A CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF PLURAL FORMS OF
NOUN, PRONOUN, AND ARTICLE BETWEEN ENGLISH
AND INDONESIAN
A Graduating Paper
Submitted to the Board of Examiners in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for
the Degree of Sarjana Pendidikan Islam (S.Pd.I) in the English and Education
Department State Islamic Studies Institute (STAIN) Salatiga
By:
IDA NURYANI
NIM. 113 06 080
ENGLISH DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION FACULTY
STATE ISLAMIC STUDIES INSTITUTE
(STAIN) S A L A T I G A
2009
i
DEPARTEMEN AGAMA RI
SEKOLAH TINGGI AGAMA ISLAM NEGERI (STAIN) SALATIGA
Jl. Stadion 03 Telp. (0298) 323706, 323433 Salatiga 50721
Website : www.stainsalatiga.ac.id E-mail : administrasi@stainsalatiga.ac.id
Mashlihatul Umami, S.PdI, MA
The Lecturer of Educational Faculty
State Islamic Studies Institute of Salatiga
Salatiga, August 20th, 2010
ATTENTIVE COUNSELOR NOTES
Case: Ida Nuryani’s Graduating Paper
Dear
The head of State Islamic
Studies Institute of Salatiga
Assalamu’alaikum Wr. Wb.
After reading and correcting Ida Nuryani’s graduating paper entitled “A
CONTRASTIVE
ANALYSIS
OF
PLURAL
FORMS
OF
NOUN,
PRONOUN, AND ARTICLE BETWEEN ENGLISH AND INDONESIAN,” I
have dedicated and would like to propose that if could be accepted by educational
faculty, I hope it would be examined as soon as possible.
Wassalamu’alaikum Wr. Wb.
Consultant,
Mashlihatul Umami, S.PdI, MA
NIP. 19800513 200312 2 003
ii
DEPARTEMEN AGAMA RI
SEKOLAH TINGGI AGAMA ISLAM NEGERI (STAIN) SALATIGA
Jl. Stadion 03 Telp. (0298) 323706, 323433 Salatiga 50721
Website : www.stainsalatiga.ac.id E-mail : administrasi@stainsalatiga.ac.id
STATEMENT OF CERTIFICATION
A CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF PLURAL FORMS OF NOUN,
PRONOUN, AND ARTICLE BETWEEN ENGLISH AND INDONESIAN
IDA NURYANI
113 06 080
Has been brought to the board of examiners on August 31st, 2010 M /
Ramadhan 21st, 1431 H and hereby considered to completely fulfill the
requirements of the Degree of Sarjana Pendidikan Islam (S.Pd.I) in English and
Education Department.
Salatiga, August 31st, 2010 M
Ramadhan 21st, 1431 H
Board of examiners,
Head,
Secretary,
Dr. Imam Sutomo, M.Ag.
NIP.19580827 198303 1 002
Dr. Rahmat Hariyadi, M.Pd
NIP.19670112 199203 1 005
1st Examiner,
2nd Examiner,
Dra. Hj. Woro Retnaningsih, M.Pd
NIP. 19681017 199303 2 002
Ari Setiawan, MM
NIP. 19751004 200312 1 002
Consultant,
Mashlihatul Umami, S.PdI, MA
NIP.19800513 200312 2 003
iii
DEPARTEMEN AGAMA RI
SEKOLAH TINGGI AGAMA ISLAM NEGERI (STAIN) SALATIGA
Jl. Stadion 03 Telp. (0298) 323706, 323433 Salatiga 50721
Website : www.stainsalatiga.ac.id E-mail : administrasi@stainsalatiga.ac.id
DECLARATION
In the name of Allah, The Most gracious and The Most Merciful.
Hereby the writer fully declares that the graduating paper is made by the
writer herself, and it is not containing materials written or has been published by
other people and other people’s ideas except the information from the references.
The writer is capable to account for this graduating paper if in the future it
can be proved of containing others’ ideas or in fact the writer imitates the others’
graduating paper.
Likewise, the declaration is made by the writer and she hopes that this
declaration can be understood.
Salatiga, August 20th, 2010
The Writer,
IDA NURYANI
NIM: 113 06 080
iv
MOTTO
“IF WE GET A KINDNESS FROM OTHER PEOPLE, WRITE IT
IN STONE”
“IF WE DO A KINDNESS TO OTHER PEOPLE, ALLOW IT
FLOWS AS WATER IN RIVER”
v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
In The Name of ALLAH most gracious and most merciful
First of all, I would to say Alhamdulillah for Allah’s mercy and blessing
that the writer could complete the graduating paper as one of the requirements for
getting Sarjana Pendidikan Islam (S.PdI) in English Department Student of State
Islamic Studies institution.
In completing this graduating paper, I met many difficulties and obstacles
but in the certain time Allah gives me helps to overcome it, so I accepted endless
great support, advice, guidance from many kind people. Therefore, my special
thanks for top of my heart go to:
1. Mr. Dr. Imam Sutomo as the head of State Islamic Studies Institute of
Salatiga.
2. Mr. Suwardi, M.Pd as the head of Education Affairs.
3. Mrs. Maslikhatul Umami as the chief English Students of State Islamic
Studies Institute of Salatiga.
4. Mrs. Maslikhatul Umami. She is as the consultant who gives support,
guidance, and useful advice.
5. All administration staffs and the library staffs to make easy for all do
the procedure at both of area.
6. My father who has given the best guidance for me.
6. My brothers and sisters who always supporting me.
7. Mas Arif thanks for your support, help, affection, advice and
togetherness.
vi
8. Miss Rahayu thanks for your help and suggestion.
9. My friends in Mapala MITAPASA that can be the second family for
me.
10. My friends, Irna, Elisa, Icha, Eka, Yunita, Yono, Budi, and all of the
students in TBI C thanks for your togetherness.
Thanks also to all people and I say sorry because can not mention it one by one.
From this graduating paper has many lacks, I hope the reader can give me critics,
recommendations for the next researcher.
Finally, the writer wants this graduating paper can give benefit and useful thing to
the readers. Thank you.
Salatiga, August 20th, 2010
The Writer,
IDA NURYANI
NIM: 113 06 080
vii
DEDICATION
This graduating paper dedicated to:
 My beloved father (Mr. Muhtadi) and Mother (Mrs. Supartini).
 My grandfather and grandmother.
 My older brothers (Agus Salim and Edi Rahmanto) and my older sisters
(Siti Nur Wakidah, Ardi Rini Meiwin and Leny Kusumawati).
 My nephews (Fooldy Wahyu Widianto and Ardian Tegar Maulana) and
my niece (Kinanti Pitra Waranggani).
viii
ABSTRACT
Ida Nuryani: A CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF PLURAL FORMS
OF NOUN, PRONOUN, AND ARTICLE BETWEEN EGLISH AND
INDONESIAN. This paper is very important to present because so many
expression using plural forms. There are three statements of the problem proposed
in this graduating paper namely: how are the general rules of English and
Indonesian structure in plural form of nouns, pronouns, and articles; what are the
differences and similarities between English and Indonesian structure in plural
form of nouns, pronouns, and articles; and what are the possible effect of those
differences and similarities in teaching English.
In this graduating paper, the writer used a contrastive analysis method. In
contrastive analysis method is a work procedure of language of activities
comparing the structure of first language and second language of any language
and identifying their differences from the two languages.
After investigating the English and Indonesian plural forms of noun,
pronoun, and article, the writer finds out some conclusions as follows: the
similarity of plural forms of noun, pronoun, and article between English and
Indonesian in the function in sentence, the differences of plural forms of noun,
pronoun, and article between English and Indonesian in the pattern of plural
forms, and the usages of the result in language teaching.
Key words: contrastive, analysis, and plural forms
ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE…………………………………………………………………….
i
ATTENTIVE COUNCELOR NOTES………………………………….
ii
STATEMENT OF CERTIFICATION…………………………………..
iii
DECLARATION………………………………………………………..
iv
MOTTO………………………………………………………………….
v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT……………………………………………….
vi
DEDICATION…………………………………………………………. .
viii
ABSTRACT………………………………………………………………
ix
TABLE OF CONTENT…………………………………………………..
x
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
A. The Background of Study................................................
1
B. Statement of the Problem ................................................
4
C. The Objective of the Study ..............................................
4
D. The Benefits of the Study ................................................
4
E. Limitations of the Problem ..............................................
5
F. Definition of Key Term....................................................... 6
G. Literature Review ............................................................
6
H. Research Methodology......................................................
8
I. Thesis Orgnization.............................................................
11
CHAPTER II THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK
A. The Nature of Constrastive Analysis................................
x
13
B. The Function of Contrastive Anlysis ..............................
17
C. Contrastive Analysis Methodology……………... ...........
19
D. The Definition of Plural Form……………………………
21
E. The Definition of Noun………………………………….
22
F. The Definition of Pronoun……………………………….
24
G. The Definition of Article……………………………….. .
25
CHAPTER III DISCUSSION OF ENGLISH AND INDONESIAN STUCTURE
IN PLURAL FORM
A. The English Plural Form…………………………………
28
1. The Plural Form of Nouns .........................................
28
2. The Plural Form of Pronouns .....................................
32
3. The Plural Form of Articles ......................................
35
B. The Indonesian Plural form………………………………
38
1. The Plural Form of Nouns .........................................
41
2. The Plural Form of Pronouns .....................................
42
3. The Plural Form of Articles .......................................
45
CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF ENGLISH AND INDONESIAN
PLURAL FORM OF NOUN, PRONOUN, AND
ARTICLE
A. The Similarities of English and Indonesian Plural Form
of Noun, Pronoun, and Article ........................................
