian, German, Irish, and Jewish families (Rhodes, 1993).
Berman (1982) recalls the resurrection of the expressway:
Miles of streets alongside the road were choked with dust and fumes and
deafening noise...Apartment houses that had been settled and stable for
over twenty years emptied out, often virtually overnight; large and
impoverished black and Hispanic families, fleeing even worse slums, were
moved wholesale, often under the auspices of the Welfare Department,
which even paid inflated rents, spreading panic and accelerated
flight...Thus depopulated, economically depleted, emotionally shatteredthe Bronx was ripe for all the dreaded spirals of urban blight (p. 292).
The middle class families soon saw their neighborhoods becoming run down and riddled
with crime. This caused the families to move out of the south Bronx and take their
businesses with them. As a result of the families evacuating and the addition of a new
expressway, the value of the land began to decrease, allowing poor and lower class black
and Hispanic families to move into the uninhabited buildings.
3
The second event occurred in 1968. Again under the direction of Park
Commissioner Moses, a co-op apartment complex was erected in the northern region of
the Bronx. This project fostered and accelerated the Bronx middle class exodus from
comfortable and well kept apartments (Rhodes, 1993). Due to large amounts of
vacancies, now present, the landlords began selling out to professional slumlords. Soon
after, the Bronx became a severely depleted neighborhood (or ghetto) with many unkept
and vacant buildings.
With the entire Bronx, now in this deteriorated state, filled with poor black and
Hispanic families living lives of crime, drug addiction, and unemployment, the third
event was eminent. A group of seven teenage boys began terrorizing a particular section
of the Bronx known as the Bronxdale Projects in the southeast Bronx. The boys called
themselves the savage seven (Hager, 1984). As time went on the savage seven began to
grow larger, in members. They changed their name to the Black Spades. After the
entrance of the Black Spades, gangs seemingly were created overnight and began
hanging on corners all over the Bronx (Rhodes, 1993). One of the most influential
members of the Black Spades was a young Jamaican boy later known as Afrika
Bambaataa. Bambataa’s real name is unknown as evidenced by an interview published
in, Hip Hop America (1998) by Nelson George. George states:
“Bambaataa is so guarded on these matters that his birth name is as hard to uncover as the
digits on a Swiss bank account” (p. 16).
With the onset of so many gangs in the Bronx, they (the gangs) needed a way to
mark territory that was theirs. Rhodes (1993) states that street gangs used graffiti for self
promotion, marking territorial boundaries and intimidation (note: this was not the
creation of graffiti, graffiti has been traced as far back as World War II and even farther
to hieroglyphics, used by Egyptians). Gangs in New York reached their peak in 1973
(Hager, 1984). The Black Spades began to fade away due to drug use, violence, and
membership becoming so large; individuals did not want to be involved anymore.
However, graffiti remained, and small graffiti cliques were made out of remaining gang
members as well as individuals from their neighborhoods (Hager, 1984).
In the mid seventies styles began to change. Disco was the newest craze and
youngsters spent their nights and weekends dancing in the disco clubs all over the Bronx.
4
One of the most important individuals in the club was the one who selected and played
the records that kept the attendees dancing. They were called DJ’s, short for disc jockey.
In one particular club, a DJ named Clive Campbell spun records on the weekend.
Clive Campbell, more commonly known as DJ Kool Herc, had moved to the Bronx from
Jamaica and was one of the most popular DJ’s. In Jamaica, the DJ’s used a technique,
while spinning (playing music) on the turntables (two record players, side by side that
allows the DJ to start one record as another is fading out) called “toasting.” Dick
Hebdige (1987) describes Jamaican toasting as when the DJ would talk over the music
they played in order to get the crowd excited. DJ Kool Herc was very successful in
Jamaica and brought his toasting talents to the clubs in the Bronx. Kool Herc would
rarely play an entire song, instead, he knew the parts that would send the audience into
frenzy (Rhodes, 1993). It was often the chorus or break section of the song. The break
section often lasted no more than 30 seconds but was looped over and over. Club goers
that danced during these breaks would be called ‘break dancers’, a dance style associated
with Hip Hop music (Rhodes, 1993).
DJ Kool Herc had a style all his own which made him one of the hottest DJ’s in
the club’s around the Bronx. Herc was deft at the early art of mixing and fading one
record into the next without missing a beat in the interchange (Henderson, 1996). As
mentioned before, it took two turntables placed side by side and headphones to
accomplish this successfully but, what was odd about Kool Herc’s style was that he did
not use headphones to locate the ‘breaks’ or to fade into/fade out of the songs.
DJ Kool Herc was not the only popular DJ during this time. Several other DJ’s
that made significant contributions to the birth of Hip Hop should be noted. Joseph
Saddler, better known as Grand Master Flash, originated the clock method, whereby DJ’s
used the face of the album as a sort of reckoning tool by which one could remember ones
place on a record more exactly (Henderson, 1996). Another popular DJ was Afrika
Bambaataa, a former member of the Black Spades (discussed earlier) but, now the leader
of the Zulu Nation. Though Bambaataa started from the same musical base as DJ Kool
Herc, Bambaataa would range wider and include bits of African, Caribbean, soca, and
D.C. (Washington D.C.) go-go music in his mixes, giving his work an electric,
multiethnic quality (George, 1998). Other notable DJ’s included Lovebug, Starski, and
5
Hollywood, not as well known as the aforementioned but considered just as important to
the history of Hip Hop/rap.
