0000053822
Jurnal Produktiviti - [Journal].
jurnof
PR&DUHT1V1T1
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PRODUK
Penerbit'Publisher
Pusat Daya Pengeluaran Negara
(National Productivity Centre)
Peti Surat 64,
Jalan Sultan 46904
Petaling Jaya, Malaysia.
Tel: 7557266
Penaslhat/'Adviser
IT. Haji Arshad Haji Marsidi
(Pengarah)
Pengarang/Editor
Mah Lok Abdullah
Pen. Pengarang/Sub Editor
Sujaidi Dasuki
Ahli-ahli/Members
Haji Ahmad Berek
Haji Ruslan Khatib
R. Sugunarajah
Suhaimy Abdul Talib
Jurina Abd. Hamid
Nor Aini Amdzah
Ab Rahim Yusoff
Suhaimi Hamad
Pauzi Hanipi
Kami mengalu-alukan sumbangan rencana untuk dimuatkan di dalam jumal ini. 'Jumal
Produktiviti' diterbitkan enam bulan sekali, menampung semua aspek ekonomt dan pengurusan
serta tain-lain bidang yang ada hubungannya dengan konsep produktiviti. Rencana-rencana yang
tersiar akan diberikan honorarium dan tidak semestinya merupakan pendapat PDPN.
'Jurnal Produktiviti' diterbitkan oleh Pusat Daya Pengeluaran Negara
(Kemcnterian Perdagangan dan Perindustrian) Peti Surat 64, Jalan Sultan,
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Teleks: MA 36312 PDPN. Telegram: Dayapeng.
iDITORIAL:
BUD AY A KERJA CEMERLANG
Kecemerlangan diukur melalui nisbah dan beberapa aspek yang
terkandung di dalam proses mencapai sesuatu projek. Sebab itulah kejayaan
seseorang pelajar umpamanya, tidak boleh diukur melalui satu atau dua nisbah
mata pelajaran sahaja. Tegasnya, 'berjaya' sahaja belumpasti anda cemerlang!
Sesungguhnya matlamat kecemerlangan yang ingin kita gerakkan
sekarang ialah kecemerlangan secara menyeluruh - la bermula dart dalam diri
individu itu sendiri, keluarga, organisasl, masyarakat, negara dan seterusnya
kecemerlangan di dunia dan akhirat. lajuga bermula daripada disiplin berjtkir
dan disiplin bekerja yang tidak terikat dengan masa serta sentiasa menghormati
pendapat orang lain di samping sentiasa berwaspada terhadap sumber-sumber
bahan yang semakin terhad. "Tidak ada perbezaan antara mencuci longkang
dengan mentadbirkan negara dari segi kecemerlangan yang diamal dan
dimatlamatkan." (Ucapan PM, Data' Sen Dr. Mahathir Mohammad di
pelancaran Gerakan Budaya Cemerlang pada 27hb. November, 1989.)
Sejarah tamaddun manusia telah memperlihatkan bahawa bangsa yang
tidak mempunyai "budaya kerja cemerlang" hanya akan menjadi buruh
kontrak di lereng-lereng gunung yang mengandungi emas; walhal nenek
moyangnya turunan demi turunan sudah berabad-abad mendiami kawasan
berkenaan.
Sesungguhnya fokus terhadap cemerlang itu tidak beku. la hidup dan
bergerak mengarah kepada suatu arah yang tidak terbatas. Sebab, jika hari ini
kita memperolehi kejayaan cemerlang di dalam sesuatu projek, namun di masamasa akan datang kecemerlangan itu akan dianggap kurang cemerlang jika
dibandingkan dengan kecemerlangan orang lain yang lebih sempurna. Begitu
juga tahap kecemerlangan yang dianggap sempurna pada zamannya mungkin
akan ada tandingannya di dekad-dekad yang mcndatang. Tegasnya, tidak ada
matlamat akhir di dalam mengejar kecemerlangan.
Bagaimanapun suatu hal yang mesti kita sedari bahawa kecemerlangan
tidak akan tercapai secara total tanpa adanya kerjasama orang lain. Contohnya,
walaupun seorang saintis boleh menemukan "discovery" yang boleh
menyempurnakan sesuatu penemuan masa lalu, namun tanpa adanya bantuan
dari para pembantu makmal, dia tidak mungkin menemui penemuan yang
dianggap besar di dalam pembangunan tamaddun dunia itu.
BIODATA
DR. R.P. Mohanty is currently a professor at
National Institute for Training in Industrial Engineering (NITIE), Bombay, India. Previously
he was a visiting professor In the division of Industrial Engineering and Management at Asian
Institute of Technology, Bangkok. He was
Head
of
Production
Management
Department
as well as Dean of Research Programmes at
National Institute for Training in Industrial En-
gineering
(NITIE). He was also the National
Chairman of Indian Institution of Industrial Engineering. He has very wide ranging
experiences in education, management development, research, consultancies in both
government and industries. He has published more than 120 papers in various reputed
International journals and has also completed some national level research projects. He has
written a book on works management and also guided several Ph. Ds. He is the editor-in-
chief of Industrial Engineering Journal (India) for the last 5 years, and also represents in the
editorial board of several journals. He has received 'National Awards' for his outstanding
constribution in the field of industrial engineering and management. He has also chaired in
several international conferences.
AVAILABILITY MANAGEMENT:
THE KEY TO PRODUCTIVITY
IMPROVEMENT
By
Professor R.P. Mohanty
(National Institute for Training in Industrial Engineering,
Bombay, India)
ABSTRACT
In this paper, it is felt worthwhile to examine underlying the
paradigm of the total management process of productivity so as to observe
the underlying drives Given the variety of conditions prevalent in
developing countries, organisation may take a number of concepts and
alternatives to improve its ability to maintaining the values and creating the
values for the future It has been hypothesised that the organisational
productivity may be enhanced by recognising the needs for maximising
availability of organisational assets
1.