47
1. The Plural Form of Noun ..........................................
48
xi
2. The Plural Form of Pronoun ......................................
49
3. The Plural Form of Article ........................................
49
B. The Differences of English and Indonesian Plural Form
of Noun, Pronoun, and Article ........................................
50
1. The Plural Form of Noun ..........................................
50
2. The Plural Form of Pronoun ......................................
51
3. The Plural Form of Article ........................................
52
C. The Implications of English and Indonesian Structure of
Plural Form in Teaching Learning Process......................
52
CHAPTER V CLOSURE
A. Conclusion .....................................................................
57
B. Suggestion .....................................................................
59
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CURRICULUM VITAE
APPENDIX
xii
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A. The Background of the Study
Human is a social creature. They need other person to live and grow.
Therefore, human has equipped with language to communicate with each
other. Language is communication device between the members of society in
the form of speech utterance that is produced by speech organ (Keraf, 1991:2).
By language, human can express their ideas too. So, language has the
important role in human life.
In our country, English is a foreign language that is taught to students
from the elementary school until university. According to Richard and Rodger
(1992:3), the purpose of foreign language study is to learn a language in order
to read its literature or in order to benefit from the mental discipline and
intellectual development that result from foreign language study.
While, Indonesian language is a second language that is taught to
students in school and used on formal communication (Samsuri, 1981:7).
Learning a language is not apart from learning its grammar. Grammar
can help students to understand the language. However, students often feel
difficult to learn the grammar, especially for foreign language. In fact, foreign
or second languages have the differences and similarities. They have their own
characteristics that often make students difficult to learn it.
1
2
In teaching learning process ultimately the grammatical aspect analysis
and parsing may be good as intellectual exercise, but are not much valuable.
Actually, learning language is more difficult than using language, but the
students should know the sentence construction. So, they should learn the
grammar if they want to learn the language. Students learn about words and
sentences too in grammar. In order to, they can use language correctly. A
sentence is traditionally defined as a group of words which expresses a
complete thought (Allen, 1972:3). So, the students need to know how words
collocate, to know where certain classes of the words and which of those
words have their normal places in sentences.
In teaching foreign or second language have some similarities and
some differences. For example, students should know how to make sentences
that contain with several words and form of the words such as plural form.
Plural is the form of a noun that has two part (Murphy, 1994:156). Actually,
plural form is not only change the form of noun but it can change pronouns
and articles too. So, they have different characteristics in plural form. In order
to be clearer, the following example of English plural form: boys, branches,
buffaloes. While, plural in Indonesian language is called as reduplikasi or
word reduplication. The next are the example of Indonesian plural form: bukubuku, buah-buahan, bermain-main.
The writer is interested to discuss about plural form in English and
Indonesian because many students just know the structure of plural form in
noun. Even, they also do not know the way to change the singular noun
3
become plural noun. It is caused by the fact that not all the system of the
language and another are exactly similar. Of course, it will make them confuse
to use plural form in a sentence. Students do not know that the usage of
pronouns and articles can be influenced by plural words. Moreover, the cause
of students’ difficulties is inconsistent of plural form in English.
The writer only chooses noun, pronoun, and article because they are
very often occurring in the process of language learning. They can find in
almost text book that must be learned by students. The writer said that the
three kinds of parts of speech above are the basic of words that can be made
into plural form. However, the students are difficult to understanding it; both
the pattern and the usage. So, the writer decides just to explain the plural form
in noun, pronoun, and article.
Based on this case, the writer will describe differences and similarities
in plural form by comparing Indonesian and English language. The writer also
describes the usage of nouns, pronouns and articles in plural form and the
pattern of them in plural form. The writer hopes that the difficulties of
students can be solved after they know the similarities and differences of two
languages in plural form. So, the writer wants to research under the title “A
CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF PLURAL FORMS OF NOUN,
PRONOUN,
AND
INDONESIAN.”
ARTICLE
BETWEEN
ENGLISH
AND
4
B. Statement of the Problem
Based on the background of the study above, there are many problems
that arise. Some problems that can be identified are as follows:
1. How are the general rules of English and Indonesian structure in plural
form of nouns, pronouns, and articles?
2. What are the differences and similarities between English and Indonesian
structure in plural form of nouns, pronouns, and articles?
3. What are the possible effect of those differences and similarities in
teaching English?
C. The Objective of the Study
Related with above assumption, the objectives of writing this thesis are
as follows:
1. To find out the general rules of English and Indonesian structure in plural
form of nouns, pronouns, and articles.
2. To find out the differences and similarities between English and
Indonesian structure in plural form of nouns, pronouns, and articles.
3. To find out of the possible effect of those differences and similarities in
teaching English.
D. The Benefits of the Study
This thesis can be beneficial as follows:
1. Practically
5
a. For the writer
The findings of the research can be used as a starting point in
improving the writer’s understanding about English and Indonesian
structure in plural form of nouns, pronouns, and articles.
b. For the students
The finding of this research can make the students easier to understand
the structure of plural form of nouns, pronouns, and articles between
English and Indonesian.
c. For the other researcher
The findings of this research can be used as one of the references in
conducting a research on English language teaching, especially in
analyzing of two languages.
2. Theoretically
The findings of this research can help to understand the differences and
similarities between English and Indonesian structure in plural form of
nouns, pronouns, and articles.
E. Limitations of the Problem
In this study, the writer limits the study in order to the readers not lost.
The writer compares both English and Indonesian structure in plural form. The
writer focuses on the plural form of language; it includes noun, pronouns, and
articles. The writer also focuses on the agreement of plural form in sentence;
the pattern and usage of plural nouns, pronouns, and articles in sentence.
6
F. Definition of Key Term
To understand this study easier, the writer gives some description and
explanation about the key term. They are following in this line.
1. Contrastive Analysis
a. According Hornby (1974:186), contrastive is adjective form from
contrast. A contrast is comparing one thing with another, so that
differences are made clear, showing difference when compared.
b. Analysis is separation into parts possibly with comment and judgment,
instance of the result of doing (Hornby, 1974:29).
c. Contrastive Analysis proposed by Suharsimi Arikunto (1989:198), is
used to find the similarities and differences of things, people, ideas or
procedures.
2. Plural is form of word used with reference to more than one (Hornby,
1974:643).
G. The Literature Review
In this research, the writer has some literatures as the comparison of
this research. The writer finds the other theses that have same topic with this
research. Those are:
1. The first review related to this research, the title is “A Contrastive
Analysis Between English and Indonesian Adjective Clauses.” The
researcher is Siti Nurjanah in 2008. In this thesis, she compared and
7
analyzed the two languages; they are English and Indonesian in the usage
of adjective clauses (Nurjanah, 2008:4).
2. The second review related to this research, the title is “A Contrastive
Analysis of Indonesian and English Noun Phrases”. The researcher is Iva
Farida in 2007. In this thesis, she analyzed the two languages; they are
Indonesian and English in the usage of noun phrases (Farida, 2007:2).
3. The second review related to this research, the title is “A Contrastive
Analysis between English and Indonesian Sentence Patterns (A Case of
Passive Voice).” The researcher is Asyik Junaidi in 2005. In this thesis, he
mentioned that English and Indonesian sentence have some differences
and similarities in the usage of passive voice (Junaidi, 2005:1).
Based on that research, the writer tries to analyze “A Contrastive
Analysis of Plural Forms between English and Indonesian.” The differences of
this research with the research above, here, the writer wants to find out the
similarities and the differences of plural form in English and Indonesian
languages. In this thesis, the writer will describe the plural form of noun,
pronouns, and the usage of articles in plural form. The writer also analyzes the
two languages in order to be easier in understanding the plural form in
teaching learning process. And the similarities this research with the research
above, the writer takes the same subject that is Indonesian and English.
8
H. Research Methodology
1. Type of the research
This research is qualitative research. According to Moleong,
qualitative method is a method that produced descriptive data such as
written words and attitude of people who has observed (Moleong, 2002:3).
Qualitative data tend to be in the form of words than numbers.
Because the term of this research is contrastive in English and
Indonesian structure of plural form, it can be separated and taken
according to the form and the agreement of the terms.