Throughout 1979, black and Hispanic audiences continued to attend Hip Hop
functions at uptown clubs (Smalls Paradise, Broadway International, Charles’s Gallery)
and Time Square venues (The Diplomat Hotel Ballroom, Nell Gwyn’s disco) (George,
1988). The club scenes became the sight were two DJ’s would battle (demonstrate their
skills against one another). The battles between Grand Master Flash and DJ Kool Herc
became legendary (Henderson, 1996). DJ Kool Herc enhanced his already impressive
performances by employing a friend known as Coke La Rock as his master of ceremonies
(MC) to introduce and comment on the selection (George, 1998). George (1998) recalls
several of Coke La Rock’s pet party motivating slogans: “Ya rock and ya don’t stop!”,
“Rock on my mellow!”, and “To the beat y’all!” These would become rap staples for
DJ’s and MC’s in the future. Grand Master Flash also had a group that accompanied him
during his Dj-ing days and battles at clubs. Flash’s group or ‘crew’, as they were called,
was known as the Furious Five. The Furious Five was made up of the following
members: Cowboy (Keith Wiggins), Melle Mel (Melvin Glover), Kidd Creole Nathaniel
Glover), Raheim (Guy Williams), and Mr. Ness a.k.a. Scorpio (Ed Morris). At times,
dispute between Grand Master Flash and the Furious Five members would arise due to
money and professionalism causing the group to be no shows at some club and events.
When this would occur, another young MC, Kurtis Blow (Curtis Walker), ‘worked the
mic’ (performed) with Flash (George, 1998).
Cowboy, of the Furious Five, is credited with inaugurating: “Throw your
hands in the air and wave them like you just don’t care!”, “Clap your hands to the beat!”,
and “Somebody, scream!”-three essential clichés of Hip Hop performance (George,
1998). George (1998), in an interview with Grand Master Flash writes:
Kidd Creole and his brother Melle Mel were, according to Flash, the first rhyme
technicians. They were the first to toss a sentence back and forth. Kidd would say ‘I,’
Melle Mel would say ‘was,’ Kidd would say ‘walking,’ Melle Mel would say
‘down’…(p. 20). If toasting was the beginning of Hip Hop/rap, this was the intermediate
level and thus rap was born.
6
After a few years of Hip Hop parties, in clubs, apartments, and on street corners,
rap music broke into the recording scene. In September, 1979, “Rapper’s Delight,” by
the Sugar Hill Gang, was released on, former R&B (Rhythm and Blues) singer, Silvia
Robert’s label, Sugar Hill Records and DJ King Tim III provided a rap for the Fatback
Band’s album entitled Fat Back XIII. Controversy over which was the first rap, on a
record, continues to be debated (Potter, 2001). A host of rap recordings would follow in
the up and coming years including the entrance of the first known female rap group,
“Sequence.” In 1983, Afrika Bambaataa recorded “Looking for the Perfect Beat” on
Tommy Boy records which featured the first recorded use of digital sampling (this also
secured Tommy Boy’s place as “the” Hip Hop label) (Potter, 2001). In 1984, Def Jam
records, founded by Russell Simmons and Rick Rubin, became the first all Hip Hop
record label (Def Jam would add other genres later). Def Jam was also the label of,
arguably, rap music’s most noticeable and memorable group, Run DMC. Run DMC,
which are Joseph Simmons (Run), Darryl McDaniels (DMC), and Jason Mizell (Jam
Master Jay), are credited with pushing rap and Hip Hop to new heights, by taking the
music and culture to the masses commercially, but also by keeping their material real
(Noton, 1989).
Rap music began as a way for black youths and young adults to express their
feelings about the everyday lives they led, filled with poverty, crime, violence, racism,
poor living conditions, drugs, alcoholism, corruption, and prostitution (Henderson, 1996).
Errol Henderson (1996) stated:
Rap music has had a profound impact on the African American
community in the United States. Its greatest significance, to my mind,
derives from the fact that it has fostered a profound nationalism in the
youth of Black America. Arguably, hip-hop has become a conduit for
African American culture to a greater extent than jazz…Hip-hop fused the
two-poetry and jazz-in such a way as to render itself the most conductive
source of the current of African American culture (p. 309).
According to the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), rap music
was the second highest selling genre of music (12.9%) in the United States behind rock
music (RIAA, 2001). Rap music which is characterized by “staccato beats, driving,
7
lancing rhythms and hip lyrics” (Dyson, 1989) has been charged with having a powerful,
albeit negative, influence on both African American and white youth (Aldridge, H. &
Carlin, D.B., 1993). Some sources imply that rap music, along with other popular forms
of “African American music”, was disguised in earlier years. Nelson George (1988), in
his book: The Death of Rhythm and Blues, asks:
“What is rhythm and blues?…The term originated in the 1940’s as a description
of a synthesis of black musical genres-gospel, big band, swing, blues…A decade later it
would be called rock and roll to camouflage it’s black roots, and subsequently soul, funk,
disco, rap, and other offspring would arise from these roots” (p. xii).