INTRODUCTION
Every industrial organization is basically concerned with two
strategies for meeting the objectives of growth and survival in the
contemporary global environment, they are
(a)
Maintenance and safeguarding of existing success potentials,
and
(b)
Search for and development of future-oriented
potentials
success
The first strategy is known as Value maintenance' or, in the
language of Industrial Engineering, as Productivity I This strategy
maximizes performance through rationalization, cost reduction,
resource allocation, etc The second strategy, known as 'value
creation' or Productivity II, is for maximizing performance
through innovation, diversification, renewal of technologies, vertical
integration, etc It will be seen that in order to pursure the value
creation strategy, automation in manufacturing must be sought and
implemented and, as a result, complex systems will need to be
designed and installed Such complex systems are characterized by
huge investment of capital and the non-availability of such systems
for productive work cannot therefore be tolerated. As the greatest
proportion of the total investment of an organization is tied up with
the physical facilities, the postulate is that productivity can be
maximized only when organizations are successful in evolving what
is called availability management.
The objective of this paper is to review some fundamental
concepts of availability with a view to suggesting ways in which
improvements could be made. Though the discussions presented will
always be with reference to industrial production systems, it is
considered that the concepts of availability can be transferred with
equal validity to any situation characterized by physical assets and
physical through-puts of resources such as money, materials, energy
and information. Our approach to the subject will be oriented
towards productivity, with emphasis on issues and guidelines. The
intention is to explain a wide range of concepts, but always focussing
attention on what must be done by managers responsible for
managing corporate physical assets and what their objectives ought to
be.
2.
THE CONCEPT OF AVAILABILITY
Availability is the ability of a machine (with due consideration
having been given to its reliability, maintainability and maintenance
support) to perform its required function at a stated instant of time or
over a period of time.
Availability, denoted by A, can be defined mathematically as:
A = rup/(rdliwn)
in which Tup and Tdown denote up-time and down-time, respectively.
The definition given above relates to a physical system with a
history of failure. Traditionally, availability is maximized by
increasing the up-time through 'reliability', and by decreasing the
down-time through 'maintainability'. Clearly therefore, the key to
the understanding of availability are the two generic concepts of
reliability and maintainability which must be very clearly
understood.
2.1
Reliability
The most widely accepted definition of reliability is the
probability of a system performing its intended function adequately
for the given period of time under the given operating conditions.
The general mathematical expression for reliability,
R(t) = exp - J Z (C) a
(2)
in which
Z (C) = f(t)l(l - F(())
z ( ) denotes the failure rate function, f(t) the failure distribution
function, and F(t) the cumulative failure distiibution function. Hence
R(t) = 1 - F(r)
(3)
The expected value of the failure time is given by
MTBF = T R(t)dt
2.2
(4)
Maintainability
Maintainability is defined as the probability that a system will be
restored to operational effectiveness within a given period of time,
when maintenance actions are taken in accordance with prescribed
procedures. Clearly, how often a system fails (reliability) and how
long it remains down are vital considerations in the determination of
a system's worth. These two concepts are closely linked with costs,
complexity, weight, operational requirements, and so on.
Maintenance is one of the effective ways of increasing the reliability
of a system. The more reliable a system is, the better its
maintainability, and vice versa.
The maintainability function, M(t), is given by
M(0 = Pr(T < t)
(5)
in which T denotes the random variable representing the repair time.
If the repair time is g(t), then
P r ( T < t) =
£(r)dr
(6)
The expected value of the repair time, called the Mean-time-torepair (MTTR), is given by
oo
MTTR = f tg(t)dt
(7)
Availability can be expressed in a number of ways, as described
below:
Instantaneous availability Denoted by A(t)t it is defined as the
probability that the system is operational at any random time t.
Average available
Denoted by A(T), it is defined as the
proportion of time in the specified interval (O, T) when the system is
available. Mathematically it is expressed as
A(T) =
/l((OdO.
(8)
Steady-state availability Denoted by A(cc)t it is defined as the
average availability when the time considered is infinity; that is
^(«) = T'-^ oo A(T)
(9)
Inherent availability Denoted by A,, inherent availability is based
on the assumption of a steady-state condition and is defined as
A, = MTBF/(MTBF = + MTTR)
(10)
in which MTBF denotes mean time between failures. It includes only
corrective maintenance down-time, and excludes ready-time,
preventive maintenance down-time, logistics (or supply) time, as
well as waiting or administrative time.
Achieved availability Denoted by At, it includes only corrective
and preventive maintenance and is defined as
Aa = MTBM/(MTBM ± M)
(11
in which MTBM denotes mean time between maintenance, and M
denotes down-time resulting from maintenance, both corrective and
preventive.
Operational availability
Denoted by A0, it includes ready-time,
logistics time, and waiting or administrative down-time; it is
expressed as
8
Af, = (MTBM + READYTIME)/(MTBM + READYTIME
+ MDT)
(12)
in which
READYTIME = Operational cycle - (MTBM + MDT)
(13)
and
MDT = Delay time + M
Through-put availability
(14)
In general, all the expressions and
definitions given above are used to find the time-dependent
availability of the system (that is, the fraction of the time when the
system can be expected to be in the operational condition) by utilizing
component rime availabilities as input data. Although this may be an
acceptable measure for electronic systems, there are two reasons why
this method cannot be applied to chemical or continuous-process
industries: first, most plants experience minor fluctuations in
processing ability that are difficult to attribute to a specific cause and
have little effect on plant economics in the long-term. However,
some plants experience reduced through-puts due to gradual
equipment failure; gradual fall-off in catalytic activity; and gradual
accumulation of material at some point in the system as that throughput 'bottleneck' is eventually created. Secondly, buffer storages are
normally provided between stages to absorb minor fluctuations in
through-put capability between the upstream and the downstream.
