Bachelor of Commerce Programme
Organizational Behaviour
Individual Behaviour
Perception
The Da Vinci Institute for Technology Management (Pty) Ltd
Registered with the Department of Education as a private higher education institution under the Higher Education Act, 1997. Registration No. 2004/
HE07/003
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LESSON – 6
SHORTCUTS IN JUDGING
OTHERS AND ITS APPLICATIONS.
Contents
6.0 Aims and Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Shortcuts in judging others and its applications
6.2.1 Frequently used short cuts in judging others
6.2.2 Methods to overcome such biases in
Perception
6.2.3 Perception: specific applications in
Organizations
6.3 let us sum up
6.4 lesson-end activities
6.5 References
6.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
The primary objective of this Lesson II is to highlight the various types of perceptual
errors that affect our perceptual process and the methods to overcome such type of errors.
By learning those things, our students will be able to:
i)
Understand the prominent types of perceptual errors or short cut methods
while observing others and judging others
ii)
Realize the ways to improve perceptual skill by increasing self awareness and
sensitivity so that the occurrence of perceptual errors can be minimized
sizably
iii)
Understand various application of such type of common errors in our work
life situations.
6.1 INTRODUCTION
In perceiving the stimuli in our environment, people are likely to make so many errors
and ended up with poor results. Some of those errors are stereotyping, halo effects,
selective perception, distortions, attributions, projections etc. Each of these errors is
dysfunctional for good decision making and management. Since subjective emotions,
judgmental attitudes, and distortion of facts are common in perceiving any situation, we
have tried to identify ways in which we can minimize perceptual biases. The need for
managers to accurately perceive the environment and how manages can sharpen their
perceptual skill are vital in enhancing perceptual skills.
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6.2 SHORTCUTS IN JUDING OTHERS
People tend to follow a number of shortcut methods when observing others and making
judgment of others activities. These techniques are to some extent valuable and allow us
to make accurate perceptions rapidly and provide valid data for making predictions.
However, they are not foolproof. However, people often rely on them and follow them
blindly. They can get us into trouble, particularly if you happen to hold higher level
position and required to make effective decision making. An understanding of this
shortcut can be helpful in recognizing when they can result in significant distortions.
6.2.1 Frequently used shortcuts in judging others:
While observing others in our day-to-day life, people tend to commit errors due to faulty
perceptual process and make a wrong decision. This has to be avoided. There are five
types of errors or short-cut methods which are frequently used by the individuals. They
are:
i)
Selective Perception
ii)
Projection
iii)
Stereotyping
iv)
Halo Effect
v)
Contrast Effect
i) Selective Perception
It is a tendency to observe people selectively and accordingly interpret based on their
interest, background, experience and attitudes. For example, a production manager is
always likely to identify the need to strengthen the production system; the marketing
manager will focus only on the marketing research and sales promotions activities. In
general, we tend to notice things which are similar to us. For instance, we are more likely
to notice the type of cars which are similar to ours. The simplest way of avoiding hasty or
wrong decision being made due to selective perception is to seek other people’s
perceptions of “reality” in the same situation in order to make a better assessment of the
situation.
ii) Projection
It is a tendency to assign one’s own personal attributes to others. For instance, a manager
who is corrupt will tend to project that all others are also corrupt like him. Similarly, a
manager who loves challenging work might project that all others like challenging work.
Many times, this is not true, and the manager who tries to enrich all the jobs as
challenging might be leading to wrong motivational technique for other employees.
When managers engage in projection, they compromise their ability to respond to
individual differences. They tend to see people as more homogeneous than they really are.
Thus, managers should guard themselves against perceptual biases through projection.
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iii) Stereotyping:
It is a tendency to judge people based on the perception of the group to which he belongs.
We tend to attribute favorable or unfavorable characteristics to the individual based on
upon widely held generalization about the group. For instance, we perceive that Japanese
in general are hard working, quality conscious and industrious, and based on that we
generalize that all Japanese are like that, but in reality it may not be so. There are some
Japanese who may not possess the above mentioned characteristics. Similarly we assume
that women in general are soft, kind, caring, affectionate, considerate, gentle, but there
are some women who may not possess these characteristics. Similarly, we may assume
older people are traditional, conservative, and cranky, but not every elderly person fits
into this mould and hence we are likely to make errors of judgment. Sex-role stereotypes
and age-stereotypes adversely affect recruitment, pay, job placement, and promotion
decisions. As a result of which, organizations frequently lose good employees.
