The European Wars of Religion, 1550 - 1650
A Short Outline
by Robert Freeman
The Context of the Times
•
Political
o Strong central monarchs firmly established in England and Spain
o Wobbly monarchy in France after death of Francis I
§ Serious challenges from competing dynastic families
o Atomization in Germany
§ Tests stability of Holy Roman Empire, dominance of Hapsburgs
o Charles V, King of Spain, Holy Roman Emperor, will abdicate in 1556
§ Divides Empire between Spanish and Austrian families
•
Religious
o Lutheranism and Calvinism firmly established in northern Europe
o Protestantism receives political protection in England and parts of
Germany
§ Peace of Augsburg (1555) provides official tolerance of
Lutheranism in German states (but not of Calvinism)
o Catholic Reformation/Counter Reformation under way
§ Council of Trent begun in 1543
• Lasts until 1563
§ Serious rollbacks by Jesuits in Poland, Hungary
•
Economic
o Protestants are the most dynamic economic actors in the world
§ Ascendant in Germany, Netherlands, France, England
§ Especially threatening to lower nobility
o Huge wealth pouring into Europe from New World, Indies
§ Dominated by Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch
§ Sets off inflation that greatly damages nobility, enriches gentry
o Global exploration by Spain, Portugal, England, and Dutch
§ Adds huge power to merchants
• As it did in northern Italy prior to Renaissance
•
Cultural
o Back side of the Renaissance w/emphasis on personal efficacy
o Literacy explodes, especially within Protestant countries
o Discovery of New World
§ Begins to validate ideas of cultural relativism
o Growing challenges to established authority, institutions
§ Monarchies, empires, churches, feudal estates
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Wars of Religion. © Robert Freeman, 2009
The Dutch Revolt
Netherlands most prosperous territory in Europe
• Rotterdam controls 40% of all European exports
o Through passage of Rhine and Scheldt rivers
• Amsterdam and Antwerp are huge manufacturing centers
• Huge place of assemblage for transshipments to other locations
o Iron goods from Germany
o Wheat and timber from Scandinavia
o Wool from Spain
o Cloth from England
o Silk from Italy
o Spices from Portugal
o Wine, cheese from France
o Herring from N. Atlantic
Ideal location for Calvinism
• Protestantism has moved down the Rhine River from Germany
o But early Lutheranism is now supplanted by Calvinism
§ Partly French influence via Calvin
§ Partly “elective affinity” (Weber)
• Equality of church and state
• More radical than Lutheranism in challenging authority
• Calling and Protestant work ethic
o Practitioners get to keep their own money (no tithes to Church)
• Humanistic tradition
o Erasmus
o Rembrandt, Vermeer
Political Situation
• Charles V is Flemish
o Understands Netherlanders—he’s one of them
o Leaves nobility alone
• Philip II is Spanish
o Religious persecution
§ Redesigns appointment of bishops
§ New bishop party in States General
• Shifts power in States General to him
§ Inquisition
o Imposes new taxes so Netherlanders pay more than Spanish
• Dutch assisted by English (Elizabeth) and French (Catholic) Valois
Chronology
• 1530s—Anabaptist revolts
o Alienates everybody, incl. Lutherans and Calvinists
§ Anabaptists are basically communists and anarchists
§ Appeals to peasants who are pre-disposed to change
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Wars of Religion. © Robert Freeman, 2009
•
1556—Phillip II inherits Spain from Charles V
o Phillip is alien to the Netherlander culture, speaks Spanish
•
1559—Treaty of Chateau Cambresis
o Ends Hapsburg-Valois Wars
§ Both have bigger problems to solve
• Protestant revolts in France and Netherlands
•
1560—P2 renews Spanish Inquisition to stamp out Calvinism
o Petitioned by Orange, Horn, Egmont to desist
§ Instead, he increases oppression
§ Alienates all
o Unilaterally changes rules to appoint bishops
§ Shifts political power toward himself
§ Great shades of Bologna!