Such characteristics of process plant design and performance,
which are not accounted for by 'time-dependent availability'
methods, confirm the need to establish a method or procedure for
measuring the performance of process plants in terms of through-put
availability.
3.
EVALUATION OF TIME-DEPENDENT AVAILABILITY
The following methods are used for the evaluation of time
dependent availability:
3.1
State Enumeration or the Event Space Method
In this method a list of all possible mutually exclusive states of
the system are enumerated, a state being defined by listing the
successful and failed elements in the system. In general, the total
number of states is 2" in which n denotes the number of elements in the
system. The states which will result in a successful operation of the
system are then identified and the probability of occurrence of each
successful state is computed. Finally, all the successful probabilities
giving the reliability of the system are added up. Brown1 has
developed a computer algorithm for estimating reliability by this
method. It is to be noted, however, that this method (or its variants) is
not valid for systems with a large number of elements.
3.2
The Network Reduction Method
In this method series, parallel and series-parallel sub-systems are
combined until a non-series parallel system which cannot be further
reduced is obtained. The factoring theorem is then applied following
Moscowitz.2 A particular element, x, is selected and the two networks
are obtained and generated when x is replaced by a short.circuit and
an open circuit. If these two networks are simple and series-parallel,
they can be reduced. Otherwise the next block, y, must be selected to
generate the two networks.
System reliability will then be given by
R = R2 *R \ R, = 1 + (1 - R x *R \RX = 0
(15)
in which RK denotes the reliability of the box. Benerjee and
Rajamani3, Buzacott* and Misra" have subsequently developed and
refined the method.
3.3
The Path Enumeration Method
This method is used for systems not containing dependent
failures.6* In this a path comprises a set elements which form a
connection between input and output when traversed in a stated
direction. A minimal path is one in which no node is traversed more
than once in tracing the path and, if any path is operable then the
system performs adequately. Hence the reliability is
R = Pr
PM
-I
U Pi
(16)
10
in which U denotes the union and Pi the i-th minimal path. Using
the expansion rule,9 the probability of union of M events can be
expressed as.
M
|~ ~i
M M
r
~i
R = <-y Pr LPiJ - -.<y y Pr Lpi n PJJJ
+ I11 Pr |"pi n PJ n PK]
i
1 j>l k>l
|_
J
I'M
-1
+ ..... + (-l)M, Pr O Pi
(17)
Similarly, a 'cut' can be defined as a set of elements which if they
fail, would cause the system to fail regardless of the condition of other
elements in the system. A minimal cut is one in which there is no
proper subset of elements whose failure alone would cause the system
to fail. Then the reliability of the system is
[
M _ ~|
U Cj
1=1
(18)
J
in which Cj denotes the complement of Cj which is the minimal cut.
On expansion equation (18) can be shown to lead to
(~- 1
Pr
M M M
M M
r
_ ~|
cj + y y Pr cj n ck
L J £& L
|~
M
-
J
— H
- L
V .L.
V ,L.™\
V Pr 'n] H
ri 'n' 1rk
"KJ
_~l
3.4
(19)
The Network Reduction Method
Whitehouse10 investigated the use of GERT for analysing
reliability of systems, while some researchers give a computer
algorithm for evaluating system reliability by generating the
equivalent stochastic network of the given reliability block diagram.
Although the reliability block diagram is sufficient for hand
calculations, it is not convenient for complex systems. The objective
and advantage of generating the stochastic network are that it gives
both mean and variance of the reliability of the system; but this can be
11
done only if the mean and variance of the individual subsystems are
known.
The advantage of the stochastic network method is that it is
easier to program. In this the subsystems are represented by branches
on the network, with nodes designating the relationship between the
subsystems. Any reliability block diagram can be represented by a
stochastic network by using two logical relationships on the input
side, together with a deterministic output. Generally, 'AND' and
'INCLUSIVE-OR' nodes are used with deterministic output. The
main features of the program are:
(a)
Input data to the program can be supplied from either the
stochastic network, or from an appropriately modified block
diagram.
(b)
Can be used for any mixture of series and parallel systems.
(c)
Several different failure density functions are built into the
programme.
(d)
3.5
Multiple failure types, such as chance failures, wear-out failures,
etc. for the subsystems can be dealt with.
Monte-Carlo Simulation Methods
When the system is extremely complex and/or experimentation
is desirable but costly, the Monte-Carlo Simulation Method can be
applied with advantage11. According to Faragher and Watson12,
however, availability analysis of complex systems by Monte-Carlo
Simulation Methods reveals a lack of realism in that they are
inflexible with respect to changes of configuration; they are thus
unsuitable for optimization studies of availability through
component redundancy.
4.
EVALUATION OF THROUGH-PUT AVAILABILITY
4.1
The Two-State Approximation Method
The change from time-dependent to through-put availability
evaluation introduces a major complication into any analytical
approach. The two-state (on/off) models, which are acceptable in the
field of electronics, are only approximate representations of the
behaviour of processing systems and their components because they
require a strictly multi-state representation in which the various states
correspond to different values of through-put. UfTord's method13
12
avoids this multi-state representation by utilizing a two-state
approximation. The mean through-put capability of each
component is determined over a sufficiently long period; these means
are then used to evaluate system availability and to represent the
system's mean through-put capability. Such methods are useful only
if there are no storage failures within the plant in question. The
representation of plant performance in this way has two advantages:
(a)
The probabilistic methods used for relating system behaviour
are mathematically less complex than Markov models which
incorporate non steady-state behaviour.
(b)
Availability data requirement is kept to a minimum; only the
values of the mean through-put capability are required, one for
each component.