Critics of rap music have suggested that it is often anti-semetic and portrays
African American males as the 1990’s version of the “chicken-thieving, razor-toting
coon” of the 1890’s (Johnson, Jackson, and Gatto, 1995). Other sources state that rap
music glorifies the idea that women are nothing more than individuals put on earth to
satisfy males sexual fantasies and curiosities (“2 Live Crew,” 1991). Desmond (1987)
states that punk groups, “rap” poets, and heavy metal writers and performers have
exploited the lack of regulation by celebrating sex, drugs, and the occult in their lyrics.
Kandakai, Price, Telljohann, and Wilson (1999) report that 47% of mothers, with
children in public schools, believe that violent messages in rap music contribute “a great
deal” to school violence, and 66% of 13-17 year olds believe violence in music is partly
responsible for violent crimes like the 1999 Columbine High School shootings
(CNN/USA Today/Gallup Poll, 1999). Many opinions have been formed about rap
music however; scholarly research dealing with it (rap music) is sparse.
Some writers and journals have chosen to publish essays, comments, articles, or
papers on rap music. Rose (1989) wrote an interesting paper on rap music and African
American cultural resistance. In it, Rose focuses on the historical context that contributes
to raps development, the particular hybrid of orality and technology imbedded in its form,
and its resistive force in popular culture and mass media.
Dyson contributed 3 essays to the Journal of Black Sacred Music, which were:
Rap Culture, the Church, and American Society (1992a); Rights and Responsibilities: 2
Live Crew and Rap’s Moral Vision (1992b); and Rap, Race, and Reality: Run-D.M.C.
8
(1989). Dyson (1989) offers an explanation of raps make up (i.e. slang used, race, and
reality). He suggests that the essence of rap is an expanding musical form that is
experimenting widely in order to reflect the varied visions of its creators (Dyson, 1989).
Dyson also explains some slang used in rap music that is commonly misunderstood by
the general public, but is clear to its (rap music’s) fans. He concludes his essay by
claiming rap music expresses the real life of black youths and aside from the aggression
and violence of some hardcore rappers, black self-assertion and self-concept are really
what is at stake in most rap (Dyson, 1989).
McDonnell (1992) examined rap’s political messages, especially those stemming
from The “Stop the Violence Movement” (SVM) which was a collaboration of 14 rap
artists aimed at delivering a statement to rap listeners and the media as to rap’s role in the
community. The SVM produced a song and a video entitled “Self Destruction” (George,
1985). McDonnell discussed three points: (a) the history of rap, (b) parallels between rap
and self help tactics traditional to African Americans, and (c) rap and self help efforts that
may have hindered rap’s ability to achieve its goals.
Research on Rap Music
Berry (1990) wrote a paper that evolved from a qualitative, two-year investigation
of musical experiences among a specific group of low-income black youth. In the paper,
Berry surveyed 115 black adolescents, 13-18 years of age. Forty-seven percent (47%) of
the students rated rap as their favorite type of music and none reported, “not liking” rap
music. The adolescents were asked specific questions about the song “I’m Bad” by L.L.
Cool J (Ladies Love Cool James). Most of the adolescents grasped the idea that L.L. was
rapping about his skill as a rapper and/or “I’m Bad” actually meant he was good.
One of the major concerns about rap music is its affect on attitudes and behavior
regarding the use of violence (Johnson, Jackson, & Gatto, 1995). Johnson, Jackson, and
Gatto (1995) examined the effects of exposure to rap music on the attitudes and
perception of African American males in grades 6 thru 12. The subjects were exposed to
either violent rap music videos, nonviolent rap music videos, or no music videos. After
watching the videos or not, they read two short literary sketches about (a) a violent act
9
perpetrated against a man and a women, and (b) a young man who chose to engage in
academic pursuits to achieve success, whereas his friend jobless, managed to procure
valuable items. Results showed that subjects in the violent exposure conditions, when
compared to subjects in the nonviolent exposure and control conditions, expressed greater
understanding of the use of violence. Also, when compared with subjects in the control
condition, subjects in the violent condition reported a higher chance that they would
engage in violence. Next, they found, when compared to the controls, subjects in the rap
video exposure were more likely to say they wanted to be like the jobless friend and did
not believe the other young male would be successful in his academic pursuits. Their
findings indicated that exposure to violent rap music videos has a negative affect on the
attitudes and perceptions of young African American males.
However, Christine Hall Hanson posted comments on the Johnson, Jackson and
Gatto study that stated the effects from the experiment were far from straight forward.
Hanson, states that the results imply, when read carefully, that except for the measure of
violence against “Jerry”, one of the subjects in the short story, most of the significant
effects were obtained because of differences between the violent rap condition and the no
video control condition (Hanson, 1995). Hanson goes on to claim that the majority of the
dependant measures, the violent and non-violent rap video conditions, were statistically
equivalent.