iv) Halo Effect:
It is tendency to draw a general overall impression about an individual based on single
striking characteristics. For instance, if a person speaks English fluently, we tend to
assume that that person is very knowledgeable, intelligent, smart, clever etc. hard
working, smart etc. Similarly, if a man is abrasive, he may also be perceived as bad,
awful, unkind, aggressive, harmful, deceitful and wicked. Halo effect, whether it is
positive or negative, will distort our perception and block us from actually perceiving the
trait that is being judged. This phenomenon frequently occurs when students appraise
their university lecturer.
v) Contrast Effect:
It is tendency to evaluate a person’s characteristics by just comparing with other people
who happened to acquire higher or lower position on the same characteristics. For
instance, while comparing the presentation of students, a good presentation made by one
student just before you will probably make you feel that you won’t be as good as you
probably are. This contrast effect can distort our perception. In general, a person will be
evaluated in isolation. But our reaction to one person is often influenced by other people
or events in which we have recently encountered. In interview situation, a job applicant is
likely to receive a more favorable evaluation if preceded by mediocre applicants and a
less favorable evaluation if preceded by strong applicants.
6.2.2 Methods to overcome such biases in perception
The pitfalls listed above can be minimized by enhancing perceptual skills by consciously
putting effort in the following activities:
i)
Knowing and perceiving oneself accurately
ii)
Being empathic
iii)
Having positive attitudes
iv)
Enhancing one’s self-concept
v)
Making a conscious effort to avoid the possible common biases in perception
vi)
Open communication
vii)
Avoiding Attributions.
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i) Knowing and Perceiving Oneself Accurately:
One of the ways in judging others and situations more accurately are by knowing,
perceiving and understanding ourselves accurately. The best way of achieving this
objective is to obtain information on how others perceive us from as many sources as
possible – supervisors, peers, subordinates and other colleagues. By consciously putting
effort in getting feedback from others as much as possible about yourself regarding all the
activities will help widen your open self. Similarly, by exposing yourself to others
regarding your opinions, suggestions, beliefs, values, attitudes life styles etc, others may
be able to understand you better and come forward to share their views more frequently.
There are two critical things relevant to widening ones open self – i) soliciting feedback
from others and ii) exposing or disclosing yourself to others.
ii) Being Empathic
Empathy means being able to see a situation as it is experienced by others. If a person is
able to view the problems of his employees from the employees’ point of view instead of
looking things from his own perspective, he may be able to understand the real problems
experienced by them very clearly. The truly effective manager will be able to rise above
his or her own personal impressions and comprehend problems from others perspectives.
This can occur only when the manager can be sensitive to the needs of others and
perceive situations from their point of view as well before making final decisions.
iii) Having Positive Attitude
There is a high level of relationships among attitudes, perceptions, beliefs and values.
Unless managers can take positive attitudes to whatever situations they find themselves in
and see things from a positive angle, their perceptions are likely to be distorted. By being
aware of personal biases, and making a concerted effort to be as unbiased as possible,,
manages can consciously try to get rid of any negative feelings they may have of others.
This will help them to pout things in their proper perspectives and thus enhance their
perceptual skills.
iv) Enhancing one’s Self-Concept
Positive evaluation of oneself by accomplishing a commendable performance or
remarkable things will boost good self image. When people handle roles where they can
exhibit and enhance their competence and be successful, they will develop a basic sense
of self-esteem and have a positive self regard. When our self- concept is enhanced and we
have acquired a positive self-regard, we are apt to respect others more and perceive them
more accurately.
v) Avoiding Common Biases in Perception
By checking and cross checking the events and spending adequate time and resources to
monitor the various things around, one can consciously raise the overall level of
awareness and this will help considerably minimize our perceptual biases. Self correction
and self renewal process must be continuous within oneself as we interact with situation
on a daily basis and based on that one must change and adapt to the current situations
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vi) Open Communication
Even though mangers may watch out for their own perceptual errors, it is a fact that
employees at the workplace act in accordance with their own perceptions. Effective
mangers not only have to remember that employees tend to misperceive situations but
they should also be able to effectively communicate to employees the happenings in the
work setting such that any misperceptions are dispelled.
vii) Avoiding Attributions
Inappropriate attributions are frequently made by all of us when we try to make sense of
what is happening in our environment. Due to this, our judgment will be wrong and will
end up with poor results. By observing keenly certain behavioral principles as laid down
in attributions model, people can sharpen their judgment to check whether the causes of
particular behavioral act is due to personality or situational factors. Based on this, one can
enhance their perceptual skills.
