Media Production and Analysis
Glossary of Terms
The following terms have been developed to support the 2012 for teaching and examination
accredited version of the Media Production and Analysis syllabus. Some terms are taken
directly from the syllabus while other terms are considered valuable and can be included in
the development of student’s knowledge of media language. They are not definitive; other
definitions can be made however they are made for the purpose of outlining their meaning
within the context of the syllabus. All examples are media related and reflect the contexts
outlined within the syllabus.
Aesthetics: is the fusion of thoughts, senses and emotions with the diversity of personal,
social and imagined experience which shapes an individual’s response to art works.
Alternative (experimental) styles: are media which are not considered ‘traditional’ or
‘mainstream’. This includes their style, production context and consumption. They are
associated with an ‘artistic’ notion of media.
Attitudes: is the perspective an individual or group may have regarding an issue or media
work. It involves identifying the position an audience may have on an issue or media work.
Audience(s): can be considered the consumers of media work. They can be referred to as
the ‘intended’ or target audience and are often categorised as ‘mainstream’ or ‘alternative’
which can consist of subcultural or minority groups.
Celebrity: is a person who is ‘known’ or ‘celebrated’ within a society where social identity is
valued. The celebrity is identifiable through the media. Certain values are attached to each
celebrity which makes them noteworthy to people who admire them.
Censorship: a form of regulation which is used to restrict or suppress aspects or entire
bodies of media work. Often discussed in reference to power, hierarchy, propaganda and
government control.
Classification: a way of identifying the suitability of a type of media work for an audience.
Often discussed in reference to controls and constraints.
Codes of conduct: a set of rules or guidelines which define how a media producer should
act in producing media work. For example, Journalist Code of Ethics, Codes of Practice for
television.
Context: acknowledges that media work is situated in a particular culture, time and location
and that these factors will impact or influence the way the media work is interpreted.
Commercial and non-commercial: refers to the industry context of the media production.
Commercial are privately owned organisations in which profit is the main priority. Noncommercial is publicly owned with less emphasis on profits and is therefore able to cater for
niche or minority audiences.
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Communication (theory): is the application of a model to explain how the media exists in
any given context. There are numerous ‘theories’ such as, Agenda-setting, Bullet,
Cultivation, Modelling and Indirect effects. More holistic approaches such as Feminist,
Marxist, and Structuralism theories can also be applied.
Communities: are groups of people who share common characteristic(s) in how they use or
interpret media work. For example ‘online’ communities have a defining characteristic such
as their association with an idea or concept (for example a style of music or interest in a
particular director).
Connotation and denotation: connotation is an emotional sentiment or judgement we give
a symbol or sign which can extend to aspects of media work. Denotation is the literal
meaning of the symbol or sign; defining its purpose. For example the denotation of a love
heart is a red symbol in the shape of a ‘heart’. The connotation, in a Western society, is one
of love, affection, romance.
Cult figure: is a figure who has achieved a high degree of status often within popular culture.
Their appeal is often defined by a niche audience who follow a particular interest. For
example Jim Morrison has cult status because of his alternative music and lifestyle.
Culture: refers to the context in which a group’s history, ethnicity, ideology, religion, politics
and traditions influence the behaviour and belief systems, making it distinct from other
groups.
Cultural identity: is the notion that, through a shared history, ethnicity, society, religion,
politics and traditions an audience can form an ‘identity’ where consensus is reached as to
how it is represented.
Decoding and encoding: decoding is the process of ‘unpacking’ how codes have been
used to construct meaning. This is part of ‘connotation and denotation’. Encoding is the
process in which meaning is given to a code. For example, dark, broken lighting in Film Noir
signifies a corrupt or dangerous situation.
Demographic (patterns): media marketing often defines the audience according to
demographic criteria such as age, gender, socio-economic status and education. It is
frequently used in advertising to measure audience response.
Digitisation: The process of transforming analogue information into a digital form. Can be
considered part of the ‘new’ and ‘emerging’ forms such as online media.
Ethics: behavioural codes which have been established by a society of what is acceptable or
not acceptable.
Ethnicity: is founded on a shared experience of a number of factors such as origin, heritage,
language, culture and ideology of a group of people. The terms ‘race’ and ‘nationality’ are
sometimes used in place of ethnicity, however they have their own meaning and should be
used cautiously.