2. Object of the research
a. Data
The data of this research are English and Indonesian structure
in plural form.
b. Data sources
These are the data sources which support and complete the
data. The writer uses some books that related with the study. The
books contain the materials related to the subject matters of this study,
such as:
Warriner’s English Grammar and Composition; First Course
by John E. Warriner published by Harcourt Brace Jovanovic Inc. in
1982. He said that all nouns and pronouns have number. They are
plural in number if they refer to more than one thing.
9
Understanding and Using English Grammar; Second Edition
by Betty Schrampfer Azar published by Prentice Hall Regents, New
Jersey in 1986. She said that plural is divided into two form; regular
and irregular, also the agreement of plural in sentence.
English Grammar in Use by Raymond Murphy published by
Cambridge University Press in 1994. He said that some words are
written in plural form but actually singular.
Modern English A Practical Reference Guide by Marcella
Frank published by Prentice Hall Inc., New Jersey in 1972. She said
that the usage of pronouns and articles are also influenced by plural
form.
Pembentukan Kata Dalam Bahasa Indonesia by Harimurti
Kridalaksana published by PT Gramedia Pustaka, Jakarta in 1992. He
said that reduplikasi or word reduplication in Indonesian has some
forms and meaning.
Tata Bahasa Rujukan Bahasa Indonesia by Gorys Keraf
published by PT Grasindo, Jakarta in 1991. He said that Indonesian
has four plural forms. They are dwipurwa, dwilingga, dwilingga salin
suara, dwilingga berimbuhan.
Garis-Garis Besar Tata Bahasa Baku Bahasa Indonesia by
Masnur Muslich published by Yayasan Asih Asah Asuh, Malang in
1990. He said that in Indonesian, nouns are not directly referred to
singular or plural.
10
3. Data collection
Collecting the data is very important in this research. According to
Suharsimi Arikunto (1989:122), there are six methods of collecting data;
test,
questionnaires,
interview,
observation,
rating
scale,
and
documentation.
Because this research is literary study, the writer uses
documentation method that is taken from books and internet to find out
clarification of the case study.
4. Data analysis
The writer gets the data from the reference books that have been
mentioned before. All collected data will be classified, compared and
analyzed by using contrastive method.
Contrastive method is a work procedure of language activities
comparing the structure of first language and second language or any
language and identifying their differences from the two languages. It is
used to know the differences of similarities of thing, people, ideas or
procedures.
In this research, the writer takes the steps are as follows:
a. Firstly, the researcher reads the books both English and Indonesian
that consists of plural form between English and Indonesian.
b. Secondly, the researcher looks for English and Indonesian structure in
plural form in those books.
11
c. Thirdly, the researcher writes all the collected data into papers and
classifying them based on contrastive analysis.
d. Finally, the researcher analyses the English and Indonesian structure in
plural form. Then, she looks for the similarities and the differences of
them and takes the conclusion.
I. Thesis Organization
Chapter I is introduction that consists of background of the study,
statement of the problem, the objective of the study, the benefits of the study,
limitations of problem, definition of key term, literature review, research
methodology, thesis organization.
Chapter II is theoretical framework which consists of the nature of
contrastive analysis, the function of contrastive analysis, contrastive analysis
methodology, definition of plural, the definition of noun, the definition of
pronoun, the definition of article.
Chapter III is discussion of English and Indonesian structure in plural
form that consists of English plural form, Indonesian plural form.
Chapter IV is analysis of English and Indonesian structure in plural
form which consists of the similarities of English and Indonesian structure in
plural form, the differences of English and Indonesian structure in plural form,
and the implications of English and Indonesian structure of plural form in
teaching learning process.
12
Chapter V is closure that consists of conclusion and suggestion. The
last part is bibliography and appendixes.
CHAPTER II
THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK
A. The Nature of Contrastive Analysis
Contrastive analysis is the systematic study of a pair of languages with
a
view
to
identifying
their
structural differences
and
similarities
(http:/en.wikipedia.org/wiki). Moreover, the contrastive analysis can be one
way to compare two languages, so that it can be made clear in the differences
and the similarities between of them.
According to James in Subyakto-Nababan (1993:145), there are two
kinds of analyzing in contrastive analysis. First, text analysis which is takes
place on formal stage. It is also called as usage. Second, discourse analysis is
the analysis of contrast the language on functional stge. It is also called as use.
Contrastive analysis has two aspects, such as: linguistic and
psycholinguistic aspect (Henry, 1990:3). Contrastive analysis is an important
branch of applied linguistics; that is an activity which tries to compare the
structure of the L1 and the L2. The linguistic aspect is correlation between the
problems of two compared languages. When people want to know the
differences between two languages, we must fulfill several parts. There are
three parts can be compared or contrast that may rise for students in studying
the languages, such as:
1. The similarity of structure and forms
2. The similarity in translation
13
14
3. The similarity in structure and translation
According to the parts above, contrastive analysis as the one of fields in
language teaching where the language experts confess it has quite great
contributions in giving favor toward composing the grammatical education.
In studying a foreign language, students usually get some difficulties.
They are interfered by first language to combine with the foreign language.
Contrastive analysis attempts acting as connected bridge contrasting the both
system of language for predicting difficulties, which may take place.
The case of the beginners gives some ides how to solve the problem.
So, the contrastive analysis can be the answer of the problem. It is considering
as the comparison of the structure of language to determine the point of
differences of the source of the difficulty in learning target. It is to compare
two languages and to clarify similarities and differences of the language. It
can give beneficial contribution for implementing the direction of language.
Contrastive analysis, itself, has a hypothesis that the principal barrier
to second language acquisition is the interference of the first language system,
and that scientific would yield taxonomy of linguistic contrast between them
which in turn would enable the linguist to predict the difficulties a learner
would encounter (Brown, 1980:148)
Moreover, human learning theories highlighted interfering element of
learning, concluding that where no interference could be predicted, no
difficulty would be experienced since one could transfer positively all other
items in a language. The logical conclusion from these various psychological
15
and linguistic assumptions was that second language learning basically
involved the overcoming of the differences between the two linguistic
systems–the native and target languages (Brown, 1980:148).
According to Jack C. Richards (1974:97), the contrastive analysis rests
on the following assumptions about the process of language learning:
1. Language learning is habit formation. It derives primarily from the general
paradigm of behaviorist psychology. Habit formation may be described in
variety of ways that rely on frequency, contiguity, intensity of stimulus
and response in the occurrence of the event that becomes a habit.
2. An old habit (that of using one‘s first language) hinders or facilitates the
formation of a new habit (learning a second language) depending on the
differences or similarities, respectively, between the old and the new.
It is considered feasible that the tools of structural linguistics would
enable to describe accurately the two languages in question and to match those
two descriptions against each other to determine valid contrast, or differences
between them.
According to Roger (1981:181), there are two polar views on using
target language and a range of compromise positions between the system of
L1 and L2:
1. The strong claim that the ‗deviant‘ behavior of the learner is the direct
result of the transfer of the ‗habits‘ of the L1 into the L2. Those who make
the strong claim consider that contrastive analysis is not as means of
explaining error but also as a technique for predicting error.
16
2. The weak claim that the structure of the L1 provides only a partial
explanation of the phenomena involved in L2 learning. Those who make
the weak claim insist that the structure of L1 is only one of many
influences at work in the learning process. It follows that contrastive
analysis may be of some value in explanation of error but can not have a
strong predictive value.
In comparing of the two languages, there are source language and
target language. Richards (1974:110) said that source language is L1 that will
be translated to L2; it is that acting as a source of interference (deviation from
the norm of the target language). In this research, the first language (L1) is
Indonesian. Target language is second language (L2) or foreign language; it is
that in which communication is being attempted; in the case of a learner it is
the language he is learning, when he uses it, especially in English.
Randal Whitman noted in Brown (1980:150) that contrastive analysis
has four different procedures. The first of these is description: the linguist or
language teacher, using the tools of formal grammar, explicitly describes the
two languages in question. Second, a selection is made of certain form of
linguist items, rules, structure for contrast. The third is the contrast itself, the
mapping of one linguistic system onto the other and a specification of the
relationship of one system to the other. Finally, one formulates a prediction of
error or of difficulty on the basis of the first three procedures.
In language teaching, teacher and student have important roles to make
a success learning processes. As a teacher, he or she has to prepare how to
17
make tech foreign language to students seriously. He or she must understand
with the capability of the students on the new language and use the method
that sufficient with the student‘s ability. Therefore, the difficulty in mastering
certain structures in L2 depended on the difference between the learners‘ L1
and the language they are trying to learn. So, as the learners, they must try to
improve their capability in the new language by contrast with L1.
B. The Function of Contrastive Analysis
The purpose of CA is to solve the problems which are faced by teacher and
student in learning second language or foreign language. According to Henry
(1990:5) contrastive analysis has some important contribution in the teaching
learning processes, as follows:
1. Constructing language teaching material which is based on the result of
contrasting L1 and L2.