4.2
The Stochastic Computer Model
Wood et. alH give a computer simulation model for estimating
plant reliability. This model, which is used for complex integrated
systems, can predict the size of the operating units and evaluate the
effects of proposed turnover and schedules.
The model can be used for the analysis of the following:
(a)
The total reliability or stream factor of a system.
(b)
Sensitivity of the total system relative to:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
a proposed turn-around schedule;
the effects of a random failure, and
the sizing of various units.
(c)
The effect of unit redundancy
(d)
The effect of storage capacities, and
(e)
Bottlenecks in the system
The model assumes that the user knows how each individual
element is related to the other elements of the system. Independency
and buffer capacity are taken into account in the model through the
use of linear inequalities.
Independent behaviour of the system is simulated by sampling
the distributions (down-time and up-time distributions) which
describe system performance. With the aid of these two items of
13
information and using the distributions, the daily status of each
operating unit and the daily maximum operating level of the plant are
determined. The program then computers the operating levels and
buffer storage for the next period of time.
4.3
The General Structure Method
The model can be applied to any system characterized by a series,
parallel or series-parallel configuration. The data requirements of the
method are:
(a)
Data on the structural description of the system.
(b)
Distribution of the through-put capability for each component
and the probability of its occurrence.
Brown 1 gives a computer algorithm which can generate a multistate for the components with respect to their different through-put
capabilities and probability of occurrence. Subsequently the throughput capability of the system can be obtained by using Wood's
method14. Alien has proposed a method15, claimed to be
computationally more efficient than that by Wood, in which
minimal cut sets are used such that the total through-put across any
one cut is the sum of the through-put capabilities of each component
and the smallest through- put cut is regarded as the bottleneck. The
advantage of this method is that the distribution on the through-put
capabilities of individual components is used rather than the mean
through-put capability. The deficiency of the method is that it cannot
deal with or account for storage facilities.
4.4
The Availability Simulation Method
In this method, proposed by Alien and Thomas16 for the
simulation of the overall through-put of the entire plant over an
extended period, the total time is divided into a number of much
shorter intervals. Stand-alone through-put capabilities of the plant
units are then calculated for each interval and, subsequently, the
through-put capability of the plant as a whole is calculated. The
stand-alone through-puts are obtained if the frequency distributions
of their failure intervals and attainable through-puts are known;
representative -values can then be obtained by sampling these
distributions.
In this method the capacity and the initial buffer level of each
buffer storage must be specified, and the entire buffer capacity must
be considered to be available to the model at any one time period. If
14
any of the units are subject to pre-determined regular maintenance
shut-downs, their frequencies and durations must also be
incorporated. In this method the total plant through-put is
determined using the forward scan and reverse scan algorithms; the
former determines the maximum through-put of each unit while the
latter the actual through-put of each unit during each time interval.
The following factors are accounted for in this method:
(a)
Mismatch of through-put capability of each plant.
(b)
Down-time due to planned as well as breakdown maintenance.
(c)
Plant configuration, and
(d)
The presence of buffer storage.
The advantages of the Availability Simulation Model are
these:
(a)
Data required for simulation are only those on frequency and
duration of both planned and unplanned shut-down.
(b)
Once the simulation model has been developed, it can be used to
analyze, predict and enhance the performance of the plant under
various conditions, particularly as to how production could be
increased with minimum investment and different maintenance
periods, or by identifying and removing bottlenecks or by
providing additional buffer storage at strategic locations.
(c)
The method can be applied to systems with branching and
converging process streams, recycles, intermediate buffer
storage, and so on.
Mohanty and Mohanty 17 have used this method to estimate the
availability of dry-technology based cement industries in India.
5.
PARAMETERS FOR EVALUATION AVAILABILITY
In designing for the availability of a system, it is necessary to
specify the three parameters described below:
(a)
The component failure process This process, which
describes the probability laws governing failure, can be
postulated either through physical reasoning or by employing
empirical evidence observed on components. Many types of
15
failure distribution laws are to be found in the literature such as
exponential, Gamma, Erlang, Weibull, Rayleigh, Normal,
Lognormal, Lognormal, Uniform, Extreme value, and so on.
The exponential distribution is used most frequently because of
its constant failure^rate nature which mimics with good
accuracy failures caused by overstress in electronic components.
Weibull distribution, on the other hand, is suitable for designing
fatigue failure.
(b)
The component repair process In many situations the
component repair process is best described by Lognormal
distribution. Indeed, many authors prefer it to other
distributions such as Exponential, Erlang, Weibull, etc.
(c)
The
system configuration The logical approach to
availability analysis is to resolve the system under consideration
into functional entities composed of components or subsystems,
as a result of which a block diagram is obtained describing the
configuration of the system. The block diagram shows how the
system components are functionally connected and also the
rules of operation. The functional connections may be of the
series type, parallel type, or a combination of the two.
6.
AVAILABILITY: IMPLICATIONS FOR DEVELOPING
COUNTRIES
Reliability and availability improvements are carried out
mainly in the aerospace, defence and nuclear industries to ensure the
highest degree of safety. Because such industries involve large capital
investment, the methods for assessing and improving reliability and
availability are now being widely adopted in the more advanced
developing countries such as India, Pakistan, Brazil and so on. Indeed,
it is interesting to note that at present availability/reliability
estimation and evaluation are becoming increasingly important in
almost all industries, mainly in the manufacturing (process) sector,
because of variations in demand over the planning period. Clearly, a
study of how to improve the availability of plants using their
performance data over past periods be will of great help in matching
supply to demand during periods of high demand. The question to be
addressed in this context is, 'how to increase the availability of a given
plant at the minimum possible cost?' No doubt, this question has
special poignancy for the developing countries. For example, in a
recent survey of Indian maintenance management functions,
Mohanty and Narasingham18 found that availability maximization,
preservation of the value of the physical assets, and minimization of
costs were the three dominant objectives in the minds of maintenance
16
managers. Reports of the Asian Productivity Organisation (APO)
show, furthermore, that frequently the productivity of developing
countries is low because of out-dated plants and equipment and lack
of concern for total quality assurance. Clearly, this situation cannot be
tolerated if these countries are to compete successfully in the marketplace.