In another study, Zillman, Aust, Hoffman, Love, Ordmann, Pope, Seigler and
Gibson (1995) studied the effect of rap music on ethnic divisions. In this particular
study, African American and White high school students were shown a series of music
videos featuring (1) popular rock, (2) nonpolitical rap, or (3) radical political rap. After
an assessment of their self-esteem, the students participated in a mock student
government election. African American and White candidates gave ethnically (1) liberal,
(2) neutral, or (3) radical platforms. Results indicated that White students’ candidate
support was noticeably affected after exposure to radical political rap. These students
gave more support to an African American, ethnically liberal candidate and less support
to a White, ethnically radical candidate than they did after exposure to non-political rap
or popular rock (Zillman, Aust, Hoffman, Love, Ordmann, Pope, Seigler and Gibson,
1995). The radical political rap seemed to motivate White adolescents to encourage
10
efforts toward racial harmony and to oppose White supremacy beliefs. No positive
effects of radical political rap on ethnic consciousness and on feelings of ethnic solidarity
were found for the African American students.
Once again, Hanson published a commentary of this study stating that before
buying into Zillman, Aust, Hoffman, Love, Ordmann, Pope, Seigler and Gibson’s
conclusion, that we consider that the African American and White subjects were recruited
and tested during American history and economics classes at a southeastern, racially
mixed high school, and half of the classes were considered advanced. Hanson continues
to say that the African American men were out numbered relative to African American
Women, which is potentially problematic in terms of external validity, and some may
even say, poses a threat to the internal validity of the study (Hanson, 1995).
In other studies, mood characteristics were closely studied when listening to
certain types of music. Ballard and Coates (1995) examined the impact of homicidal,
suicidal and non-violent heavy metal and rap songs on the moods of college students. The
study was an effort to investigate the links between lyrical content and mood in an
experimental fashion. The students listened to six songs and completed a memory task.
The students completed several mood inventories as a part of a “second study” (Ballard
and Coates, 1995). No effects of song content or music type on suicidal ideation,
anxiety, or self-esteem were demonstrated. The nonviolent rap song evoked higher Beck
Depression Inventory (BDI) scores than the violent rap songs and, as a whole, the rap
songs produced significantly more angry responses than heavy metal songs.
The Parent’s Music Resource Center’s (PMRC) main criticism of rap music
centers around the belief that the lyrics cause adolescents to display negative moods (e.g.,
depression, hostility) and to engage in negative behaviors (e.g. aggression, suicide, sexual
activity, drug use) that they would not participate in otherwise (Desmond, 1987; Hanson
and Hanson, 1991; Record Labeling, 1985; from Ballard an Coates, 1995). Harris,
Bradley, and Titus (1992) reported that inappropriate behaviors were more prevalent
when hard rock and rap music were played as opposed to when easy listening and
country were played in a psychiatric setting. Armstrong (1993) studied the rhetoric of
violence in rap and country music. The study illustrated the hidden resemblances
11
between rap and country music and highlighted the parallels between the musical
domains.
Epstein, Pratto, and Skipper (1990) discussed the relationship between musical
preference, commitment to popular music and behavior problems of teenagers in an
optional middle school. The research tested the hypothesis (A) musical preference is
related to race, (b) musical preference can predict behavior, problems, and (c)
commitment to popular music, measured in hours, can predict behavior problems. The
study involved 80 students. Data from school records, participant observation, and
surveys were recorded. Results indicated that although musical preference can be a good
predictor of race it cannot predict identification as a behavior problem. Epstein, Pratto,
and Skipper (1990) state: despite their popularity, rap and heavy metal are popularly
conceived of as marginal musical genres due to their perceived subject matter and the
popular myths which are created by that perception.
Some studies have focused on the effects of rap music on gender. Johnson,
Adams, Ashburn, and Reed (1995) studied the differential gender effects of exposure to
rap music of African American adolescent’s acceptance of teen dating violence. African
American male and female subjects were shown nonviolent rap videos (which showed
scenes of women in sexually subordinate roles) or they saw no videos at all. They read a
short story that involved teen dating violence perpetuated by a male. The results showed
a significant interaction between gender and video exposure. Also, acceptance of the use
of violence did not vary as a function of exposure for male subjects (Johnson et al. 1995).
Female subjects who saw the video agreed more with the violence than the females who
did not see the video.
Took and Weiss (1994) tested the relationship between heavy metal and rap music
and adolescent turmoil. They (Took & Weiss) surveyed students and their parents and
asked them about present and past psychosocial functioning, as well as their favorite
types of music. Took and Weiss found that adolescent subjects, who preferred heavy
metal and rap had a higher incidence of below average school grades, behavior problems
in school, sexual activity, drug and alcohol use, and arrests. However, it should be noted
that the majority of the adolescents in Took and Weiss’ study were male and non-musical
12
studies have shown that aggressive and destructive behaviors are more common in boys
(Gabel and Schindledecker, 1991) as is sexual activity (Gordon and Gilgun, 1987). Some
studies show negative effects of rap music on attitudes, others do not.
An interesting study by Arnett (1992) attempted to delineate some of the
characteristics associated with musical preferences among adolescents. In particular, it
sought to investigate the association between musical preferences and reckless behavior.
The adolescents were asked to identify their musical genre of preference and then answer
survey questions asking questions about driving while intoxicated, driving over 80 miles
per hour, sex without contraception, sex with someone known only casually, drug use,
shoplifting, and vandalism. Arnett found that adolescents that preferred heavy metal or
hard rock reported higher rates of the reckless behaviors mentioned prior. Arnett also
found that preferences for hard rock or heavy metal were associated with higher levels of
sensation seeking, negative family relationships, and among girls, low self-esteem. Of all
the musical genres in Arnett’s (1992) study, rap music was not mentioned, which leads us
into the current study.