2. Constructing the system of pedagogical language which is based on the
linguistic theory being used.
3. Arranging the class property in which the first language used to help in the
second language learning.
4. Presenting the language material directly by:
a. Showing the similarities and differences between the two languages.
b. Showing the structural aspect of the first language which causes the
possible difficulties of errors in the second language.
c. Suggesting the way of how to overcome the interference.
18
d. Giving the exercise intensively to the aspect which is different.
Sri Utari-Nababan (1993) said that Contrastive Analysis has
implication for these several functions as follows:
1. To determine the pattern and structure in sentence that must be
emphasized and exercised by students
2. To explain why errors in studying second language happened.
3. To give directions or strategy to find out the exact material for the
students.
This study uses contrastive analysis because it functions to provide
guide lines in analyzing foreign language. The functions are:
1. Predictive
It means to detect the errors of students in learning L2.
2. Clarification
It means to explain the errors which are made by the students.
3. Complementary
It means to complete knowledge of the candidate teachers and the teachers
who do not have experience.
4. Preventive
It means to prevent and to limit the errors are done by the students.
5. Curative
It means to correct the errors and to overcome the language teaching
problems.
19
The implications of contrastive analysis in second language learning
are as follows:
1. Compare the students‘ language with the second language that will be
learned by students.
2. Teacher can predict the difficulties and mistakes that may be arise in
learning process based on the difference of structure of both languages.
3. Learning difficulties and mistakes that have been predicted are used to
choose and arrange the learning material.
4. Choosing the method of presenting the material.
C. Contrastive Analysis Methodology
Contrastive analysis here refers to an activity that tries to compare
between English and Indonesian language structures, to identify the
differences between both languages and their similarities.
Actually, the history of CA is based on three assumptions:
1. Teaching experience of foreign language teacher that always finds the
errors which are made by the learners can be detected through mother
language.
2. Interference of L1 into L2
3. Learning theory especially transfer theory which is considered as positive
facility beside there is negative interference.
20
Contrastive analysis methodology is the work step of contrastive
analysis which describes the term of CA. Contrastive analysis includes four
steps;
1. Compare the structure of L1 and L2,
2. Prediction the learning difficulties and language errors,
3. Choose the learning material, and
4. Determine the way to teach the second language efficiently and
effectively.
The first rules in contrastive analysis, is depending on the good
descriptive and detail about language. In this material, the theoretical analysis
of languages will be compared or contrasted from the structure of language.
The second criteria from contrastive analysis are descriptively identifying
feature, not prediction. A contrastive linguist must compare with component
of languages those are contrasted that may cause difficulties for those second
language students.
The way to determine the aspects of contrastive analysis are as
follows:
1. Linguistic aspect which is connected with the comparison of the structure
of both languages to find their differences.
2. Psychology aspect that is based on the differences of the structure of two
languages that will be studied by students to predict the learning
difficulties.
21
3. Based on those difficulties and mistakes, it is arranged the material of
second language which have a good arranging and have the exactly
objective of learning.
4. The learning material is presented by particular methods.
D. The Definition of Plural Form
In the English language, nouns are inflected for grammatical number—
that is, singular or plural. So, plural is a grammatical form that designates
more than one of the things specified. Plural is a concept of quantity (i.e.,
grammatical number) representing a value of more-than-one. Typically
applied to nouns, a plural word or marker (morpheme) is used distinguish a
value other than the default quantity of a noun, which is typically one.
In English, the plural is usually formed with the addition of -s (e.g.,
one cat, two cats; one chair, two chairs) or -es (e.g., one bush, two bushes;
one itch, two itches). Generally, -s is added to all nouns that end in a voiceless
consonant, vowels, or voiced non-sibilants, whereas -es is added for nouns
ending in a sibilant sound. Nouns that end in e are a noted exception; though e
may form a sibilant sound, -s is used (e.g,. one tree, two trees; one bee, two
bees).
Some plural forms require more noticeable changes in word structure.
Most words ending in y are pluralized with ies (e.g., one lady, two ladies; one
cherry, two cherries). Some words ending in f are pluralized with -ves (e.g.,
one leaf; two leaves; exception: one roof; two roofs). Words ending in x are
22
often pluralized with -ces (e.g., one matrix, two matrices; one index, two
indices). Words ending in us often replace the us with -i (e.g., one cactus, two
cacti; one fungus, two fungi). A subset of words ending in um or on is
pluralized by replacing with -a (e.g., one forum, two fora; one criterion, two
criteria). A small class of words has identical singular and plural forms: e.g.,
one sheep, two sheep; one aircraft, two aircraft.
Actually, plural form produces a new word with the similar lexical
meaning. So, it is difficult to determine the function of plural form. It because
the function and the meaning of plural form is related to each other. However,
we can find a morphologies function if we look the process of plural word.
The morphologies function is seen in the writing of singular form into
plural form. It is very clearly visible in writing of Indonesian plural form
which its plural is formed by repeating the root word. For example, the word
kuda-kuda that is contain of two morphemes; kuda and refrain morpheme
(Parera, 1994:48).
E. The Definition of Noun
A noun is a word used to name a person, place, thing or idea
(Warriner, 1982:4). The noun is one of the most important parts of speech. Its
arrangement with the verbs helps to form the sentence core which is essential
to every complete sentence. In addition, it may function as the chief or ―head‖
word in many structures of modification.
23
According to Marcella Frank (1972: 6), some nouns may belong to
more than one of the types given below:
1. Proper nouns
It begins with a capital letter in writing. It includes personal names (Mr.
John); names of countries, cities, etc. (Paris); names of nationalities and
religions (Dutchman); names of days (Saturday). As opposed to proper
nouns, all other nouns are classified as common nouns, for example;
garden, table, dog, etc.
2. Concrete or abstract nouns
A concrete noun is a word for physical object that can be perceived by the
senses. For example, flower, girl. An abstract noun is a word for a
concept–it is an idea that exists in our minds only (beauty, justice).
3. Countable or non-countable nouns
A countable noun is a noun with both singular and plural form, and it
names anything (or anyone) that you can count. A non-countable noun is
not used in the plural. They are words for concrete objects stated in
undivided quantity (coffee, iron). Some non-countable nouns may also be
used in a countable sense and have a plural. In addition, a non-countable
noun may be used in the plural with the special meaning of kinds of.
4. Collective nouns
A collective noun is a word for a group of people, animals or objects
considered as a single unit. Examples of collective nouns are audience,
committee, class, crew, faculty, family, etc. Collective nouns are countable
24
nouns; the may be used in the plural. For example; all the committees
make the new recommendations.
A noun can function as the subject of a verb; the complement of the
verbs be, become, seem; the object of a verb; the object of a preposition; and a
noun can also be in the possessive case (Thomson and Martinet, 1986:24).
F. The Definition of Pronoun
A pronoun is a word used in place of one or more than one noun
(Warriner, 1982:6). The noun it refers to is called the antecedent. For
example; I read the book. It is good. The pronoun ―it‖ refers to the antecedent
noun ―book‖ (Azar, 1989:379).
Common types of pronouns found in the world's languages are as
follows:
1. Personal pronouns stand in place of the names of people or things:
a. Subjective pronouns are used when the person or thing is the subject of
the sentence or clause. For example: I like to eat chips, but she does
not.
b. Objective pronouns are used when the person or thing is the object of
the sentence or clause. For example: John likes me but not her.
c. Prepositional pronouns come after a preposition. No distinct forms
exist in English; for example: Anna and Maria looked at him.
2. Possessive pronouns are used to indicate possession or ownership. The
possessive pronouns are only those that act syntactically as nouns. For
25
example: Those clothes are mine. Possessive pronoun is also called
possessive adjectives (or possessive determiners). For example, in English:
I lost my wallet.
3. Demonstrative pronouns distinguish the particular objects or people that
are referred to from other possible candidates. For example: I can take
these.
4. Indefinite pronouns refer to general categories of people or things. For
example: Anyone can do that.
5. Relative pronouns refer back to people or things previously mentioned.
For example: People who smoke should quit now.
6. Interrogative pronouns ask which person or thing is meant. For example:
Who do that?
G. The Definition of Article
Article is a word that limited the number of noun (Muslich, 1990:111).
Article is divided into two groups; indefinite article and definite article. An
indefinite article indicates that its noun is not yet a particular one (or ones)
identifiable to the listener. It may be something that the speaker is mentioning
for the first time, or its precise identity may be irrelevant or hypothetical, or
the speaker may be making a general statement about any such thing. English
uses a or an (depending on the initial sound of the next word) as its indefinite
article.
26
A definite article indicates that its noun is a particular one (or ones)
identifiable to the listener. It may be the same thing that the speaker has
already mentioned, or it may be something uniquely specified. The definite
article in English is the.
According to Warriner (1982:12), a is used before words beginning
with a consonant sound; an is used before words beginning with a vowel
sounds. Besides that, article a or an is used with singular countable noun; the
definite article the may be used with countable nouns, singular and plural, and
with uncountable nouns (Hornby, 1975:126).