To understand the cost implications of availability improvements, let us first consider the bad effects of unreliable plants. A plant
which is 100 percent reliable will operate at its full design production
rate throughout its operating life. Such a plant can therefore be taken
as the 'bench-mark' with respect to which the cost of improved
reliability could be assessed. Two parameters are germane to such a
study; they are (a) production rate and (b) production cost.
Low reliability means reduced average production rate due to
frequent plant shut-downs caused by failure of some parts of the
plant, planned shut-down for maintenance or the ageing of the plant.
Low reliability has no effect on fixed costs, but has two direct cost
implications on operating costs they are:
(a)
Loss of sales due to low production rate and inability to meet
demand, and
(b)
Savings arising from the reduced utilization of raw materials.
The net cost of lost production is clearly the difference between
(a) and (b) above.
Low availability of plants due to sudden failure can be
minimized by employing skilled man-power to repair the failed
unit(s). Furthermore, low reliability caused by decreased plant
efficiency, or steady loss of performance, can be improved upon by
adopting a properly planned maintenance policy designed to reduce
the periods and frequencies of shut-down (e.g. through the provision
of lubrication). The reliability of the plant can be estimated even at
the design stage by checking the reliability potentials of alternative
designs or technologies.
Improvements in reliability are, however, subject to the 'law of
diminishing returns'. The least-cost combination of availability
improvements for an existing plant can be found by adopting the
following procedures:
(a)
Identification of the target production performance.
17
6.1
(b)
Identification of the possible combination of availability
improvements with which the target performance could be
achieved.
(c)
Estimation of the cost of each improvement combination.
(d)
Selection of the combination which achieves the target
production performance at the lowest cost.
Strategic Directions
Alternatives ways of looking at maintainability of product
systems in developing countries may be thought of in the following
strategic and tactical directions:
(1)
Elimination of the causes of failures by:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(2)
designing of realistic working conditions
avoiding of operational faults and human errors, and
minimising negative external influences.
Reduction of the efforts in maintenance:
In a survey conducted by this author, a Indian organisations has
revealed that maintenance efforts are not commensurable with
improvements in availability. However, maintenance efforts
can be reduced by adopting the following actions:
(a)
(b)
(c)
shortening times for fault localisation, maintenance and
downtime.
minimising maintenance costs, spare consumptions,
personnel and down time costs.
co-ordination of maintenance with production.
For example, this author in his consultancy experiences had
identified the following areas require meaningful co-ordination
between various functional groups in an organisation:
(a)
(b)
(c)
exchangeability of system elements susceptible to wear
standardisation of elements and systems
possibilities of repair through correct choice of materials
and procurement and design.
Further, this author has undertaken some recent studies in
developing countries to identify the delays involved in maintenance
related activities. Most critical delays that can be observed are:
18
(a)
(b)
Diagnosis time and spare parts searching delay
Actual repair time delay.
Diagnosis time and Spare Parts Searching Delay (SPSD) is the
time required for the diagnosis of the fault, plus the time it takes to
search for appropriate spare parts and tools; it depends upon the
location of the stores department and the way in which spare parts
and tools are stacked in the stores.
Actual Repair Time Delay (ARTD) is defined as the time it
takes to restore the faulty equipment to operating condition
effectively. ARTD is primarily a function of the type or nature of the
breakdown and the experience and efficiency of the repairman.
Clearly therefore, the total equipment down-time, which
consists of reporting, attending, diagnostic and spare parts searching
times, can be reduced by improving the flow of information, systems
and procedures. Furthermore, since machine waiting time is caused
by non-availability of repairmen (as determined by manning level)
and the actual repair time which is relatively uncontrollable, it would
obviously be more appropriate to treat all available and unavoidable
delays separately than to group them into a single component of
delay. This would provide useful insight into the magnitude of each
component so that measures could be taken to reduce the total
equipment down-time, thus improving availability.
The fundamental objective of availability improvement
through the management of break-down time can be seen as a
planned programme for predictable maintenance to be carried out at
the optimum time; that is, with the minimum of delay and maximum
consolidation of shut-down activities.
6.2
Design-out-tnaintenance
At present technologies are changing rapidly on a broad front,
leading to increased automation and development of reliable systems,
and the effect of these changes has brought a new demand on the
maintenance function. Maintenance cannot and should not any
longer be seen as a job to be done only if or when something goes
wrong. Indeed, the modern philosophy is that it can be designed-out.
As a result, it has become necessary nowadays to improve design
practice such that maintenance requirements are simplified. For
example, the Steel Authority of India has developed over the past few
years several design-out maintenance policies to save on foreign
exchange for the import of spare parts19. It has been observed
substantially through proper design using aids to familiarization and
19
rapid comprehension. Modern thinking is that maintenance
implications should be envisaged through automation and
technological upgrading. Many of the maintenance problems stem
from inadequate knowledge of the causes which create unavailability.
Therefore, once the nature of these difficulties is understood, it should
be possible to minimize costs, improve designs and enhance system
reliability. Design-out maintenance can encourage familiarization
too, thus improving the learning process, and this has important
implications on the developing countries.
There are, however, several other strategies for improving
availability, namely: the provision of buffer storages in between
different stages of production of the system; the introduction of
parallel stand-by systems, and so on. However, the adodption of these
strategies in the developing countries is constrained by the scarcity of
capital and, furthermore, there is always a trade-off between the
amount of buffer between two stations and the consequent
improvement in availability, or between improvement in availability
and the number of stand-by units employed. In the considered
opinion of the Author, priority should be given, certainly in the
developing countries, to improving availability of existing systems
through improved maintenance, design-out maintenance, provision
for spare parts, etc.