6.2.3 Perception: Specific Applications in Organizations
In general, people tend to judge one another for many purposes, such as appraising
performance, motivational level, attitudes, skills, knowledge etc. These types of
judgments will have some important consequences for the organization.
Stress:
Judging people based on the comparison process will make people tensed. It will have
either positive consequences or negative consequences. If a person is matured enough, he
or she will take up this issue positively and will try to put more effort to meet the
expectation or perception of their manager. Some times, the consequences will be very
negative leading to absenteeism, illness, low job satisfaction, poor morale etc. A great
deal of stress can be due to the perception, judgments and expectations that workers and
managers have about the workplace. Managers must ensure that the judgment must lead
to positive consequences.
Employment Interview:
Due to perceptual errors in the interview process, the screening of job applicants from not
so potential to potential will not be very effective. There is poor inter-rater agreement on
the performance of job applicants which will perhaps due to interviewer’s subjective
feelings, bias, prejudice and cause all the perceptual errors. In some cases, discrimination
in recruitment interviews occur due to the forming of opinions of interviews based on
racial, gender or age stereotypes. Taking due consideration on the elimination of these
errors will significantly help in making effective decision.
Performance Expectation:
Manager’s expectation will have a significant impact on the performance of an employee.
If a manager expects a very good performance from his subordinate and conveyes such
expectations in all possible ways to him, that employee will adjust behavior in such a way
by putting more effort in his work and fulfill the expectation of his manager. Similarly, if
a manager expects a very poor or substandard performance, that concerned employee will
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tend to behave in such a way to as to meet those low expectations. Thus, the expectations
become reality. The terms self- fulfilling prophecy has evolved to characterize the fact
that people’s expectations determine their behavior. Managers must ensure that only
positive expectations must be conveyed to their employees to make them put on more
effort to become outstanding employees.
Performance Evaluation:
During the performance appraisal, the managers are subjected to have influenced by
various perceptual errors particularly, halo effect, stereotyping, contrast effect etc. In
general, managers use subjective measures in evaluating employees performance as good
or bad based on their overall perception Due to this, their assessment is found to be faulty
leading to severe implications in job outcomes. In order to avoid such errors, managers
need to be trained in evaluation techniques.
Employee Effort:
Assessment of an individual’s effort is purely subjective judgment susceptible to
perceptual distortions and bias. If manager is free from such perceptual errors and his
judgment is just and fair, the employees will put more effort and help the organization to
meet its objectives.
Employee Loyalty:
Managers tend to perceive employees differently. If employees are looking for
employment outside the organization, the employees may be labeled as disloyal. If an
employee questions top management decision, he is branded as disloyal, If an employee
reports unethical practices of management to authorities outside the organization, he is
branded as disloyal. The assessment of an employee’s loyalty or commitment is highly
subjective judgmental. Due care must be taken to ensure proper judgment free from such
perceptual errors.
6.3 Let us Sum Up
In this unit we have discussed the various types of perceptual errors affecting our
perceptual process and the methods to overcome such errors.
6.4 Lesson-End Activities
1. What is stereotyping? Give an example of how stereotyping can create perceptual
distortion.
2. Explain the various types of shortcut methods used in observing others.
3. Describe the methods to overcome such short-cut methods and enhance
perceptual skills.
4. Explain the various applications of perceptual errors in work life.
6.5 References
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will be tailor- made to obtain the specific information that management desires. An
attitude score is achieved by summing up responses to the individual questionnaire
items. These scores can be then being averaged for work groups, department,
divisions or the organizations as whole.
Surveys have been used over the last three decades to measure attitudes such as job
satisfaction, climate, leadership, teamwork, and commitment. As a result, a number of
surveys have reasonable national averages that can be used to compare against
organizations results. Using attitude surveys on a regular basis provides managers
with valuable feedback on how employees perceive their working conditions. Policies
and practices that management views as objectives and fair may be seen as
inequitable by employees in general. Such type of things can be gathered by
conducting attitudes surveys.
7.3 Let us Sum Up
In this unit, we have discussed the various types and components of attitudes. We
have also learnt about the application of cognitive dissonance theory and self perception
theory.
7.4 Lesson-End Activities
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
What is cognitive dissonance and how is it related to attitudes?
What are the components of attitudes? How attitudes can be measured?
What are the functions of attitudes?
How attitudes are formed? Can attitudes be changed?
Explain self – perception theory and its application in work life.
7.5 References