§ Egmont and Orange resign (1561)
§ Will not acquiesce to their own neutering
• Major problem b/c they were his local supporters
•
1565—The Compromise: the beginning of the Revolt
o 300 nobles sign a petition to Phillip to rescind Bishops’ act
§ Many of them Catholic
§ Problem is taking on a nationalistic flavor
•
1566—Calvinist Fury (Iconoclastic Revolt)
o Destroy hundreds of Catholic churches
§ Altars, crucifixes, stained glass
§ But no gold or valuables taken
• Clearly a religious revolt, no a looting
•
1567—P2 sends Duke of Alba w/ 65,000 troops
o Kills > 10,000, including many leaders
§ Classic Counter-Reformation tactic
o Levies high taxes to pay for own suppression
o Kills Horn and Egmont, confiscates lands
§ This alienates local nobility
o Suspends all local self-government
o All population now aligned against Spanish rule
§ Nobility and Merchants
§ Calvinists and moderate Catholics
§ Dutch and Belgians
•
1572—Spanish Fury
o P2 isn’t paying soldiers’ pay
§ Alba allows them to plunder
• A common practice at the time to compensate soldiers
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Wars of Religion. © Robert Freeman, 2009
§
Many cities sacked
• Not a practice to endear oneself to local population
o Troops murder 8,000 Calvinists
•
1574—Locals begin taxing themselves to raise money for defiance
o Wm. Of Orange takes over as leader (George Washington-like)
o Begin winning battles against occupiers
§ Especially battles at sea
• “Sea Beggars”
•
1581—Union of Utrect
o 7 northern provinces declare independence from Spain
§ Model for American independence from England in 1776
o Beginning of Dutch/Belgian separation
§ North (Holland) is Germanic, commercial, Calvinist
§ South (Belgium) is Franco (French), agrarian, Catholic
•
1585—Elizabeth begins subsidies to Calvinists
o To help fellow Protestants against Phillip II, Catholic, of Spain
§ And to weaken Mary Queen of Scots (Catholic, Guise)
•
1588—Spanish Armada
o Plan to invade Holland, England
o 130 ships sunk in the Channel
§ A catastrophe for Spain
•
1607—Dutch defeat Spanish fleet at Gibraltar
o In Spain’s own back yard
•
1609 -1621—Truce
•
1621 – 1648 Truce broken during Thirty Years War (see below)
•
1628—Dutch capture Spanish silver fleet sailing from Caribbean
o Huge blow to Spanish finances
§ Effectively destroys their chances in the 30YW
•
1648 – Peace of Westphalia recognizes independence of United Provinces
Reflection: More than any other event, it was the Dutch Revolt that destroyed the
Spanish Empire. This, according to the Spanish Foreign Minister, the Duke of Olivares.
The Revolt proved the conquest of Calvinism over Catholicism, capitalism over
feudalism, republicanism over monarchy, and nation over empire. The Dutch instituted
the first republican form of government in the modern world. For all these reasons, it is
one of the seminal events in the creation of the modern political world (see as well
Reflection on Thirty Years War, below).
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Wars of Religion. © Robert Freeman, 2009
French Wars of Religion
Background
•
Religious
o Calvinism afoot since 1536 (When Calvin wrote The Instititutes)
§ Calvin was a French lawyer
§ All core documents are written in French
• Institutes in French since 1541
§ More aggressively rebellious than Lutheranism
§ Ministers exceptionally well trained, literate, exemplary
• Know Latin, Greek, Hebrew
§ Concept of “calling” appeals to middle classes, lower nobility
o Catholicism stagnant
§ Bologna (1516) makes French bishopric a milking cow
• Corruption flourishes
§ Reforms of Trent not yet in place
o Francis I has not prosecuted Protestants with any fervor
§ Tolerated it as part of “new learning”, i.e., Renaissance
• Remember, he is a “Renaissance Monarch”
§ Until The Affair of the Placards, 1534
• Nation-wide placement of placards decrying Catholicism
• Placed by Zwingliists
•
Political
o Centralization of Francis I falls apart after his death in 1547
§ Weak, divided monarchs follow
• Henry II (’47 – ‘59)
• Francis II (’59 – ’60)
• Charles IX (’60 – ’74)
• Henry III (’74 – ’89)
o Aristocratic challengers to Valois are many
§ Montmorency
• Richest man in France
• Massive holdings in north, northeast
• Controlled army and foreign policy via role on Council
§ Guise
• The second richest man in France
• Deeply entwined with clergy
o Owned 24 Abbeys
• Linked to Mary Stuart (Queen of Scots) by marriage
§ Bourbon
• Calvinist, of southern province of Navarre
• Poor as lands had been taken by Spain
o Nobility use religion as a cloak for political rebellion
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Wars of Religion. © Robert Freeman, 2009
§
§
•
As German princes had done with Lutheranism
Perhaps 40% of French nobility is Calvinist
• Especially strong in southern France (near Geneva)
Economic
o Nobility in distress
§ Hurt by price inflation of 1500s
§ Feudalism largely disappears after Plague & wages for peasants
§ Rising merchant classes
o Much greater costs for wars
§ Larger armies
§ Longer sieges
§ More expensive provisioning
Chronology
• 1540—Edict of Fontainbeiu
o Placed prosecution for heresy in the hands of local officials
o Definitely a mixed blessing
§ They lack the resources of the national state
§ Many are co-opted by Protestantism themselves
o Effect is an indifferent campaign to eradicate Protestantism
•
1559—Chateau Cambresis
o Truce between Hapsburgs and Valois
§ Nominally to end wars over Italy
§ Also, so they can fight heretic explosion in their territories
o Henry II killed in celebratory Mass
§ Replaced by 15 year-old son, Francis II
o Also, 1559—First national Calvinist synod
§ 1200 Calvinist churches in France
§ 40% of nobility (political resistance)
§ 50% of merchants (calling)
§ Protestants now in open defiance of ban on Calvinism
•
1560—Francis II dies unexpectedly
o Replaced by 10 year-old Charles IX
§ Mother, Catherine de Medici, becomes Regent
• The effective power behind the throne
§ Continues until her death in 1589!