13
CHAPTER 3
PURPOSE OF STUDY
The purpose of this study is to evaluate and compare the difference in
levels of reckless behavior participated in by listeners of rap music versus three other
genres. The subjects were selected from an undergraduate psychology course during the
summer session. The current study is intended to replicate the Jeffrey Arnett (1992)
study utilizing different musical genres, specifically rap, rock, rhythm and blues (R&B),
and country music (currently the top four selling genres of music in the United States).
Based on prior research and social perception, it is hypothesized that subjects that
prefer rap music will exhibit higher levels of reckless behavior than will those preferring
the other three genres.
14
CHAPTER 4
METHOD
Subjects
Four hundred undergraduate psychology students, only 18-25 years of age,
attending various state of Florida universities (The Florida State University (FSU),
Tallahassee; Florida International University (FIU), Miami; Miami-Dade College
(MDC), Miami; Broward Community College (BCC), Davie), were selected to
participate in the study. The distribution of musical preferences, gender, and race were
balanced as follows: 50 Caucasian male rock fans, 50 African American male rock fans,
50 Caucasian female rock fans, 50 African American female rock fans, 50 Caucasian
male rap fans, 50 African American male rap fans, 50 Caucasian female rap fans, and 50
African American female rap fans.
Design
This descriptive study utilized a survey that asked subjects to indicate the number
of times they engaged in particular reckless behaviors in the past year (Appendix A).
Consent was obtained by a cover letter and voluntary return of the survey indicating
consent (Appendix B).
Questionnaire
Reckless behavior was measured using a 10-item questionnaire originally
developed by Jeffrey Arnett (1992) but modified by the researcher (see appendix A). On
this scale, the subjects selected the number of times they participated in a variety of
reckless behaviors over the past year. The reckless activities included driving over the
speed limit, casual and unprotected sex, drug use, shoplifting and vandalism. Each
question had 5 possible responses and each response was given a score from 1-5 points,
giving the survey a possible 50 points. The surveys responses were and compared for
each of the 2 genre category by race and gender.
15
Procedure
The study was conducted in summer 2001-spring 2002. A total of 16 classes
received the survey (FSU (5), FIU (6), MDC (2), BCC (3)). All students present in the
undergraduate psychology classes were invited to participate. To prevent biased
responses, the students were not informed of the interest of the study, but they were
informed that their responses would be anonymous. The students were instructed to fill
out all questions on the survey honestly and to the best of their recollection.
Next, the students received and filled out the survey and returned them to the
researcher. Musical genre choices provided included rock, rap, country, r&b, and other.
Examples were given for each genre with only rap and rock choices selected for the
study. The subjects were instructed to select the genre that was most closely associated
with the sub-genre they preferred. For example, if a subject preferred gangsta rap or
organic hip hop jazz, he/she was instructed to select rap. After all surveys were collected,
the subjects were informed of the purpose of the study.
16
CHAPTER 5
RESULTS
A series of univariate analysis of variances (ANOVA) on questionnaire
items was used to determine any significant relationship(s) between the musical
preferences, gender, and race of subjects. Any independent variable with a significance
(p) value less than .05 was considered to have some significant relationship. After a
significant value was determined, the mean value was inspected to determine which
dependent variable it affected.
Table 1 indicates the mean scores of rock and rap music subjects with regards to
reckless behavior.
Table 1. Reckless Behavior and Musical Preferences
Rock
X
Driving while intoxicated
1.730
Driving over 80 mph
1.9
Driving > 20 mph over speed limit
1.710
Sex without contraception
1.435
Sex with someone known
casually
2.165
Marijuana use
1.720
Cocaine use
1.560
Other illegal drug use
1.600
Violent/Aggressive behavior
1.670
Damaged or destroyed public
or private property
1.530
Rap
X
1.675
2.135
2.295
1.835
Overall F
Music F
2.188
8.748
19.420
13.277
.476
5.149*
39.760***
28.038***
1.885
1.870
1.305
1.495
1.780
4.601
1.250
10.740
2.684
2.651
8.118**
2.621
19.864***
2.130
1.812
1.495
1.875
.286
NOTE: For each item, subjects were asked how many times they had engaged in the activity in the past year. Responses were
structured into the following ranges: for driving while intoxicated, driving > 80 mph, and driving > 20mph over the speed limit, the
ranges were 1= not at all, 2 = 1-2 times, 3 = 3-6 times, 4 = 7-9 times, and 5 = 10 or more times; for all other items, the ranges were 1=
not at all, 2 = 1 time, 3 = 2-5 times, 4 = 6-9 times, and 5 = 10 or more times. *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001.
17
Table 2 indicates the mean score of male and female subjects with regards to
reckless behavior.
