Chapter
18
Social
Psychology
1
Focuses
in
Social
Psychology
“We
cannot
live
for
ourselves
alone.”
Herman
Melville
Social
psychology
scien8fically
studies
how
we
think about,
influence,
and
relate to
one
another.
2
Social
Thinking
1.  Does
his
absenteeism
signify
illness,
laziness,
a
stressful
work
atmosphere?
2.  Was
the
horror
of
9/11
the
work
of
crazed
evil
people
or
ordinary
people
corrupted
by
life
events.
Social
thinking
involves
thinking
about
others,
especially
when
they
engage
in
doing
things
that
are
unexpected.
3
ARribu8ng
Behavior
to
Persons
or
to
Situa8ons
hRp://www.stedwards.edu
ARribu8on
Theory:
Fritz
Heider
(1958)
suggested
that
we
have
a
tendency
to
give
causal
explana8ons
for
someone’s
behavior,
oYen
by
credi8ng
either
the
situa8on
or
the
person’s
disposi8on.
Fritz
Heider
4
ARribu8ng
Behavior
to
Persons
or
to
Situa8ons
A
teacher
may
wonder
[think]
whether
a
child’s
hos8lity
reflects
an
aggressive
personality
(disposi3onal a4ribu3on)
or
a
reac8on
to
stress
or
abuse
(a situa3onal a4ribu3on).
hRp://www.bootsnall.org
Disposi8ons
are
enduring
personality
traits.
So
if
Joe
is
a
quiet,
shy
and
introverted
child
he
is
likely
to
be
like
that
in
a
number
of
situa8ons.
5
Fundamental
ARribu8on
Error
The
tendency
to
overes8mate
the
impact
of
personal
disposi8on
and
underes8mate
the
impact
of
the
situa8ons
in
analyzing
the
behaviors
of
others
leads
to
fundamental
aRribu8on
error.
We
see
Joe
quiet,
shy
and
introverted
most
of
the
8me
but
with
friends
and
he
is
very
talka8ve,
loud
and
extroverted.
6
Effects
of
ARribu8on
How
we
explain
someone’s
behavior
affects
how
we
react
to
it.
7
Actude
Belief
and
feeling
that
predisposes
one
to
respond
in
a
par8cular
way
to
objects,
people
and
events.
If
we
believe
a
person
is
mean,
we
may
feel
dislike
for
the
person
and
act
unfriendly.
8
Actudes
Can
Affect
Ac8on
Our
actudes
predict
our
behaviors
imperfectly
because
other
factors
including
the
external
situa8on
also
influence
behavior.
Although
Democrat
leaders
supported
Bush’s
aRack
on
Iraq,
under
public
pressure,
they
had
their
private
reserva8ons.
9
Actudes
Can
Affect
Ac8on
Not
only
do
people
stand
for
what
they
believe
[actude]
in,
but
they
start
believing
in
what
they
stand
for.
Coopera8ve
ac8ons
can
lead
to
mutual
liking
(beliefs).
10
Small
Request
–
Large
Request
In
the
Korean
war,
Chinese
communists
solicited
coopera8on
from
US
army
prisoners
by
asking
them
to
carry
out
small
errands.
By
complying
to
small
errands
they
were
likely
to
comply
with
larger
ones.
Foot‐in‐the‐Door
Phenomenon:
tendency
for
people
who
have
first
agreed
to
a
small
request,
to
comply
later
with
a
larger
request.
11
Role
Playing
Affects
Actudes
Zimbardo
(1972)
assigned
the
role
of
guards
and
prisoners
to
random
students
and
found
that
guards
and
prisoners
developed
role
appropriate
actudes.
12
Ac8ons
Can
Affect
Actudes
Why
do
ac8ons
affect
actudes?
One
explana8on
is
that
when
our
actudes
and
ac8ons
are
opposed,
we
experience
tension,
called
cogni8ve
dissonance.
To
relieve
us
of
this
tension
we
bring
our
actudes
closer
to
our
ac8ons
(Fes8nger,
1957).
13
Cogni8ve
Dissonance
14
Social
Influence
The
greatest
contribu8on
of
social
psychology
is
its
study
of
actudes,
beliefs,
decisions,
and
ac8ons
and
the
way
they
are
molded
by
social
influence.
15
Conformity
&
Obedience
Behavior
is
contagious,
modeled
by
one
followed
by
another.
We
follow
the
behavior
of
others
to
conform.
Other
behaviors
may
be
the
expression
of
compliance
(obedience)
toward
authority.
Conformity
Obedience
16
The
Chameleon
Effect
Conformity:
adjus8ng
one’s
behavior
or
thinking
to
coincide
with
a
group
standard
(Chartrand
&
Bargh,
1999).