§ Catherine is an equivocator—want peace over purity
§ Many attempts to reach out to Protestants
•
1561—Colloquy of Poissey
o Catherine de Medici mediated
o To attempt Catholic/Protestant rapprochement
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Wars of Religion. © Robert Freeman, 2009
o Enrages Ultra-Catholics
§ Guise, Habsburgs, Pope, Jesuits
o Supported by Elizabeth I
o Fails to reach agreement
§ Hung up on communion
• De Beze: “His body and blood are as far removed from
bread and wine as heaven is from earth.”
o Failure marked the end of toleration and attempts to reach reconciliation
§ After this it’s war
•
1562—Guise murders 100 Huguenots in a barn
o Effective start of the Wars of Religion
o Hardens national Huguenot resolve who start arming themselves
§ They coalesce around nobles Conde, Coligny
o Catherine turns to Phillip of Spain, Pope for help
o Protestants turn to Elizabeth I of England for help
o Protestants take many cities incl. Lyon, second city of the nation
§ Reinforced by 7,000 German mercenaries
•
1568—Orange in Netherlands makes pact with Conde and Coligny
o Wars in France and Netherlands are now interdependent
§ P2 of Spain against both
§ E1 of England supporting both
o Valois (Catholic) is also supporting Calvinists
§ As dynastic/nationalist war against Hapsburgs
•
1572—St. Bartholomew Day Massacre
o Celebrate Margaret Valois marrying Henry of Navarre (Protestant)
o Huguenot leadership decapitated
§ 3,000 in Paris
§ 10,000 in provinces
§ Coligny assassinated by Charles IX in Paris
o National massacre carried out with Charles IX’s knowledge and support
§ Catholics had hoped this would eliminate Protestantism
§ Didn’t, though it did greatly diminish fervor for Protestantism
o These made it possible for Huguenots to justify armed resistance to state
§ Prior, they had operated under lawful amnesty of govt.
• Edict of St. Germain
•
1572 – 1589—Wars of The Three Henrys
o Valois (moderate Catholic; propitiates Huguenots)
o Guise (Ultra Catholic; in pay of Spanish Habsburgs, Phillip II)
o Navarre (Bourbon, Calvinist)
•
1584—Anjou, brother of Henry III (Valois) dies
o No other heir in Valois family
o Next is line to throne is Henry Bourbon of Navarre—a Calvinist!!
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Wars of Religion. © Robert Freeman, 2009
o Catholics are freaked
•
1588—Guise attacks Valois, Paris, trying to seize throne by force
o Believes Valois is insufficiently vigorous in attacks against Huguenots
§ Is supported by The Catholic League
o In return, Valois murders Guise
o All of France is scandalized, moves against Valois
•
1589—Valois murdered by Jesuit priest in retaliation for Guise’s murder
o In his last words, Valois recognized Navarre as heir
•
1589—1593 Civil war
o Many provinces, nobles, and cities do not recognize H4 b/c Huguenot
o Wars raging across country
•
1593—Henry IV converts to Catholicism
o Crowned King at Chartes in 1594
o “Paris is worth a mass”
•
1598—Edict of Nantes
o French Augsburg (plus toleration for Calvinists)
§ Huguenots may practice in strictly defined circumstances
§ May acquire offices and enter any profession or university
§ Limited political and military independence
• 150 fortified towns
• Paid for at public expense
o Some say it created a “state within a state”
§ Not so
§ Most of concessions were guaranteed by H4 personally
• Would be disavowed by successors
o But it did end military conflicts and immediate religious persecution
Reflection: The French Wars of Religion caused a temporary though marked decline in
the authority of the monarchy in France which was still undergirded by support from the
nobility. But the war pitted all major noble families against each other. It also involved
foreign powers in the dynastic and religious intrigues, again, weakening central power.