Table 2. Reckless Behavior and Gender
______________________________________________________________________________________
Driving while intoxicated
Driving over 80 mph
Driving > 20 mph over speed limit
Sex without contraception
Sex with someone known
casually
Marijuana use
Cocaine use
Other illegal drug use
Violent/Aggressive behavior
Damaged or destroyed public
or private property
Male
X
1.715
1.885
1.950
1.695
Female
X
1.690
2.150
2.055
1.575
Overall F
Gender F
2.188
8.748
19.420
13.277
.098
6.547*
1.281
2.523
2.115
1.775
1.490
1.545
1.690
1.935
1.815
1.375
1.550
1.760
4.601
1.250
10.740
2.684
2.651
3.355
.186
4.040*
.005
.734
1.450
1.575
1.875
3.650
NOTE: For each item, subjects were asked how many times they had engaged in the activity in the past year. Responses were
structured into the following ranges: for driving while intoxicated, driving > 80 mph, and driving > 20mph over the speed limit, the
ranges were 1= not at all, 2 = 1-2 times, 3 = 3-6 times, 4 = 7-9 times, and 5 = 10 or more times; for all other items, the ranges were 1=
not at all, 2 = 1 time, 3 = 2-5 times, 4 = 6-9 times, and 5 = 10 or more times. *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001.
Table 3 indicates the mean scores of African American and Caucasian subjects
with regards to reckless behavior.
Table 3. Reckless Behavior and Race
Caucasian
X
Driving while intoxicated
1.605
Driving over 80 mph
1.820
Driving > 20 mph over speed limit
1.810
Sex without contraception
1.520
Sex with someone known
casually
1.950
Marijuana use
1.750
Cocaine use
1.515
Other illegal drug use
1.635
Violent/Aggressive behavior
1.630
Damaged or destroyed public
or private property
1.555
Afro-American
X
1.800
2.215
2.195
1.750
Overall F
Race F
2.188
8.748
19.420
13.277
5.989*
14.547**
17.221**
9.270***
2.100
1.840
1.350
1.460
1.820
4.601
1.250
10.740
2.684
2.651
2.330
.943
8.317***
5.918*
5.406*
1.470
1.875
1.688
NOTE: For each item, subjects were asked how many times they had engaged in the activity in the past year. Responses were
structured into the following ranges: for driving while intoxicated, driving > 80 mph, and driving > 20mph over the speed limit, the
ranges were 1= not at all, 2 = 1-2 times, 3 = 3-6 times, 4 = 7-9 times, and 5 = 10 or more times; for all other items, the ranges were 1=
not at all, 2 = 1 time, 3 = 2-5 times, 4 = 6-9 times, and 5 = 10 or more times. *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001.
18
In the case of driving while intoxicated (survey question #1), the only
significant relationship occurred between race (p = .015). The results showed that
African American subjects were more likely to drive while intoxicated (1.800 to 1.605),
males were more likely than females to drive while intoxicated (1.715 to 1.690), and rock
fans frequently drive intoxicated more than rap fans (1.730 to 1.675).
Driving over 80 mph (question #2) had significant relationships for all three
independent variables. In respect to gender (p = .011), females were more likely to drive
over 80 mph than males (2.150 to 1.885). With race (p < .001), African Americans were
more likely to drive over 80 mph than Caucasians (2.215 to 1.820). With musical
preference (p = .024), rap subjects were more likely to drive over 80 mph than rock fans.
Driving greater than 20 mph over the speed limit (question #3) had significant
relationships in race and musical preference. Gender (p = .258) results suggested that
females were slightly more likely to drive 20 mph over the speed limit than males (2.055
to 1.950). African Americans (p < .001) were more likely to drive 20 mph over the speed
limit (2.195 to 1.810) and rap fans (p < .001) were more likely than rock fans (2.295 to
1.710).
Sex without protection/contraception (question #4) showed significant
relationships in race and musical preference as well. Gender (p = .113) results showed
that males had sex without protection/contraception slightly more likely than females
(1.695 to 1.575). Race (p = .002) results showed that African American subjects were
more likely to have had sex without protection/contraception (1.750 to 1.520) and rap
fans ( p = .000) engaged in sex without protection/contraception (1.835 to 1.435).
Sex with someone known casually (question #5) results yielded a significant
relationship only between the music preferences. Gender (p = .068) results showed that
male subjects had casual sex slightly more than female subjects (2.115 to 1.935). African
American subjects (p = .128) also had casual sex slightly more than Caucasian subjects
(2.100 to 1.950). Music preference results showed that rock music fans were more likely
to have casual sex than rap music fans (2.165 to 1.885).
Marijuana use (question #6) yielded no significant relationships. Gender (p =
.666) results showed females had used marijuana more than males (1.815 to 1.775),
African Americans used marijuana more often than Caucasians (1.840 to 1.750), and rap
19
fans used marijuana more frequently than rock music fans (1.870 to 1.720).
Cocaine use (question #7) had significant relationships between all 3 independent
variables. Gender (p = .045) results showed that males had used cocaine more often than
females (1.490 to 1.375), race (p = .004) results showed that Caucasians used cocaine
more than African Americans (1.515 to 1.350) and rock music fans (p = .000) used
cocaine more than rap music fans (1.560 to 1.305).
Other illegal drug use (question #8) only had a significant relationship between
races. Gender (p = .945) results showed that females used other illegal drugs slightly
more than males (1.550 to 1.545), race (p = .015) results showed that Caucasians used
other illegal drugs more often than African Americans (1.635 to 1.460) and rock music
fans were more likely than rap music fans to use other illegal drugs (1.600 to 1.495).
Thus, the results yielded that Caucasian female rock fans used other illegal drugs more
often.