7.
CONCLUSIONS
With increasing mechanization and automation, a high degree of interdependency is developing between elements of the
production system in any organisation. Operations depend on a
consistent flow of resources, not on the elements of the system alone.
Thus, uniform operating reliability becomes a paramount
requirement and, consequently, the management of the flow of
resources becomes the most important consideration in developing
countries.
To the modern entrepreneur a very important concern is the
operational readiness of his technological assets. Most of the
entrepreneurs in the developing world today are concerned with
reliability, down-time, supply, response time, and availability. The
last is a single indicator which takes into account simultaneously most
of the other factors such as reliability, spares provisioning, supply
response time, administrative actions, maintenance efficiency, system
configuration, and operational deployment scenarios. In this paper
availability has been explained as a generic as well as an operational
concept. Although availability would appear to be virtually
independent of the way it is estimated, many of the studies on the
20
subject specify that availability be evaluated as the ratio of the mean
time-to-failure to the sum of mean time-to-failure and the mean
time-to-repair the failed unit. Although this definition ignores many
of the critical factors of management interest, it nevertheless gives an
aggregated measure. Several approaches have been classified in this
paper to facilitate a clear understanding of the concept of availability.
Clearly, it is for the management to resolve several of the basic
issues of maintenance, down-time, flexibility and resource usage
efficiency on which availability can be substantially dependent.
Furthermore, productivity I strategies should be pursued
conjunctively with productivity II strategies. Also, value-creation
and value-maintenance should go hand in hand to promote economic
efficiency - an aspect which is of special significance to the developing
countries.
Technological system represents the synthesis of the three
principal attributes of software, hardware and organisation. Against
the present economic background of much of the developing world
of today, no entrepreneur can afford to ignore or escape this trinity of
attributes. Therefore, while planning for the maximization of the
availability of their technological systems, it is also important for the
entrepreneurs to be able to maek reasonably accurate forecasts and to
provide indices of evaluation. The indicies depends on our being able
to campare them with what should have been on the date from which
they speak. The time has come to establish both positive and negative
controls. Positive controls should set up a search and response that
will close the performance gap. Negativ controls should establish the
ground rules or constraints within which organisations have to
maintain their assets and prevent disasters or catastrophes.
REFERENCES
1. D.B. Brown, 'A computerized algorithm for determining the
reliability of redundant configuration', IEEE Transactions on
Reliability, R-20, (1971), pp.102.
2. F. Moscowitz, 'The analysis of redundancy networks', AIEE
Transactions, 77, (1958), pp.627.
3. S.K. Banerjee and K. Rajamani, 'Parametric representation of
probability in two-dimensions - a new approach in system reliability
evaluation', IEEE Transaction on Reliability, R-20, (1971), pp.88.
4. J.K. Buzacott, 'Automated transfer lines with buffer stocks', Int. J.
Prod. Res., 5, no. 3, (1969).
21
5. K.B. Misra, 'A method for solving redundancy optimization
problems', IEEE Transactions on Reliability, R-20, (1971), pp.117,
6. W. Chung, 'Generalized reliability functions for systems of arbitrary
configurations', IEEE Transactions on Reliability, R-20, (1971),
pp.85.
7. M.L Shoo nun. Probabilistic Reliability: An Engineering
Approach, McGraw-HiII, New York, 1968.
8. Kim et al., 'A method for computing complex reliability', IEEE
Transactions on Reliability, R-21, (1972), pp.215.
9. W.A. Feller, An Introduction to Probability Theory and its
Applications, vol. 1, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1957.
10. G.E. Whitehouse, 'GERT: a useful technique for analyzing reliability
problems', Technometrics, 12, No.l, (1970)
11. Myers et al., Reliability Engineering for Electronic Systems,
John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1957
12 W.E. Faragner and H.S. Watson, 'Availability analysis - a realistic
methodology', in Proc 10th National Symposium on Reliability
and Quality Control, Washington, (1964)
13. P.S. Ufford, 'Equipment reliability analysis for large plants', Chemical
Engineering Progress, 68, No. 47, (1972)
14. K. Wood et al., 'Determining process plant reliability', Chemical
Engineering Progress, 70, No 10 (1974), pp.62-66)
15. D H. Alien, 'Advances m reliability technology', a symposium paper
at the National Centre of System Reliability, Bradford, England,
Apnll 1976
16. D.H. Alien and R.E. Thomas, 'Availability simulation as a tool for
increasing production from a continuous process plant', Maintenance
Management International, 4, 117-129 (1984)
17. R P Mohanty and K.K. Mohanty, 'Availability estimation of a
cement manufacturing plant through simulation', Maintenance
Management International, 6, (1986)
22
18. R.P. Mohanty and K. Narasingam, 'An assessment of maintenance
management
functions
in
Indian
industries',
Maintenance
Mangement Internation, 7, (1987).
19. S. Patnaik and R.P. Mohanty, 'Design-out-maintenance for an
integrated steel plant', Maintenance Management International, 5
(1985).
23
BIODATA
Ir. Hj. Arshad Hj. Marsidi is currently the Director of National Productivity Centre (NPC), Pe-
taling Jaya, Malaysia. He joined NPC as a Training &' Investigating Officer in 1968 and was ap-
pointed as Deputy Director in 1973 and Director of the Centre in 1981. Prior to joining the
NPC he was with the mining industry where he
obtained practical working experience after graduating as a Production Engineer. His post-graduate qualifications art: in Management Consultancy and Quality Control. He has wide-ranging experience in management and
supervisory development, research and consultancy in the public and private sectors. He has
presented numerous papers at the national as well as international levels, published articles in
both local and foreign journals and chaired several national and international conferences on
productivity related issues.