The is sometimes used with a singular generic count noun. ―Generic
the‖ is commonly used with, in particular:
1. Species of animal
: The whale is the largest mammal on earth.
2. Inventions
: Who invented the telephone?
3. Musical instruments : Do you play the guitar? (Azar, 1989:394)
Betty Schrampfer Azar (1989:395) explains the general guidelines for
article usage are as follows:
1. Use the when you know or assume that your listener is familiar with and
thinking about the same specific thing or person you are talking about. For
example: The sun is bright today.
Please hand this book to the teacher.
Please open the door.
Jack is in the kitchen.
27
2. Use the for the second mention of an indefinite noun. For example:
“Yesterday I saw some dogs. The dogs were chasing a cat. The cat was
chasing a mouse. The mouse run into a hole. The hole was very small.”
3. Do not use the with a plural count noun (e. g., apples) or a non-count noun
(e. g., gold) when you are making a generalization. For example:
INCORRECT : The apples are my favorite fruit.
CORRECT
: Apples are my favorite fruit.
INCORRECT : The gold is a metal.
CORRET
: Gold is a metal.
4. Do not use a singular count noun (e. g., car) without: (1) an rticle (a/an or
the), (2) this/that, nd (3) a possessive pronoun. For example:
INCORRECT : I drove car.
CORRECT
: I drove a car.
I drove the car.
I drove that car.
I drove his car.
CHAPTER III
DISCUSSION OF ENGLISH AND INDONESIAN STRUCTURE IN
PLURAL FORM
In this chapter, the writer wants to discuss about the English plural
form and Indonesian plural form in three kinds of parts of speech that has been
mentioned before. The writer wants to explain the plural form of noun, pronoun,
and article based on their pattern and usage in the sentence.
A. The English Plural Form
1. The Plural Form of Nouns
All nouns have number. They are singular in number if they refer
to one thing. They are plural in number if they refer to more than one
thing. The general rule for writing the plural of English nouns is to add s to
the singular form (boy–boys, apple–apples). However this rule is
complicated because of many exceptions given below:
1. After a sibilant sound spelled as s, z, ch, sh, x, es is added (classes,
dishes). However, if final ch is pronounced [k], only s is added
(monarchs, stomachs, and epochs).
2. After y preceded by a consonant, the y is changed to i and es is added
(lady–ladies, country–countries). If final y is preceded by a vowel, no
change is made (valley–valleys).
28
29
3. In one-syllable words, final f or fe becomes ves in the plural (wife–
wives, leaf–leaves). However, some such words take the regular s
ending (chief–chiefs, roof–roofs).
4. After final o, es is sometimes added, especially in some common
words (heroes, potatoes). If a vowel precedes the final o, or if the word
is a term used in music, only s is added (studios, pianos). Sometimes
the es alternate with a less common s ending (cargoes or cargos).
5. Irregular plurals based on older English may take the form of:
a. An internal change (man–men, foot–feet, mouse–mice).
b. An en ending (child–children, ox–oxen).
6. The plural has the same form as the singular (sheep–sheep, deer–deer).
7. The singular has the same form as the plural (series–series, means–
means).
8. Many foreign words retain their foreign plurals in English.
a. Singular us ending becomes plural i ending (stimulus–stimuli,
radius–radii).
b. Singular a ending becomes plural ae ending (larva–larvae,
vertebrata–vertebrae).
c. Singular um ending becomes plural a ending (memorandum–
memoranda).
d. Singular is ending becomes plural es ending (crisis–crises,
parenthesis–parentheses).
30
e. Singular on ending becomes plural a ending (criterion–criteria,
phenomenon–phenomena).
f. Singular ex or ix ending becomes plural ices ending (vortex–
vortices, matrix–matrixes).
g. Singular eau ending becomes plural eaux ending (plateau–
plateaux).
9. No plural is used for non-countable words such as information, advice,
clothing, furniture.
10. Some words ending s are singular non-countable nouns, especially
names of diseases and fields of study (news, measles, and economics).
11. Some words ending in s are used chiefly as plurals (ashes, brains,
goods, riches). In this group are words for items that have two parts
(scissors, pliers, and trousers) (Frank, 1972:13).
Nouns in many European languages may be inflected, that is,
changed in form for certain grammatical properties. Usually these changes
are made trough special endings. However, the only grammatical
properties for which the English noun is inflected are: (1) number–the
noun has a special ending for a plural, and (2) “possession”–the noun has
a special ending that signals not only actual possession, but a number of
other relationships for which of phrases may also be used.
To show the possession, add an apostrophe (‘) and –s to a singular
noun: The girl’s book is on the table. If a singular noun ends in –s, there
are two possible forms:
31
1. Add an apostrophe and –s: Thomas’s book.
2. Add only an apostrophe: Thomas’ book.
A plural noun becomes possessive by the addition of an apostrophe to the
final s: The girls’ books are on the table. However, add an apostrophe and
–s to the irregular plural nouns or to plural nouns that do not end in –s: The
men’s books are on the table (Azar, 1989:202).
Certain words that are closely related in sentences have matching
forms. When such words are correctly matched, we say that they are agree
grammatically is in number. Number indicates whether the word refers to
one person or thing or to more than one (Warriner, 1982:129).
In sentence, usually contains with subject and verb. In the writing,
the number of the verb must agree with the number of its subject. In this
case, noun has a position as the subject of a verb. Warriner (1982:118)
said that there are two rules of the agreement between subject and verb in
the sentence:
1. Singular subjects take singular verbs.
Examples: The lightning fills the sky. (The verb fills is singular to
agree with the singular subject lightning).
Linda begins her vacation today. (The verb begins is
singular to agree with the singular subject Linda).
2. Plural subjects take plural verbs.
Examples: Cheetahs run faster than most other animals. (The verb
run is plural to agree with the plural subject cheetahs).
32
New families move into our neighborhood frequently. (The
verb move is plural to agree with the plural subject
families).
However, there are some exceptions of agreement that suggested
by Betty (1989:218) as follows:
1. Every and each are always followed immediately by singular nouns.
In this case, even when there are two (or more) nouns connected by
and, the verb is singular. For example; Every man, woman, and child
needs love.
2. A gerund used as the subject of a sentence takes a singular verb. For
example; Growing flowers is her hobby.
3. One of, each of, and every one of take singular verbs.
One of
Each of
Every one of
+ plural noun
+ singular verb
For example; One of my friends is here.
Generally, nouns ending in s are plural (friends, girls), but verbs
ending in s are singular (likes, sings). When a sentence contains a verbs
phrase, it is helping verb that agrees with the subject. For example:
1. The motor is running. The motors are running.
2. The girl has been delayed. The girls have been delayed.
2. The Plural Form of Pronouns
Similar with noun, pronouns also have number. According to
Marcella Frank (1972:29), the personal pronouns change their form for
33
person (first, second, third), for case (subject, object, possessive), number
(singular, plural), and gender (masculine, feminine, neuter). Except for
case, the reflexive pronouns make the same kinds of changes.
Subject
Object
____ Did It Show _____
Sing.
Table 3.1
Possessive
Possessive
Reflexive
Adjective
Pronoun
______ Book
It is _____
Hurt ______
I
me
my
mine
myself
you
you
your
yours
yourself
he
him
his
his
himself
she
her
her
hers
herself
it
it
-
itself
Plural we
us
our
ours
ourselves
you
you
your
yours
yourselves
they
them
their
theirs
themselves
it
Betty said in her book Understanding and Using English Grammar
(1989:26), that personal pronoun also has agreement in sentence. These
agreements are as follows:
1) Personal pronouns agreement with nouns
a. A student walked into the room. She was looking for the teacher.
b. A student walked into the room. He was looking for the teacher.
(In sentence a and b, a singular pronoun is used to refer to a
singular noun).
34
c. Some students walked into the room. They were looking for the
teacher. (In this sentence, a plural pronoun is used to refer to a
plural noun).
d. A student should always do his assignments.
e. A student should always do his/her assignments. A student
should always do his or her assignments. (With a “generic noun”
in sentence d, a singular masculine pronoun has been used
traditionally, but many English speakers now use both masculine
and feminine pronouns, as in e).
2) Personal pronouns agreement with indefinite pronouns
The following are indefinite pronouns:
everyone
everybody
everything
someone
somebody
something
anyone
anybody
anything
no one
nobody
nothing
a. Somebody left his book on the desk.
b. Everyone has his or her own ideas. (A singular personal pronoun
is used in informal English refer to an indefinite pronoun, as in a
and b)
c. Somebody left their book on the desk. Everyone has their own
ideas. (In everyday informal English, a plural personal pronoun is
often used to refer to an indefinite pronoun, as in c).