Violent or aggressive behavior towards someone (question #9) only had a
significant relationship between races as well. Gender (p = .392) results showed females
were violent or aggressive towards someone more than males (1.760 to 1.690), race (p =
.021) results showed African American subjects being violent or aggressive more often
than Caucasian subjects (1.820 to 1.630), and rap (p = .179) music fans were violent or
aggressive more than rock music fans (1.780 to 1.670).
Finally, damaging or destroying public or private results had no significant
relationships. Gender (p = .057) results showed female subjects damaging/destroying
private property more than male subjects (1.575 to 1.450), race (p = .195) showed that
Caucasian subjects damaged or destroyed public property more than African American
subjects (1.555 to 1.495), and rock (p = .593) music fans were more likely to damage or
destroy public/private property than rap music fans (1.530 to 1.495).
With respect to the current study, significant relationships involving music
occurred in the following five survey questions: driving over 80 mph (rap), driving
greater than 20 mph over the speed limit (rap), sex without contraception/protection (rap),
sex with someone known only casually (rock), and cocaine use (rock). The other survey
questions showed no significant relationships involving choice of music, however the
mean score of rock music was slightly higher for driving while intoxicated, other illegal
20
drug use, and damage or destruction of public or private property. Rap music’s mean
score was slightly higher for marijuana use, and violence or aggressive behavior towards
someone.
21
CHAPTER 6
DISCUSSION
The results of the study indicated that preferences for rap music fans are
associated with some reckless behaviors more so than rock music fans. However, the
only significant results occurred in five survey questions, with rap music listeners mean
score being higher in 3 of the five.
Significant relationships occurred for driving over 80 miles per hour, driving
greater than 20 miles per hour over the speed limit, sex without contraception/protection,
sex with someone known only casually and cocaine use. Of the ten types of reckless
behavior surveyed, rap music listeners reported significantly higher occurrences for
driving over 80 miles per hour, driving greater than 20 miles per hour over the speed
limit, and sex without contraception, when compared to those who prefer rock music.
Those who preferred rock music reported significantly higher occurrences for sex with
someone known only casually and cocaine use.
Driving over 80 miles per hour and driving greater than 20 miles per hour over
the speed limit had a significant relationship for those who preferred listening to rap
music, however, Arnett (1992) found that it was sensation seeking and not the music per
se that motivates reckless driving in his study of hard rock or heavy metal fans. This
suggests that other occurrences, other than or in conjunction with the music, contributes
to the reckless driving behavior. Porter (1998) states in her study, many factors co-occur
in the lives of young people that contribute to the shaping of their perceptions and
attitudes.
Although some of the questions yielded significant relationships, the results do
not support music, rap, rock or others, as being the cause for reckless behavior. Some
may disagree such as parents in a study involving youth and violent music conducted by
Kandakai, Price, Telljohann, and Wilson (1999). Critics in a 1999 on line article stated
that music negatively affects teenagers by repeatedly exposing them to themes such as
Satanism, substance abuse, murder, suicide and sexual violence, which may be heavily
reinforced and normalized by the frequency of their portrayal. However, Brown and
Hendee (1989) reported that the effects of music and it’s lyrics on adolescents are so
22
subtle and cumulative that researchers would have to examine these effects in a carefully
controlled longitudinal study. In particular the results did not support the results of
Johnson, Adams, and Ashburn (1995) who found that exposure to rap music tended to
lead to a higher degree of acceptance of the use of violence.
One reason for the lack of more significant results may be the setting in which the
subjects answered the surveys. All surveys were given in the subject’s psychology
classrooms with their instructor, and in some cases graduate assistants, present. Students
may have felt the survey was somehow connected to their class grade and therefore were
reluctant to answer truthfully. An additional reason may have been the personal nature of
the questions. After collecting the surveys, in many instances subjects expressed that
they felt some of the questions were extremely personal and they declined to participate.
Some students stated that they felt it could used against them at a later date by the
authorities or the university itself and declined to answer some or all of the questions. In
either case, students were assured that the survey had absolutely nothing to do with any
part of their classroom grade or academic future at the university or college nor would
their names be required at all.
Due to lack of research involving rap music, it is difficult to compare results at
this time. However, future research may be able to study causal effects of listeners of rap
music and their behaviors. Perhaps a longitudinal study, such as the one suggested by
Brown and Hendee (1989) would render more significant results. Also future studies
may study whether the lyrics are the only cause for the behavior or if it is a combination
of the lyrics and something else such as the music, drug use, or present circumstances the
individual may be experiencing.
One important conclusion uncovered during this study was that most of the
students were animated after completing the survey. Many asked questions about the
purpose of the study and discussions even continued in some classes after the survey was
complete. During one of the discussions, about the lyrics in the music or the music itself,
a student responded, “I am perfectly capable of separating fantasy from reality when it
comes to the music I listen to.”
The student was asked to explain in more detail what he
meant and he replied: “I know some of these guys haven’t done many of the things they
say on their albums and if they did they would be stupid for admitting it.” One of raps
23
most recognizable figures Dr. Dre, formerly of N.W.A (Niggaz With Attitudes) and one
of the rap industries top producers, would most likely agree with this student. Dr. Dre
(1995) stated: “Living up to what you say on records…..it’s all entertainment. Anybody
in the f*cking right mind knows you can talk about shootin’ somebody on a record but a
muthaf*cka ain’t really gonna really go out there and do it unless you just………stupid.