The nadir was when H3 was murdered by one of his own subjects—something that had
never happened in French history. When Henry IV (Navarre, of the Bourbon family) was
the last Henry standing, power began to re-consolidate into the monarchy. In the end, the
Wars proved a victory of monarchical centralization over aristocratic atomization. They
were was a victory of religious toleration over doctrinal unity. Finally, they were a
victory of political expediency over religious purity. The consolidated power of the new
king (in the vacuum created by the decimation of opposing nobles) proved the launching
pad for the growth of Absolutism in France under the rule of the Bourbons which would
continue until 1789.
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Wars of Religion. © Robert Freeman, 2009
The Thirty Years War
Context
•
•
•
•
•
•
France is weak following 40 year civil war (1559 – 1598)
Aristocratic challenge to Empire in Central Europe
o Under guise of religious autonomy
Desire of Hapsburgs to reassert primacy of Empire, Catholicism
General economic decline in German states
Increasing strength of Netherlands
o Powered by international commercial success
Sweden growing in influence in Baltic
Causes
•
•
•
•
•
•
Weakness of the Empire, esp. in central Europe
o Challenge by aristocrats
Hapsburg v. Bourbon rivalry
France feeling encirclement
o (Spain, Germany, Netherlands, Milan, Burgundy)
Desire of all parties to prey on weak, fractious Germany
o France, Sweden, Denmark, England
Religious sectarianism
o Hapsburg attempts to roll back toleration of Augsburg
Opportunities for soldiers of fortune
o In face of economic decline
Course
•
Bohemian Phase (1618 – 1624)
o Rudolph II tries to retract confessional protections of Augsburg
§ Serious push back from Protestants
• Bohemia; Transylvania; Palatinate
o Defenestration of Prague (1618)
§ Protestant Czech nobles throw Imperial officials out of castle window
• The Defenestration of Prague
§ Protesting Imperial attempts to reduce religious toleration
§ Reminiscent of consiliarism of Jan Hus (1400)
o Protestant nobles of Bohemia elect Frederick of Palatinate King
§ Protestant, leader of Protestant Union
o Emperor Ferdinand (Bohemia) allies with Maximilian (Bavaria) to squelch
§ Max gets Frederick’s land (Palatinate) and Electorate
§ Upsets religious balance in Electoral College, angers Protestants
o Protestant Elector of Saxony throws in with Empire, sends troops
§ So does Spain
o Protestants crushed at Battle of White Mountain, 1620
o Frederick seeks help from England, Netherlands (fellow Protestants)
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Wars of Religion. © Robert Freeman, 2009
§
§
Chas. I of England in trouble with Parliament
Netherlands in middle of war with Habsburg Spain
Significance:
•
Danish Phase (1625 – 1629)
o Empire’s success goes to its head
o Begins informal reversion of lands back to Catholics
§ Saxony (Protestant), who once supported Ferdinand, balks
o European countries get involved to prevent Catholic/Hapsburg takeover
o France, Netherlands, England pay King Christian (Denmark) to invade
§ Hence: Danish Phase
o Ferdinand hires mercenary Albrecht von Wallenstein to fight Protestants
§ Wallenstein lives by plunder of soldiers on lands
• Hugely alienates ALL princes whose lands are devastated
• Including Catholics
o Wallenstein defeats Protestants
§ Drives them into Netherlands
§ Settle at Treaty of Lubeck, 1629
§ Empire at height of its power
o Ferdinand again abuses victory
§ Reasserts formerly dead Imperial privileges
§ Charges Saxony (Protestant) with treason, seizes lands
§ Same with Mecklenberg
o All princes, regardless of religion, see creeping loss of political rights
§ Catholics begin throwing in with Protestants against Hapsburgs
o Edict of Restitution (1629)
§ Pushed by papacy, Jesuits
§ Formal rollback of concessions of Augsburg
• Seizure of Protestant lands (150 monasteries, 28 cities)
• All properties converted since 1552!
§ Alienates Protestant princes who see loss of lands (a la Saxony)
§ Alienates Catholic princes who see imposition of Imperial control
• Was done by bypassing Imperial vote
Significance:
•
Still largely a matter of the Empire.
Catholic Hapsburgs in control.