17
Group
Pressure
&
Conformity
Sugges8bility
is
a
subtle
type
of
conformity–
adjus8ng
our
behavior
or
thinking
toward
some
group
standard.
18
Group
Pressure
&
Conformity
Influence
resul8ng
from
one’s
willingness
to
accept
others’
opinions
about
reality.
19
Condi8ons
that
Strengthen
Conformity
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
One
is
made
to
feel
incompetent
or
insecure.
The
group
has
at
least
three
people.
The
group
is
unanimous.
One
admires
the
group’s
status
and
aRrac8veness.
On
has
no
prior
commitment
to
response.
The
group
observes
one’s
behavior.
One’s
culture
strongly
encourages
respect
for
social
standard.
20
Reasons
for
Conformity
Norma8ve
Social
Influence:
influence
resul8ng
from
a
person’s
desire
to
gain
approval
or
avoid
rejec8on.
Respec8ng
norma8ve
behavior,
because
price
may
be
severe
if
not
followed.
Informa8ve
Social
Influence:
The
group
may
provide
valuable
informa8on,
only
stubborn
people
will
never
listen
to
others.
21
Informa8ve
Social
Influence
Baron
and
colleagues
(1996)
made
students
do
an
eyewitness
iden8fica8on
task.
If
the
task
was
easy
(lineup
exposure
5
sec.)
conformity
was
low
compared
to
difficult
(1/2
sec.
exposure)
task.
22
Informa8ve
Social
Influence
Baron
et
al.,
(1996)
23
Obedience
People
comply
to
social
pressures.
But
how
would
they
respond
to
outright
command?
Stanley
Milgram
designed
a
study
that
inves8gated
the
effects
of
authority
on
obedience.
Stanley
Milgram
(1933‐1984)
24
Milgram’s
Study
25
Milgram’s
Study:
Results
26
Individual
Resistance
A
third
of
individuals
in
Milgram’s
study
resisted
social
coercion.
An
unarmed
individual
single‐handedly
Challenged
a
line
of
tanks
at
Tiananmen
Square.
27
Lessons
from
the
Conformity
and
Obedience
Studies
In
both
Ash's
and
Milgram's
studies
par8cipants
were
pressurized
between
following
their
standards
and
being
responsive
to
others.
In
Milgram’s
study,
a
step
forward,
par8cipants
were
torn
between
hearing
vic8ms
pleas
and
experimenter’s
orders.
28
Group
Influence
How
do
groups
affect
our
behavior?
Social
psychologists
study
all
kinds
of
groups:
1.
2.
3.
4.
One
person
affec8ng
another
Families
Teams
CommiRees
29
Individual
Behavior
in
the
Presence
of
Others
Social
facilita8on:
Refers
to
improved
performance
on
a
task
in
the
presence
of
others.
TripleR
(1898)
no8ced
cyclists’
race
8me
were
faster
when
they
competed
against
others
than
against
a
clock.
30
Social
Loafing
Tendency
of
an
individual
in
a
group
to
exert
less
effort
toward
aRaining
a
common
goal
than
when
tested
individually
(Latané,
1981).
31
Deindividua8on
Loss
of
self‐awareness
and
self‐restraint
in
group
situa8ons
that
foster
arousal
and
anonymity.
Mob
behavior
32
Effects
of
Group
Interac8on
Group
Polariza8on:
enhances
group’s
prevailing
actudes
through
discussion.
If
a
group
is
like‐minded,
discussion
strengthens
its
prevailing
opinions
and
actudes.
33
Groupthink
Mode
of
thinking
that
occurs
when
the
desire
for
harmony
in
a
decision‐making
group
overrides
realis8c
appraisal
of
alterna8ves.
ARack
on
Pearl
Harbor
Kennedy
and
Cuban
Crisis
Watergate
Cover‐up
Chernobyl
Reactor
Accident
34
Power
of
Individuals
The
power
of
social
influence
is
enormous
but
so
is
the
power
of
the
individual.
Non‐violent
fasts
and
appeals
by
Gandhi
led
to
the
independence
of
India
from
the
Bri8sh.
Gandhi
35
Social
Rela8ons
Social
psychology
teaches
us
how
we
relate
to
one
another
from
prejudice,
aggression
and
conflict
to
aRrac8on,
altruism
and
peacemaking.
36
Prejudice
Simply
called,
“prejudgment,”
a
prejudice
is
an
unjus8fiable
(usually
nega8ve)
actude
toward
a
group
and
its
members
–
oYen
of
different
cultural,
ethnic
or
gender
groups.