Ethos: are the beliefs, values and attitudes of a group or an individual. Within media, an
example would be what ethos the production team uses to guide their decision making
process.
Form: is the medium; or media from which messages are sent. When discussing form, it is
also appropriate to discuss the narrative elements of the form. For example, Television is a
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Media Production and Analysis: Glossary of Terms
form which includes a variety of narrative genres and styles such as Non-fiction genre –
News and Current Affairs, Fiction genre- Situational Comedy and Drama.
Formats: is the replication of a structure which is maintained while the content or ‘style’ may
alter. This is most observable in Reality Television programs; the format remains the same
while the content/context of the program alters.
Genre: a form of classification which identifies the narrative structure and context of the
media work. For example, Documentary – non-fiction, Romance – fiction. In recent times,
there has been a convergence of genres e.g. Rom-Com’s and Neo genres e.g. Neo Film
Noir.
Globalisation/Global interconnectedness: a theory which originated with Marshall
McLuhan, it is the notion that the world has become interconnected through such devices as
the media, forming a ‘global village’. Global interconnectedness is a contemporary version
which places greater emphasis on the sharing of values and ideologies between cultures
through media work.
Hegemony: originally defined by Gramsci, is the concept that a particular group or ‘class’
can dominate the entire group or all other ‘classes’ in terms of their ideological position. This
is associated with the notion of ‘power’ and ‘control’ by creating uniformity throughout
society.
Hero: in the traditional sense, is someone who has performed an act or conducted
themselves in a way that society deems to be of significant worth. Heroes are also
figureheads who come to represent an ideal within a culture.
History: a method of recording past events. Within media, history is analysed as a context
from which media work can be interpreted in terms of its meaning or production.
Ideology: is the set of ‘ideas’ used by a group or individuals which influences the way they
understand their world. Under Marxist theory, it becomes associated with the distribution of
power; of ‘dominant’ ideology based on class. Ideology is often categorised within cultural
industries such as political, economic, social and religious. Within philosophy, it can be
perceived as a ‘suggested ideal’ in terms of how we should live.
Icon: is symbolic of something which is of importance or has significance within a context.
Their cultural ‘worth’ is in their ability to maintain their significance beyond time or place. For
example, in the context of film, an ‘icon’ could be a famous actor such as Marilyn Monroe,
director such as Alfred Hitchcock or an entire film such as ‘Star Wars (1977)’.
Independent: refers to the production context and stylistic elements of a media production.
Often, independent film uses alternative forms of finance as opposed to commercial
productions which are backed by large production companies. They are also characterised
by their style; challenging conventional narrative characteristics and codes and conventions.
Information dissemination: are procedures set in place which determine how information is
distributed to an audience. It is often hierarchical and government controlled. The premise
behind the procedures is to maintain the integrity of the original message and avoid ‘Chinese
whispers’. However, it is also a method of controlling the message and avoiding any other
interpretations which may question the authority of the original message.
Legal implications: refer to aspects of media work that relate to laws. For students, the
legal implication would be that the work they produce is original or any work included that is
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not their own, is acknowledged. Within the media industry, the implication becomes one
which is bound by legislation.
Local, national, international media: ‘local’ is when the audience’s relationship is based on
an immediate shared locality and experiences. ‘National’ presumes a larger audience which
still shares common cultural notions, values, attitudes and ideologies; however the
geography is much larger and therefore more open to alternative interpretations.
‘International’ refers to countries outside the ‘national’ which through global
interconnectedness may share the same values, attitudes and ideologies but will be
negotiated through the local context.
Mass media: are media work which are designed to reach as large an audience as possible.
Traditionally considered television, radio, cinema but more contemporary examples include
the internet.
Mass and minority audience: Mass audience refers to a large audience or broad
demographic which share basic common characteristics but nothing which defines them
specifically as a subculture or ‘group’. Minority audience refers to a small or select audience.
They can be considered ‘niche’ by media producers when defining their target audience.
Marketing: media work specifically designed to promote products to an audience.
Media Institutions: are public or commercial based organisations which, through regulations
and industry practices, control the way media work is produced and used.
Media work: previously referred to as ‘texts’, the term ‘work’ reflects the changes occurring
to the media shifting away from traditional notions of an audience ‘reading’ a media ‘text’ to
the audience interacting and using the media in many different contexts.