For his invaluable contribution to the nation he was awarded the K.M.N. (1979) aiidj.S.M.
(1985) by His Majesty the King.
24
LINKING WAGES TO
PROFIT-RELATED
MEASUREMENTS
BY
Ir Hj Arshad Hj Marsidi
(Director of National Productivity
Centre)
INTRODUCTION
The idea of linking wages to profits is new in this country and it
constitutes a big departure from current practices. Traditionally, the issue
of wages has been the major focus in any collective bargaining. It had been
accepted that wages should reflect the increasing cost of living and as such
each collective agreement would attempt at all costs to include the element
of annual increments which results in spiralling salary allocations, way
beyond the performance element. On top of this, the payment of bonus is
made contractual making it unrealistic in the sense that bonus would be
paid irrespective of the performance of the company.
In the earlier days, these issues were not addressed analytically nor
rationally. Situations then were different. High growth and high profits
were the norm rather than the exception. Unfortunately the good times
could not continue. It has become evident that many organisations can no
longer afford to provide continuous upward revision of salaries indefinitely
arid continue to pay the high bonuses of the good old days.
CURRENT SITUATION
The scenario of the eighties has been one of general recession
worldwide. Malaysia is no exception and has been plagued with low
growth rates, rising unemployment, continued low commodity prices,
growing protectionism and growing competition overseas. Despite some
recent positive developments and signs, we cannot afford to be
complacent, rather, it is imperative for us to come to grips with the
situation. We must take action to prepare ourselves for the unpredictable
future and not be caught with our pants down so to speak. To stay in
business we need to be competitive in order to sell our goods and services.
25
We are given to understand that more and more Malaysian products
are finding their way into the international markets. It would be interesting
as well as pertinent for us to make a comparison of the productivity level of
Malaysia with those of the New Industrialised Economies (NIE). Please
refer to Graphs 1-4 (Appendix 1 - 4). Referring to the same graphs we can
also make a comparison of Malaysia with other developing countries in the
Asian region. You would have noticed that Malaysia is doing not too badly
for the period 1980 - 1985. We can take comfort from the fact that we are
just below the Republic of Korea and way above the other developing
countries in Asia, excluding the other NIEs. This is one instance when the
performance of others is interesting but irrelevant. We should not allow
this to lull us into a state of complacency.
There is a great deal more that needs to be done to improve our
productivity if we wish to transform our aspiration of joining the ranks of
the industrialised economies. We need to develop and build up a more
competitive edge for our industries in order to survive. Our strategy should
be to emphasise on productivity and quality of our products and services. In
order to achieve this, closer and more effective co-operation of the two
partners in business, namely the employers and employee/trade unions as
well as the government must be developed. We can no longer afford to
confront one another and for long term mutual overall benefits we must
work together as partners in progress.
REACHING OUR GOALS
Creating A Bigger Cake To Share
In order to achieve our goal of linking wages to profits we must create
the profits first. How do we achieve this?
i)
We need to create wealth through expanding the cake so that there is
something more to share. This calls for greater and more effective cooperation between the employers and the employees. Production
through economies of scale must be coupled with more efficient
performance through a change in attitude.
ii)
Co-operation can pave the way for innovations and improved
processes and systems leading to flexibility in utilising capital
resources.
iii)
The concept on human resource development can be re-examined
and refocused; the workforce should be regarded as a form of
investment and an asset rather than purely as a cost. Creativity and
firm commitment to the goals can be further developed to the full in
26
order to draw out the infinite human capabilities through
involvement and decision-making.
Towards Mutual Gains
The link between wages and profit can be illustrated in Appendix 5. It
is definitely very clear that both parties will reject the situation in Quadrant
4 when both parties will suffer. In Quadrant 2 it will not be sustained as
workers would not be supportive in the long-run. Similarly in Quadrant 3
situation, the survival of the organisation and the security will be
jeopardised. So the only situation will be Quadrant 1 where both parties
will enjoy mutual benefits and growth. Once we accept this in principle
then it is only a matter of quantum which needs be worked out equitably
by the two parties concerned.
Approach By Productivity
Of late, much has been written and said on productivity. Basically,
the definition is relatively simple:
n
,
. .
Output
Productivity3 = -=———
Input
Basing on the above equation there will be five ways to improve
productivity, namely, (refer Appendix 6)
i)
ii)
reducing cost
managing growth
iii)
working smarter
iv)
v)
pare down
working effectively
Factors In Productivity
Appendix 7 states the three main factors in productivity, viz. Human,
Process and Product. On closer examination, the key is Human, im the sense
that ultimately, it is the Human who controls, utilises and improves the
Process and Products.
Being so, the equation can be redefined as follows:-
i)
PRODUCTIVITY = (CONCEPT + SKILL) x ATTITUDE
ii)
PRODUCTIVITY
ENTHUSIASM
=
(SCIENCE +
(where enthusiasm is equal to motivation)
27
TECHNOLOGY)
x
Building Competitiveness Through Quality
We must realise that the situation has changed and we must therefore,
change our ways of thinking. Gone are the days when we thought we
were in a sellers market. Under the old situation any company could
produce goods for sale. The selling price would be:-
SELLING PRICE = COST + PROFIT
The company would determine the total cost of manufacturing the
product and top it up with the profit margin and then sell it at that price.
The situation has now changed. It is no longer a sellers market but
instead a buyers market. The customer knows what he wants and he can
choose the types of products or from whom he buys. Under such a
situation, quality is stressed and the selling price no longer exists. Instead
there is the market price which is dictated by the consumer:
MARKET PRICE-COST = PROFIT
Marketing strategy has to be changed from "product out" to "market
in" concept. The emphasis is on full customer' satisfaction. Therefore, in
order to expand profits under such circumstances would be to contain and
reduce the costs. The above formula stresses on the need for the reduction
of the cost.