3) Personal pronouns agreement with collective nouns
The following are examples of collective nouns:
audience
class
couple
crowd
family
government
public
staff
35
committee
faculty
group
team
a. My family is large. It is composed of nine members. (When a
collective noun refers to a single impersonal unit, a singular
pronoun (it, its) is used, as in a).
b. My family is loving and supportive. They are always ready to
help me. (When a collective noun refers to a collection of
various individuals, a plural noun (they, them, their) is used,
as in b).
3. The Plural Form of Articles
Articles usually indicate the number of nouns. It includes singular
or plural. Actually a number of factors, both semantic and structural,
determine the use or non-use of articles. These factors are related to: (1)
whether the head noun is singular, plural or countable; (2) whether the
referent is familiar or unfamiliar to the speaker; (3) whether the statement
which contains the head noun has general or specific application; (4)
whether or not the head noun has classifying function; (5) whether or not
the head noun has a post-modifier (Frank, 1972:125).
Articles contain with indefinite article and definite article. They
have their own roles in sentence. Raymond Murphy explains these roles in
his book English Grammar in Use (1994:142) such as follows:
a. We use a and an to mention the name of thing in the first time. For
example: I have a sandwich and an apple for lunch.
36
b. We use the to mention the name of thing in the second time. For
example: The sandwich is not very good but the apple is nice.
c. We use the when we are thinking of one particular thing. Compare
a/an and the below:

Tom sat down on a chair. (perhaps one of many chairs in the room)

Tom sat down on the chair nearest the door. (a particular chair)
d. We use the when it is clear in the situation which thing or person we
mean. For example: Can you turn off the light, please? (= the light in
this room).
According to Betty (1989:394), usually a or an is used with a
singular generic count noun. Examples: a window is made of glass; a
doctor heals sick people; parents must give a child love; a box has six
sides; an apple can be red, green, or yellow. The is sometimes used with a
singular generic count noun (not a plural generic count noun, not a generic
non-count noun). Generic the is commonly used with, in particular:
a) Species of animals: The whale is the largest mammal on earth.
The elephant is the largest land mammal.
b) Inventions: Who invented the telephone?
The computer will play an increasingly large role in all of
our lives.
c) Musical instruments: I‟d like to learn to play the piano.
Do you play the guitar?
37
Azar (1989:394) explains the basic article usages in sentence are as
follows:
Table 3.2
I. USING A or Ø: GENERIC NOUNS
SINGULAR
(a) A banana is yellow.
A speaker uses generic
COUNT
nouns
to
make
NOUN
generalizations. A generic
noun represents a whole
class of things; it is not a
specific, real, concrete
thing but rather a symbol of
a whole group.
PLURAL
(b) Ø Bananas are yellow. (a) and (b): The speaker is
COUNT
talking about any banana,
NOUN
all bananas, and bananas in
general. (c), the speaker is
talking about any and all
fruit, fruit in general.
NONCOUNT (c) Ø Fruit is good for Notice that no article (Ø) is
NOUN
you.
used
to
make
generalizations with plural
count nouns and non-count
nouns, as in (b) and (c).
II. USING A or SOME: INDEFINITE NOUNS
SINGULAR
(d) I ate a banana.
Indefinite nouns are actual
COUNT
things (not symbols), but
NOUN
they are not specifically
identified.
PLURAL
(e) I ate some bananas.
(d): The speaker is not
COUNT
referring to “this banana”
NOUN
or “that banana you gave
me.” The speaker is simply
saying that she or he ate
one banana. The listener
does not know or need to
know
which
specific
banana was eaten; it was
simply one banana out of
that whole group of things
in this world called
bananas.
NONCOUNT (f) I ate some fruit.
(e) and (f): Some is often
NOUN
used with indefinite plural
count nouns and indefinite
38
non-count
nouns.
In
addition to some, a speaker
might use two, a few,
several, a lot of, etc., with
plural count nouns, or a
little, a lot of, etc., with
non-count nouns.
III. USING THE: DEFINITE NOUNS
SINGULAR
(g) Thank you for the A noun is definite when
COUNT
banana.
both the speaker and the
NOUN
listener are thinking bout
the same specific thing.
PLURAL
(h) Thank you for the (g): The speaker uses the
COUNT
bananas.
because the listener knows
NOUN
which specific banana the
speaker is talking bout, i.e.,
that
particular
banana
which the listener gave to
the speaker.
NONCOUNT (i) Thank you for the fruit. Notice that the is used with
NOUN
both singular and plural
count nouns and with noncount nouns.
B. The Indonesian Plural Form
Indonesian language has plural form too. However, the concept is
rather different from West languages, especially English. In Indonesian
language, singular form usually is signed with esa, se-, and satu/suatu. While,
reduplikasi or word reduplication is used to plural form (Muslich, 1990:88).
According to Gorys Keraf (1991:149), there are four kinds of plural
form in Indonesian language, they are as follows:
a. Dwipurwa is reduplication of the first syllable from a word. Vocal of the
first syllable get unstressed because this reduplication produce an
additional syllable. For examples; tetangga, leluhur, lelaki, etc.
39
b. Dwilingga is reduplication of root word totality. For examples; anak-anak,
rumah-rumah, pohon-pohon, etc.
c. Dwilingga salin-suara is reduplication of root word but there is a change
on one of phoneme. For example; gerak-gerik, sayur-mayur, corat-coret,
etc.
d. Dwilingga berimbuhan is reduplication of root word but one of each word
gets an affix. For examples; bermain-main, melihat-lihat, berpukulpukulan, etc.
Plural form, itself, has seven meanings as follows:
a. Explain of variable number.
Example: Buku-buku itu telah kusimpan dalam lemari.
b. Explain of various numbers
Example: pohon-pohonan, tanam-tanaman, buah-buahan.
c. Resemble other things.
Example: kuda-kuda, anak-anakan, ayam-ayaman.
d. Explain agak (or approximately).
Example: Sifatnya kekanak-kanakan.
e. Explain of intensity.
Example: Pukullah kuat-kuat bola itu. (Qualitative intensity)
Rumah-rumah itu dijual dengan harga murah. (Quantitative
intensity)
Ia menggeleng-gelengkan kepalanya. (Frequency intensity)
40
f. Explain of mutually.
Example: Kedua-duanya bersalam-salaman.
g. Repetition of numeral has collective meaning.
Example: Murid-murid itu masuk dua-dua ke dalam kelas (Keraf,
1991:151).
Reduplication of word in Indonesian language has the function to
make a new word. It can be said that reduplication of a word can reveal the
same kind of word if the word is not repeated.
It is related with the lexical meaning. Lexical meaning is the meaning
that appropriate with the referent or in this case is plural form (Chaer,
1990:62). So, a word that changes into plural form still has the lexical
meaning with its singular form.
In Indonesian language, there are four rules in usage of singular and
plural form:
a. In relation with particular verb. The meaning of singular and plural can be
presented on the same form.
b. The plural form that is formed form a generic word does not use the
reduplication of the word.
c. In particular context, the word sebuah, seekor, and seorang can be missed
without change the meaning, but on the other context it can be change the
meaning.
d. The kinds of verb can influence the concept of plural, singular, and generic
(Muslich, 1990:89).
41
1. The Plural Form of Nouns
It is not very different from noun in English. In Indonesian
language, noun is usually called as nomina. Nomina is a word that refers to
human, animal, thing, and concept or definition. Seen from the syntax,
nomina has three characteristics are as follows:
a. Nomina always become subject, objects, and complement in sentence
which have verb predicate.
b. Nomina can not be limited by “tidak” but limited by “bukan”.
c. Nomina usually can be followed by adjective with addition of “yang”
(Muslich, 1990:65).
Nouns in Indonesian language are also having plural form or
reduplication of word. However, it is rather different from plural in
English. Plural form or reduplication of word in Indonesian language is
happened in four types that are mentioned before. These types are part of
morpheme reduplication. In this reduplication, there is a change of
grammatical meaning of word that is repeated (Kridalaksana, 1992:89).
Harimurti Kridalaksana (1992:94) explains the word reduplication
of noun in Indonesian language that shows the plural form as follows:
a. Dwilingga
N → N „jamak‟
Pohon-pohon di sepanjang sungai Batanghari sangat
banyak.
b. Dwilingga
salin swara N → N „bermacam-macam‟
Penduduk desa itu bertanam sayur-mayur.
42
c. Dwipurwa
N → N „jamak‟
Dedaunan itu layu karena kepanasan.
d. Konfiks
dwipurwa + -an V → N „segala macam‟
Jangan bermain di dekat reruntuhan bangunan itu.
e. Konfiks
R -an V → N „segala macam yang di-‟
Banyak jenis tumbuh-tumbuhan yang dapat hidup di
daerah tropis.
f. Dwilingga
Int → N „tidak tentu‟
Apakah kamu sudah tahu tempat mana-mana saja yang
akan kita kunjungi selama kita berlibur?
g. Kombinasi
R + -an N → N „bermacam-macam‟
Kamu harus banyak makan sayur-sayuran supaya
sehat.
h. Konfiks
dwipurwa + -an N → N „kumpulan‟
Dedaunan
yang
berserakan
itu
harus
segera
dibersihkan.