You know what I’m sayin’? This is entertainment…you know?…we make records. It’s
entertainment, that’s all it is. This is like our f*cking jobs, you know?”
Rap music and the effect it has on an individual’s behavior will always draw
criticism. However just as there is rap music that glorifies violence, drug use, and
reckless behavior, there is also rap music that sends a positive message and denounces
violence, drug use, casual sex and reckless behavior. Just as the late rapper Tupac
Shakur (2Pac) raps about being a marijuana smoking, alcohol abusing thug boyfriend in
his song titled, “Rather be ya NIGGA” he also raps about how much he loves and
respects his mother for raising him in his song titled, “Dear Mama.” However it seems as
though the violent songs receive all the attention and/or blame for reckless behaviors.
Rap music is a genre of music that is crossing over and capturing audiences of all
races. There was no difficulty, from either race or gender, finding subjects to fulfill the
rap listener’s portion of the survey. Rap music may be a way to reach different races and
genders to educate them on important issues and the importance of safety when driving,
drinking, having casual sex, or encountering violent situations.
24
APPENDIX A
INFORMED CONSENT
Dear Student,
I am a graduate student under the direction of Jayne Standley in the department of music
therapy at Florida State University. I am conducting a research study to determine if
there is a relationship between music preference and reckless behavior.
I am requesting your participation, which will involve filling out a brief, anonymous
questionnaire/survey. You must be 18 or older to participate in this study. The survey
should take approximately 3-5 minutes to complete. Once you have finished, fold the
survey in half (so that no writing is visible) and place the survey in the envelope that will
be on the desk/table in front of me. If you choose not to participate or to withdraw from
the study at any time, there will be no penalty (it will not affect your grade). The results
of the research study will be published, but your name will not be used.
If you have any questions concerning the research study, please call Dr. Jayne Standley at
(850) 644-4565 or email me at jaredstubbs@hotmail.com.
Return of the questionnaire will be considered your consent to participate.
Thank you.
Sincerely,
Jared Kason Stubbs
25
APPENDIX B
SURVEY
Please Circle
Classification: Undergraduate (Fr., So., Jr., Sr.)
Gender:
Male
Graduate (Master/Ph. D.)
Female
Race: Caucasian/White African American/Black
Hispanic
Asian
Other_____________
Which music genre/type do you prefer the most (circle only one):
Rock (ex. Bruce Spring stein, Cher)
Rap (ex. Jay Z, Lil Kim, Outkast)
Country (ex. Garth Brooks, Shania Twain)
R & B (R. Kelly, Kelly Price, Brian McKnight)
Other________________ (specify) (ex. Classical, jazz, reggae, etc.)
How many times have you engaged/participated in the following activities in the past year? (circle one)
1. Driving while intoxicated:
not at all
1-2 times
3-6 times
7-9 times
10+ times
2. Driving over 80 mph (miles per hour):
not at all
1-2 times
3-6 times
7-9 times
10+ times
3. Driving greater than 20 mph over the speed limit:
not at all
1-2 times
3-6 times
7-9 times
10+ times
4. Sex without contraception/protection (Assuming you were not attempting to have a child):
not at all
1 time
2-5 times
6-10 times
10+ times
5. Sex with someone known only casually:
not at all
1 time
2-5 times
6-10 times
10+ times
2-5 times
6-10 times
10+ times
2-5 times
6-10 times
10+ times
6-10 times
10+ times
6. Marijuana use:
not at all
1 time
7. Cocaine use:
not at all
1 time
8. Other illegal drug use:
not at all
1 time
2-5 times
9. Violent or aggressive behavior towards someone (ex. fighting)
not at all
1 time
2-5 times
6-10 times
10+ times
10. Damaged or destroyed public or private property:
not at all
1 time
2-5 times
6-10 times
10+ times
26
APPENDIX C
SUBJECT’S RESPONSES
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
APPENDIX D
HUMAN SUBJECTS COMMITTEE APPROVAL
59
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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
Jared Kason Stubbs was born on October 25, 1976, in Fort Lauderdale, Florida.
He is the oldest of two children and only son to Carrol B. Stubbs Jr. and Cheyenne C.
Stubbs. Jared was raised in Deerfield Beach, Florida, and took an early interest in music
in fourth grade when his music teacher introduced him to the saxophone. Jared’s interest
in the saxophone was short and he quickly switched to trumpet.
Jared played the trumpet throughout the rest of his elementary school career and
continued playing through middle and high school. He had many honor band
appearances throughout middle and high school including a Tri-state band selection his
senior year in high school.
Jared continued his musical career after high school by earning a music
performance scholarship from to University of Florida, Gainesville, where he studied
trumpet under Dr. Joyce Davis. Jared graduated from the University of Florida in
August, 1998 with a bachelor’s degree in music performance. After matriculating he
continued his education in the music therapy program at The Florida State University,
Tallahassee. He is currently completing a Master’s degree in Music Therapy under the
supervision of Dr. Jayne Standley RMT-BC and teaching music in Opa-Locka, FL. at
Golden Glades Elementary School.
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