Components
of
Prejudice
1.  Beliefs
(stereotypes)
2.  Emo8ons
(hos8lity,
envy,
fear)
3.  Predisposi8on
to
act
(to
discriminate)
37
Reign
of
Prejudice
Prejudice
works
at
the
conscious
and
[more
so]
the
unconscious
level.
Thus
prejudice
is
more
like
a
knee‐jerk
response
than
a
conscious
decision.
38
How
Prejudiced
are
People?
Over
the
dura8on
of
8me
many
prejudices
against
interracial
marriage,
gender,
homosexuality,
minori8es
have
waned.
39
Racial
&
Gender
Prejudice
Americans
today
express
much
less
racial
and
gender
prejudice,
but
prejudices
s8ll
exist.
40
Race
Nine
out
of
10
white
respondents
were
slow
at
responding
to
words
like
“peace”
or
“paradise”
when
they
saw
a
black
individual’s
photo
compared
to
a
whites
(Hugenberg
&
Bodenhausen,
2003).
Gender
Most
women
s8ll
live
in
more
poverty
than
men.
About
100,000,000
women
are
missing
in
the
world.
There
is
a
preference
for
male
children
in
China
and
India,
even
with
sex‐selected
abor8on
outlawed.
41
Gender
Although
prejudice
prevails
against
women,
more
people
feel
more
posi8vely
toward
“women”
than
“men.”
Women
rated
picture
b
[feminized]
higher
(665)
for
a
matrimonial
ad
(PerreR,
1998).
42
Social
Inequality
When
people
have
money,
power
and
pres8ge,
and
others
do
not,
prejudice
develops.
Social
inequality
increases
prejudice.
43
In
and
Out
Groups
Ingroup:
People
with
whom
one
shares
a
common
iden8ty.
Outgroup:
Those
perceived
as
different
from
one’s
ingroup.
Ingroup
Bias:
The
tendency
to
favor
one’s
own
group.
Scotland’s
famed
“Tartan
Army”
fans.
44
Emo8onal
Roots
of
Prejudice
Prejudice
provides
an
outlet
for
anger
[emo8on]
by
providing
someone
to
blame.
AYer
9/11
many
people
lashed
out
against
innocent
Arab‐
Americans.
45
Cogni8ve
Roots
of
Prejudice
One
way
we
simplify
our
world
is
to
categorize.
We
categorize
people
into
groups
by
stereotyping
them.
Foreign
sunbathers
may
think
Balinese
look
alike.
46
Cogni8ve
Roots
of
Prejudice
Vivid
cases
like
the
9/11
terrorists
can
feed
stereotypes
or
prejudices
(terrorism).
Most
terrorists
are
non‐Muslims.
47
Cogni8ve
Roots
of
Prejudice
The
tendency
of
people
to
believe
the
world
is
just
and
people
get
what
they
deserve
and
deserve
what
they
get
(the
just‐world
phenomenon).
48
Aggression
Aggression
can
be
any
physical
or
verbal
behavior
intended
to
hurt
or
destroy
whether
done
reac8vely
out
of
hos8lity
or
proac8vely
as
a
calculated
means
to
an
end.
Research
shows
that
aggressive
behavior
emerges
from
the
interac8on
of
biology
and
experience.
49
The
Biology
of
Aggression
Three
levels
of
biological
influences
on
aggressive
behavior
are:
1.  Gene8c
Influences
2.  Neural
Influences
3.  Biochemical
Influences
50
Influences
Gene8c
Influences:
Animals
have
been
bred
for
aggressiveness
–
for
sport
and
at
8mes
for
research.
Twin
studies
show
aggression
may
be
gene8c.
In
men,
aggression
is
possibly
linked
to
Y
chromosome.
Neural
Influences:
Some
centers
in
the
brain,
especially
the
limbic
system
(amygdala)
and
the
frontal
lobe
are
in8mately
involved
with
aggression.
51
Influences
Biochemical
Influences:
Animals
with
diminished
amounts
of
testosterone
(castra8on)
become
docile,
and
if
injected
with
testosterone
aggression
increases.
Prenatal
exposure
to
testosterone
also
increases
aggression
in
female
hyenas.
52
The
Psychology
of
Aggression
Four
psychological
factors
that
influence
aggressive
behavior
are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Aversive
Events
Learning
Aggression
is
Rewarding
Observing
Models
of
Aggression
Acquiring
Social
Scripts
53
Aversive
Events
Studies
in
which
animals
and
humans
experience
unpleasant
events
reveal
that
those
made
miserable
oYen
make
others
miserable.
Ron
Artest
(Pacers)
aRack
on
Detroit
Pistons.
54
Environment
Even
environmental
temperature
can
lead
to
aggressive
acts.