2. The Plural Form of Pronouns
Pronoun is known as pronominal in Indonesian language. Its
function is similar with pronoun in English language; to substitute noun in
certain position. Gorys Keraf (1991:62) said that pronoun or pronomina
can be distinguished into six groups:
43
a. Pronomina personalia are words that substitute people in certain
position to void the unnecessary repetition. The kinds of pronomina
personalia in Indonesian language are as follows:
Table 3.3
Singular
Person
I
II
III
aku, daku, ku-, -ku
engkau, kamu, kau-, -mu,
Anda
Ia, dia, -nya, beliau
Plural
kami (exclusive)
kita (inclusive)
Kamu sekalian
Anda sekalian
mereka
The word kami called as exclusive because it only refers to the speaker
and the word kita called as inclusive because it is not only referring to
the speaker but to the listener too. On formal situation, kami can refer
to singular meaning.
Besides that, Indonesian language knows kata acuan (word reference)
and kata sapaan in pronomina personalia. These words are used with
nouns but they have different function. Kata acuan is used to first and
second person, but sometimes it is also used to the third person. Kata
sapaan is used to the second person. For example:
a). Kata acuan : Ibu (=engkau) mau kemana? Boleh Nani (=saya)
ikut!
b). Kata sapaan : Bagaimana keadaanmu, Jono?
b. Pronomina possesiva are words that substitute people as the owner.
Actually, there are not pronomina possesiva in Indonesian language. It
is because; there are not special forms of pronomina possesiva in
Indonesian language. It just uses pronomina personalia that have
44
function as the owner, which it can be placed as the subject, predicate,
or object in sentence. It can be seen as follows:
a). Aku mengambil bola itu lalu kutendang. In this sentence,
pronomina personalia become the subject of the sentence.
b). Kemudian bola itu dilemparkan padaku. In this sentence,
pronomina personalia become the object of the sentence.
c). Bolaku sudah hilang. In this sentence, pronomina personalia
become the owner.
c. Pronomina demonstrativa is word that used to show the location of a
thing. There re three kinds of it; ini is used to show a thing that near
with the speaker, itu is used to show a thing that near with the listener,
ana is used to show a thing that far from the speaker and the listener.
d. Pronomina relativa is words that connect the subordinate clause with a
noun which is found in the main clause. The word “yang” is used as
pronomina relative in Indonesian language. For example; kotak yang
berisi kalung.
e. Pronomina interrogativa is word that used to ask something. The
following are the words that are used as pronomina interrogative; apa,
siapa, mana, mengapa, berapa, bilamana, kenapa, betapa, bagaimana.
f. Pronomina indeterminativa is word that use to substitute or show a
thing or people in uncertainty or indeterminate condition. The
following are the words that are used as pronominal indeterminativa;
masing-masing, sesuatu, salah satu, seseorang.
45
Harimurti Kridalaksana (1992:9) explains the word reduplication
of pronomina in Indonesian language as follows:
a. Dwilingga
Pr → Pr „dramatisasi‟
Mereka menyebut kita-kita ini orang bodoh.
b. Dwilingga
Pr → Pr „meremehkan (negatif)‟
Dia-dia saja yang menjadi ketua kelompok.
3. The Plural Form of Articles
Article is called as kata sandang in Indonesian language. The
function is to determine of noun (Keraf, 1991:69). There are three kinds of
article in Indonesian language:
a. Article that refers to singular
It usually refers to old concept in language. Article “sang” for human
or special thing which have high position; or used to joke or satire.
Article “sri” is used to human in religion or kingdom. Article “hang”
is used to man in old literature and “dang” for woman in old literature
too.
b. Article that refers to plural or groups
“Para” is used to explain the plural form for human that have certain
similar characteristic, especially for job or status. For example, para
guru, para ilmuwan, para nelayan. Therefore, the word “para” is not
joining with the word reduplication. Because, this word is refer to
plural meaning.
46
c. Article that refers to neutral or generic meaning
The word which is used in this group is “si”. “Si” can refer to singular
or generic meaning. It depends on the context. For example, in this
sentence, “Tak sampai hatiku melihat si miskin mengambil makanan
dari tong sampah itu”. Article “si” refers to one people. While, in this
sentence, “Si kaya wajib menolong si miskin.” Article “si” refers to
all people (Muslich, 1990:111).
CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS OF ENGLISH AND INDONESIAN PLURAL FORM OF
NOUN, PRONOUN, AND ARTICLE
In this chapter, the writer would like to show the similarities and the
differences between English and Indonesian plural forms which the writer has
studied and their implications in teaching and learning process of the both
languages.
In the data analysis the writer employs some steps. Firstly, the researcher
read the books both English and Indonesian that consists of plural form between
English and Indonesian. Secondly, the researcher looks for English and
Indonesian structure in plural form in those books. Thirdly, the researcher writes
all the collected data into papers and classifying them based on contrastive
analysis. Finally, the researcher analyses the English and Indonesian structure in
plural form. Then, she looks for the similarities and the differences of them and
takes the conclusion.
A. The Similarities of English and Indonesian Plural Form of Noun,
Pronoun, and Article
After collected data from some books that have been mentioned
before, it is known that the similarities of English and Indonesian structure in
plural form are as follows:
47
48
1. The Plural Form of Noun
a. Plural nouns in English and Indonesian language are equally making a
new word without changing the lexical meaning. For example, “I buy
some apples in the market”. “Pohon-pohon di sepanjang sungai
Batanghari sangat banyak”. The word apples and pohon-pohon are
new words that descend from their singular form but the meaning still
same with the referent or singular form.
b. Plural form of English and Indonesian noun equally has the change of
grammatical number that representing a value of more than one. For
example, in English language, “The children play football in field”. In
Indonesian language, “Luapan air sungai Batanghari membanjiri
rumah-rumah di sekitarnya”. The word children and rumah-rumah
represent that their number are more than one.
c. The process of writing English and Indonesian plural form of noun are
equally having some rules. Indonesian plural form of noun is formed
by dwilingga, dwipurwa, konfiks, and kombinsi; rumah-rumah,
dedaunan, reruntuhan, and tumbuh-tumbuhan. English plural form
of noun is formed by addition of s or es with different rules in each
word; dish–dishes, stomach–stomachs, country–countries, valley–
valleys, leaf– leaves, roof–roofs, potatoes–potatoes, man–men, child–
children.
49
2. The Plural Form of Pronoun
English and Indonesian language have the same agreement of plural
pronoun with plural noun. For example: “Some students walked into the
room. They were looking for the teacher”. “Doni dan Redi pergi ke aula
sekolah bersama-sama. Mereka ingin melihat pameran hasil kerajinan
tangan”.
3. The Plural Form of Article
a. English and Indonesian plural form is equally having an article that
can refer to singular or generic meaning, it depends on the context. For
example:
a) A banana is yellow. Banana in this sentence refers to any banana,
all bananas, and bananas in general.
b) Tom gives me a banana. Banana in this sentence refers to one
banana.
c) Tak sampai hatiku melihat si miskin mengambil makanan dari tong
sampah itu. Article “si” refers to one people.
d) Si kaya wajib menolong si miskin. Article “si” refers to all poor
people.
b. To make the expression of quantity, an English speaker use two, a few,
several, a lot of with plural count nouns, or a little, a lot of with noncount nouns. An Indonesian speaker use orang for people, buah for
fruit and ekor for animal. For example:
50
a) I buy a/one book.
b) I buy two books.
c) Saya memelihara seekor/satu ekor kucing.
d) Saya memelihara dua ekor kucing.
B. The Differences of English and Indonesian Structure in Plural Form
After collected data from some books that have been mentioned
before, it is known that the differences of English and Indonesian structure in
plural form are as follows:
1. The Plural Form of Noun
a. The general rule of writing plural in English nouns is to add s or es to
singular form. While, in Indonesian nouns, the general rule of writing
plural by repeating its root word. For example, in English egg become
eggs, and boy become boys. In Indonesian, rumah become rumahrumah, dan pohon become pohon-pohon.
b. Plural noun which become subject in an English sentence can
influence the writing of verb. However, it does not influence the
writing of verb in Indonesian sentence. For example:
a) Linda begins her vacation today. (The verb begins is singular to
agree with the singular subject Linda).
b) Cheetahs run faster than most other animals. (The verb run is
plural to agree with the plural subject cheetahs).
c) Daun itu layu karena kepanasan.
51
d) Daun- daun itu layu karena kepanasan. In sentence (c) and (d) the
writing of verbs are similar although the subjects are different.
c. To show the possession, an English plural noun is added of an
apostrophe to the final s: The girls’ books are on the table. While, an
Indonesian plural noun uses its pronoun to show the possession: Bukubukunya ada di atas meja.
d. Indonesian plural form of noun is not refers to one meaning;
a) Dedaunan itu layu karena kepanasan. The word dedaunan refers
to meaning of more than one.
b) Banyak jenis tumbuh-tumbuhan yang dapat hidup di daerah
tropis. The word tumbuh-tumbuhan explain of various numbers.