Protestants looking to internationalize
Territorial interests masquerading as religious
Hapsburgs still dominant
Forces other European nations to enter the war
Protestants, to defend Augsburg, lands
Catholics, to defeat Hapsburgs’ Imperial grab
Swedish Phase (1630 – 1634)
o Sweden, under Gustavus Adolphus, enters war
§ Funded by subsidy from Bourbons
• Cardinal Richelieu
o Swedes win many early victories against Empire
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Wars of Religion. © Robert Freeman, 2009
§
Huge win at Breitenfeld (1631)
• Reverses all Hapsburg gains since 1618
§ Enboldens more Protestants to abandon neutrality
o Gustavus killed at Lutzen, 1632
o Dutch begin funding Protestant princes
o Sweden hugely defeated at Nordlingen, 1634
Significance: Forces France to enter war directly
•
French Phase (1635 – 1645)
o France, Holland, Sweden vs. Austria, Spain, German catholic princes
o All parties exhausted, physically, emotionally, financially
§ Nobody can finish off the other
o French declaration of war unites Germans, temporarily
§ Treaty of Prague (1640) signed by most estates of the Empire
§ Protestants and Catholics
o Austria, Bavaria, and Spain use internal peace to re-ignite the war
§ Mainly against France
§ NOT primarily for religious reasons, rather, dynastic
o Residents of Empire believe Ferdinand fighting in aid of Spain
§ Protestants threaten a separate peace with France if Ferdinand will not
settle the war
§ This undermines Ferdinand’s position in seeking settlement
o Big turn in Iberia in 1640
§ Barcelona revolts, joined by the whole of Catalonia
§ Portugal revolts
o Forces Spain to divert troops back home
§ Further undermines Ferdinand’s position
o Remaining Spanish troops destroyed at Rocroi (Neth) (1643)
o All parties enter settlement talks in 1643
§ Concluded at Peace of Westphalia, 1648
Significance: Austria again overplays hand, alienates German allies
Irretrievable reversal for Hapsburgs
Conculsion: The Peace of Westphalia, 1648
o Carried out through a series of general conferences over 1645 – 1648;
o Attended by all German estates, Sweden, Netherlands, Austria, Spain, France,
Venice, Papacy—over 200 states in all
o France and Spain continued fighting but settled at Treaty of Pyrenees (1659)
Terms of Westphalia:
o United Provinces recognized as an independent state
§ Abandons attempts to drive Spain from southern Netherlands
§ Eventually becomes Catholic Belgium (south)/Protestant Holland
(north)
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Wars of Religion. © Robert Freeman, 2009
o Sweden gains territory in Germany
§ Pomerania, Bremen, money for its mercenaries
o France gains territory in Germany
§ Alsace, Metz, Verdun
§ Adds Flanders in Treaty of Pyrenees
o France to act as overseer/mediator of settlement between estates and Empire
o Augsburg formula (cuius regio, eius religio) affirmed
§ But with private grant of conscience
§ Calvinism added to formula
§ Not Anabaptists who flee to Pennsylvania, become Amish
o Austria agrees to secularization of many estates
Consequences
o Greatest devastation the world had ever known
§ 8M killed: bloodiest war in history of the world (to date)
§ 40% destruction of crops, agricultural capacity, mostly in Germany
§ Massive destruction of German cities
o Enshrines two century-long atomization of Germany
§ Until unification under Bismarck in 1870
o Settlement holds until 1792
Significant Political Consequences
o Effective definition of the nation state
§ Sovereignty within recognized geographical boundaries
§ Right to conduct foreign policy, make treaties given to all states
o First major expression of multilateral diplomacy, all nations participating
§ Becomes Concert of Europe with Balance of Power
o Effective beginning of modern international law
§ All nations committed to enforce multilateral agreements
o France becomes greatest power in Europe—huge Bourbon victory
§ Settlement largely written by Mazarin
§ Huge buttressing of power of centralized French monarchy
§ Presages France’s dominance for next century
o Austrian Hapsburg empire confirmed but reduced in influence
§ Atomization of estates diminishes Imperial power
o Spanish Hapsburgs greatly reduced in power
§ Loses Netherlands
§ Loses Flanders at Treaty of Pyrenees, 1659
Reflection: The War ended the mainly dynastic character of European warfare, a legacy
of the Middle Ages. It also ended continental wars over religion, a legacy of the
Reformation. In their place, it put the architecture of the modern political world with the
nation state as the central political institution, with churches subordinate to the state, and
with all nation states as guarantors of the collective political order. As such, Westphalia
marks the beginning of the modern political world.
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Wars of Religion. © Robert Freeman, 2009