Murders
and
rapes
increased
with
temperature
in
Houston.
55
Frustra8on‐Aggression
Principle
A
principle
in
which
frustra8on
(caused
by
blocking
to
achieve
some
goal)
creates
anger,
which
can
generate
aggression.
56
Learning
that
Aggression
is
Rewarding
When
aggression
leads
to
desired
outcomes,
one
learns
to
be
aggressive.
This
is
shown
in
animals
and
humans
alike.
Cultures
that
favor
violence
breed
violence.
Scotch‐
Irish
seRlers
in
the
South
had
more
violent
tendencies
than
their
Quaker,
Dutch
counterparts
in
the
Northeast
of
the
US.
57
Acquiring
Social
Scripts
The
media
portrays
social scripts
and
generates
mental
tapes
in
the
minds
of
the
viewers.
When
confronted
with
new
situa8ons
individuals
may
rely
on
such
social
scripts.
If
social
scripts
are
violent
in
nature,
people
may
act
them
out.
58
Do
Video
Games
Teach
or
Release
Violence?
The
general
consensus
on
violent
video
games
is
that
to
some
extent
it
breeds
violence.
Adolescents
view
the
world
as
hos8le,
get
into
arguments,
and
get
bad
grades
aYer
playing
such
games.
59
Conflict
Conflict
is
perceived
incompa8bility
of
ac8ons,
goals,
or
ideas.
Social
Trap
a
situa8on
in
which
the
conflic8ng
par8es,
by
each
ra8onally
pursuing
their
self‐interest,
become
caught
in
mutually
destruc8ve
behavior.
60
A
Game
of
Social
Trap
By
pursuing
our
self‐interest
and
not
trus8ng
others,
we
can
end
up
losers.
61
Psychology
of
ARrac8on
1.  Proximity:
Geographic
nearness
is
a
powerful
predictor
of
friendship.
Repeated
exposure
to
novel
s8muli
increases
their
aRrac8on
(mere
exposure
effect).
A
rare
white
penguin
born
in
zoo
was
accepted
aYer
3
weeks
by
other
penguins
just
due
to
proximity.
62
Psychology
of
ARrac8on
2. Physical
ARrac8veness:
Once
proximity
affords
contact
the
next
most
important
thing
in
aRrac8on
is
physical
appearance.
63
Psychology
of
ARrac8on
3. Similarity:
Having
similar
views
between
individuals
causes
the
bond
of
aRrac8on
to
strengthen.
Similarity
breeds
content!
64
Roman8c
Love
Passionate
Love:
An
aroused
state
of
intense
posi8ve
absorp8on
in
another
usually
present
at
the
beginning
of
a
love
rela8onship.
Two‐factor
theory
of
emo8on
1.  Physical
arousal
plus
cogni8ve
appraisal
2.  Arousal
from
any
source
can
enhance
one
emo8on
depending
on
what
we
interpret
or
label
the
arousal
65
Roman8c
Love
Companionate
Love:
Deep
affec8onate
aRachment
we
feel
for
those
with
whom
our
lives
are
intertwined.
66
Altruism
Unselfish
regard
for
the
welfare
of
others.
Equity:
A
condi8on
in
which
people
receive
from
a
rela8onship
in
propor8on
to
what
they
give
to
it.
Self‐Disclosure:
Revealing
in8mate
aspects
of
oneself
to
others.
67
Bystander
Effect
Tendency
for
any
given
bystander
to
be
less
likely
to
give
aid
if
other
bystanders
are
present.
68
Bystander
Interven8on
The
decision‐making
process
for
bystander
interven8on.
69
The
Norms
for
Helping
Social
Exchange
Theory:
Our
social
behavior
is
an
exchange
process,
the
aim
of
which
is
to
maximize
benefits
and
minimize
costs.
  Reciprocity
Norm:
The
expecta8on
that
we
should
return
help
not
harm
to
those
who
have
helped
us.
  Social–Responsibility
Norm:
Largely
learnt,
a
norm
that
tells
us
to
help
others
when
they
need
us
even
though
they
may
not
repay
us
in
kind.
70
Peacemaking
Superordinate
Goals
are
shared
goals
that
override
differences
among
people
and
require
their
coopera8on.
Communica8on
and
understanding
is
developed
through
talking
to
one
another.
Some8mes
mediated
with
a
third
party.
Graduated
&
Reciprocated
Ini8a8ves
in
Tension‐Reduc8on
(GRIT)
A
strategy
designed
to
decrease
interna8onal
tensions.
One
side
recognizes
mutual
interests
and
ini8ates
a
small
conciliatory
act
that
opens
the
door
for
reciproca8on
by
the
other
party.
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