While, English plural form of noun is only refers to one meaning. For
example; I buy some apples in the market. The word apples indicate
that the number of apple is more than one.
2. The Plural Form of Pronoun
a. The general rule of writing plural in English pronouns is only put the
form of plural pronouns into sentence. While, in Indonesian pronouns,
the general rule of writing plural by repeating its plural form of
pronouns. For example:
a) My mother buys new clothes for us.
b) Mereka menyebut kita-kita ini orang bodoh.
b. There are not special plural forms of pronomina possesiva in
Indonesian language: Bola kamu sudah hilang (the word kamu is used
52
to singular and plural of pronomina possesiva ). Those clothes are ours
(the word ours is the plural form of we).
3. The Plural Form of Article
a. The general rule of writing plural English article is joined with plural
count noun in sentence. For example, “Thank you for the bananas”.
While, in Indonesian sentence, the general rule of writing plural article
by joining the article with singular count noun. For example, “Para
guru sedang mengadakan rapat di aula sekolah”.
b. In English sentence, article the is used for the second mention of
indefinite noun; Yesterday I saw some dogs. The dogs were chasing a
cat. While, Indonesian sentence does not use an article for the second
mention of indefinite noun. However, it is used the demonstrative
pronoun; Kemarin aku melihat beberapa anjing. Anjing-anjing itu
sedang mengejar seekor kucing.
C. The Implications of English and Indonesian Structure of Plural Form in
Teaching Learning Process
From explanation above, in learning foreign language, students have to
understand the differences and similarities between the foreign language and
their native or second language. Students usually difficult when they studying
a foreign language. Therefore, we need some methods and approaches to solve
the problems of students.
53
Different languages vary considerably, therefore, in the degree to
which they differ from each other. It is not only, however, matter of degree
but one kind. The most obvious way in which differences between languages
show themselves in the mutual intelligibility of their speakers. The other way
in which the degree of differences between languages is apparent is in the
degree of difficulty the speaker of one has in learning another (Corder,
1973:226).
The ease or difficulty of learning something is not simply related to the
nature of the task but has components of motivation, intelligence, and
aptitude, quality of teaching and teaching materials; more importantly it
depends upon the expectations the learner has of success. Certain languages
may be considered difficult to learn by members of a certain community. By
being thought thing is the may become difficult. Believing oneself „no good‟
at something is the surest condition for failure.
Similarities between languages may be very general or abstract on the
one hand, or superficial and trivial on the other; they are generally only
partial, rarely complete. Corder (1973:233) said that this small and relatively
simple comparison of small part of the grammar of these familiar and
genetically related languages illustrates clearly two general points about
comparison of languages:
a) That within what is a broadly equivalent system in two or more languages
the correspondences are very patchy and irregular, and consequently, it is
54
not only at more general and abstract level that we can expect to find
equivalence or identity between languages.
b) That the absence of a systematically equivalent term in a target language
does not in any way imply that the notions that are expressed by in one
language cannot be expressed at all in the other.
Language teaching normally starts after the students have already
achieved command of the „formation rules‟ or code of her or his mother
tongue; he or she has in most cases learned to read and write in his mother
tongue. In doing so he or she has acquired „implicit‟ knowledge of the nature
of human language. The language teacher does not teach language; he or she
teaches a particular realization or manifestation of human language.
In language teaching we have to do with at least two languages: the
mother tongue and the target language. These may fall into the same broad
type as far as their morphological concerned, but be strikingly different in
respect of their syllable structures. They may differ markedly in their lexical
structure. They may or may not be genetically related (Corder, 1973:228).
According to Subyakto-Nababan (1993:5), learning a language
includes three disciplines as follows:
a) Linguistics that give information for us about language commonly and
about particular languages.
b) Psychology that explain the way people to learn something.
c) Pedagogy that allow us to join the information of (a) and (b) become a
method that appropriate to use in class.
55
Some linguists‟ regards that contrastive analysis (CA) of source language and
target language give teachers‟‟ understanding to do a prediction bout the
interference that may be occur in teaching target language.
In language teaching, teacher and student have important roles to make
a success learning processes. As a teacher, he or she has to prepare how to
make tech foreign language to students seriously. He or she must understand
with the capability of the students on the new language and use the method
that sufficient with the student‟s ability. Therefore, the difficulty in mastering
certain structures in L2 depended on the difference between the learners‟ L1
and the language they were trying to learn. So, as the students, they should try
to improve their capability in the new language by contrast with L1.
English is a difficult lesson for some students. Students usually blend
the English language with Indonesian language. This problem usually arises
when students translate a sentence from Indonesian language into English
language. This is caused by the differences of the structure of two languages.
Plural form also makes students confuse because there are many rules
of writing plural in English. It is very different from Indonesian language. Of
course, the knowledge of differences and the similarities of two language
structure in plural form are very important for students.
Actually, teaching English is demanded to practice in every meeting.
So, the students are always practice and use it as often as possible in speaking
or writing. In this case, the plural forms of noun, pronoun, and article must be
taught communicatively in the class. The students must express their own
56
word by using plural forms. English and Indonesian plural forms of noun,
pronoun, and article have the similarities in applied of the sentence
syntactically. Based on that reason, it will be easier to tech the students if the
teacher uses contrastive analysis in plural form between English and
Indonesian in teaching learning process.
Therefore, we know the implications of it in teaching and learning
process that is teacher may have ability in Indonesian and English plural form,
students would be clever in English and Indonesian plural forms, and plural
forms become familiar in teaching learning process.
CHAPTER V
CLOSURE
In this chapter the writer presents the conclusion and the suggestion of the
research. The summary of the findings have been discussed in chapter IV is called
conclusion. The whole answers of the research problems presented in chapter I.
The writer has some suggestion for the teacher, students, and other researchers.
A. Conclusion
From the explanation and the analysis of contrastive analysis of plural
form of noun, pronoun, and article between English and Indonesian, the writer
infers that:
1. The differences of plural noun of English and Indonesian
Table 5.1
Indonesian
English
a. Plural form of noun has six a. Plural form of noun has one
meanings beside indicate more
meaning that is indicate more
than one thing.
than one thing.
b. The general rule of writing b. The general rule of writing
plural noun is by repeating the
plural noun is by adding s or es
root word based on the types of
in the end of word.
word reduplication.
c. The writing of plural noun in c. The writing of plural noun in
Indonesian is consistent.
English is inconsistent.
The similarity of plural noun of English and Indonesian has changed the
grammatical number in plural form but the lexical meaning is similar with
the singular form.
57
58
2. The differences of plural form of pronoun of English and Indonesian
Table 5.2
Indonesian
English
a. The general rule of writing a. The general rule of writing
plural pronoun by repeating its
plural pronoun is only put the
plural form of pronouns.
form of plural pronouns into
sentence.
b. There are not special plural b. There are special forms of
forms of pronomina possesiva
possessive pronoun in English.
(possessive
pronoun)
in
Indonesian language.
The similarity of plural pronoun of English and Indonesian is having the
same agreement of plural pronoun with plural noun.
3. The differences of plural form of article of English and Indonesian
Table 5.3
Indonesian
English
a. The general rule of writing a. The general rule of writing
plural article in Indonesian
plural English article is joined
sentence by joining the article
with plural count noun in
in Indonesian sentence with
sentence.
singular count noun.
b. In Indonesian sentence, there is b. In English sentence, there is an
not an article that is used for the
article that is used for the
second mention of indefinite
second mention of indefinite
noun. It is used demonstrative
noun.
pronoun to second mention of
indefinite noun.
The similarity of plural article of English and Indonesian is equally having
an article that can refer to singular or generic meaning.
4. The differences and similarities of English and Indonesian plural form can
help the students to learn the plural form of both languages. Beside that, it
can be used to prevent the errors and interfered that are done by students.
59
B. Suggestion
Finally, the writer formulates the suggestions addressed to:
1. The Researchers
The writer hopes that there are other researchers, who will analyze
English and Indonesian structure in plural from a different point of view.
May they will use this thesis as one of literature reviews in their study to
find out some other aspects of these problem.
2. The Teachers
The writer hopes that the teacher can make and apply a new
method when they teach the structure of a language because students are
often difficult to learn about the structure of language. So, the teacher can
create different situation in the class.
The writer also hopes that teacher has to know the differences and
similarities of first language and foreign language. In order to, in studying
foreign language, students are not interfered by the first language.
3. The Students
The writer hopes that the students can make differences and similarities of
the first language and foreign language, so they can learn the foreign
language well.
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Article_(grammar)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/pronoun
http://ramlannarie.blogspot.com/2010/02/analisis-kesalahan-berbahasa.html
http://www.answer.com/topic/plural