Medium: is the actual vehicle the message is conveyed through (i.e. t.v, film, radio, online
media). Media is plural.
Minority groups: are groups of people who are marginalised within society due to political,
economic or cultural reasons. The status of being a ‘minority’ is not determined by its size,
rather how much representation or influence they have within the society.
Naturalised: occurs when a notion becomes part of the established understanding
regardless of its legitimacy. It is used in reference to representation and stereotypes.
Ownership: production companies or media institutions who own or control television
networks, newspaper groups, internet sites or media work through copyright.
Platform: a term used to describe alternative forms of technology used to convey a media
message. Increasingly, the same media message can appear in several different ‘platforms’
to reach as broad an audience as possible. For example, a program on television may also
be available to view on the computer or through portable media players.
Point of view: is the dominant perspective a media producer or an audience may take
regarding the meaning or content of a media work.
Popular (‘Pop’) culture: can be seen as a product of mass media; where media work
reflects the most recent or current trends occurring within a society. Originally set in
opposition to ‘high’ culture, popular culture has become more associated with highly
consumable, easily accessible, transient media products. Examples may include graphic
novels (comic books), computer games, music videos and magazines.
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Media Production and Analysis: Glossary of Terms
Power: originally an issue highlighted by Karl Marx in terms of the struggle between
‘classes’, power is associated with those who have control; either in terms of the production
of a media work, through to how it is received in terms of government or social control or
pressure.
Pressure groups: attempt to create change through persistent lobbying of influential sectors
and people. They are often ideologically based and have an agenda regarding why and how
the change should occur. They are associated with censorship and classification.
Production process: is the process through which media work is created. Pre-production
involves planning, including the sourcing of funds, scripting, design and logistical
organisation. Production is the actual making of the media work. Post-production involves the
editing or refinement of the media work which is marketed, sold and distributed for
consumption.
Profit: is the revenue directly earned from the production of a media work.
Propaganda: is designed to coerce or persuade audiences to accept the meaning presented
within a media work.
Regulatory bodies: are usually government controlled and are formed to ‘protect’ those who
have a vested interest in media work. It is associated with censorship and classification in
terms of ensuring the production and consumption of media work conforms to the values and
attitudes of the society.
Representation: is the process of ‘re’ presentation of an object and how, through symbolism
the object comes to stand for something that is ‘real’. Related concepts are; selection – what
aspects are chosen to make the representation, omission – what is not included and
therefore not represented, emphasis – drawing particular attention to an aspect influencing
the interpretation of the entire representation and, oversimplification – when the
representation is constructed in broad terms making it a stereotype.
Revenue: is the profit made from the production of a media work and can be ‘returned’ to the
investors.
Society: is a way of describing how a group of people, such as a community, develop
relationships which are based on shared customs, laws and organisations and work together
for the benefit of the group.
Stars: originally the term was coined from the Hollywood system to describe an actor or
actress who had ‘starlike’ qualities which made them stand out from their peers. Today, the
term ‘star’ includes other industries such as music, dance and even sport.
Stereotypes: are often simplistic and based on the exaggeration of dominant characteristics.
For example, the over use of certain mannerisms, appearance or repetitive actions.
Story/Narrative: sometimes these terms are used interchangeably; however by ‘story’ in
media, refers to what actually takes place within the media work. The narrative includes plot
but also takes into consideration how the story is told.
Style: is a stylistic approach to a production which takes into consideration aesthetic
qualities which can be analysed in terms of the period in which the production was made, the
director (auteur) and the form i.e. certain forms lend themselves to particular styles.
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Target audience: is a specific group of people media producers want their media product to
reach, however due to the changing nature of audiences it is difficult to anticipate which
audiences will eventually view the media work.
Technologies: are the tools used to create or use media work. For producers, they are the
tools used to produce media work from cameras, computers, and audio recording devices.
For audiences, technologies are those which are used to consume the media work such as
televisions, computers and personal communication devices. The Media Production and
Analysis Course is predominantly concerned with the impact of technologies on media
production or how audiences use them.
Values (beliefs): in simplistic terms, they are guidelines an individual or group use to
determine what is important. However, values also include beliefs and ideals about what is
considered important to the individual or group in terms of how they should act or think about
certain concepts.
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Media Production and Analysis: Glossary of Terms