Broadly speaking the cost can be divided into two parts. One part
consists of the operation which can be defined as "every action which
increases the added value". In the past we had concentrated on such actions
like automation, innovation and technology which were intended to
increase the performance of the operation. We have largely forgotten that
there is a Second part i.e. wastages which can be defined as activity or action
which does not increase additional value. For example, transportation,
inspection, rework, stocks, storage and so on are forms of waste and should
be eliminated.
The emphasis in quality has been highlighted again and again. Philip
Crosby says that by improving quality almost any company can increase
profits by 5% to 10% of the company sales without any additional cost.
Juran says that the causes of quality problems can be divided into two
groups:
28
a)
"management controllable" which is estimated to be about 80%
caused within the systems.
b)
"worker controllable" which is 20% caused during the application of
the system.
According to Juran these 20% of problems ought to be solved by the
workers themselves ideally under the voluntary basis. Examples of such
activities are Quality Control Circles (QCC) and suggestion schemes.
QCC for example, has demonstrated the feasibility and excellent results
in cost reduction and process improvement. Of course, these activities can
only take place in the presence of suitable climate and management styles as
well as with sufficient motivation and recognition. Effective human
resources development should aim at obtaining employee involvement,
employee participation, information sharing, constructive feedback,
teamwork and collaboration, creating meaningful and challenging work as
well as employment security.
CASE FOR PROFIT SHARING SCHEMES
Motivation Towards Common Goals
One main objective of compensation schemes is to motivate
employees to perform if not excel at their jobs. Numerous programmes for
linking employees' wages with their performances have been tried since
Taylor introduced his famous piecework incentive system.
With such individual merit payment schemes, individual employees
are motivated only to make more money; they have no interest in raising
productivity or in management's productivity/organisational goals.
However, under the proposed profit sharing scheme tied to
productivity/performance, which is a group-based reward system, the
employees will get the share of the company's profit due to an overall
improvement in productivity.
In most organisations with traditional incentives, only employees
involved in production, are covered; those not on the incentive scheme are
alienated because they do not have an opportunity to increase their
earnings. Traditionally, incentives are usually designed for individual
employees or small groups; this encourages workers to build protective
walls around their operations to maximise their earnings at all costs. These
types of incentives fractionalise the work force and create conditions which
accentuate employees' individual interests. Since employees are measured
only on their output, they have little interest in overall quality, spoilage and
plant-wide problems.
29
Profit sharing changes these attitudes. Employees will then be
interested in company-wide improvement as all employee are rewarded as
a group for total gains achieved. Rewarding all workers for the
productivity (profit related) gains over a base period, will enable them to
focus their attention on the need to collectively reduce total costs of inputs
and improve quantity of output.
Under the profit sharing system, employees will now be more
interested in how the operations and systems work in the company,
attending to more details and the production problems that occur around
them which in the past they had ignored or even encouraged. Since profitsrelated gains are shared, all innovations by workers or by management,
will be welcomed because workers will gain from all improvement efforts.
It will realign management and workers'interests and needs towards the
common goal.
TO STAY COMPETITIVE
As shown in Graph 5, (Appendix 8) there are still many companies
find themselves in an uncompetitive position, with their labour costs which
increasing and labour productivity lagging behind the labour cost per
eomployee, with an average annual increase of 4.23% and 18.01%
respectively. If they want to be competitive and succeed, they should not
continue to practise the conventional automatic yearly increment in pay
without regard to their company's performance and profitability. Profit
sharing is a means of substituting this practice, where employees are able to
earn higher pay through improved organisational performance and profit.
In this way, with wages directly linked to profits, the wage system is more
rational. One can receive more as the company becomes more and more
competitive.
During the current business slowdown and increased competition,
many companies turned to cutting 'heads' to reduce costs in the guise of
productivity. In the short term this measure can be seen to be effective but
unfortunately, this will be counter productive in the long run. The
employees will be demoralised and pre-occupied in worrying 'who is next'
thus affecting their work performance.
Profit sharing will be a scheme to minimise the need for work-force
reductions during difficult times as it provides for a built-in financial
adjustment to reduce financial liabilities.
Since wage costs are partly variable, these input costs will be lower.
These adjustments coupled with the employee efforts to reduce other input
costs will lessen or eliminate the need for lay-offs.
30
However reduction in workforce can still take place through natural
attrition under normal circumstances.
TOWARDS DEVELOPING A PROFIT SHARING SCHEME
Objectives to be achieved by such a scheme:
O To increase employee output/performance;
O To improve general attitudes towards work;
O To improve co-operation between employees and management;
O To reduce operating costs;
O To develop employee identity with the company;
O To encourage employees to continuously seek improvements and
innovations in work methods;
O To link labour costs to company performance i.e. reducing liability
during bad times and increasing liability in good times;
O To enable employees to contribute to the enterprise.
Current Labour-Management Relationship
The labour-management relationship must be right with a good
element of trust and cooperation. The Union representatives must be
briefed on the objectives of the scheme to get their participation and
involvement in designing the scheme. This would eliminate doubts,
rumours and objections towards the scheme.
Establishing the Coverage
The question that is often asked regarding such profit sharing scheme
is "Who
are to be included?" The most common practice is to include
everyone. With this, it encourages a sense of sharing common goals
amongst all the employees (Management and Workers) and focuses on
teamwork and co-operation in improving organisational performance.
The Sharing Formula
Once the coverage on who are to be included is established, the profit
sharing formula can then be worked out. Though there are physical
formula based on the improvement of the relationship of physical units of
output and physical units of input, the profit sharing scheme is best
administered based on financial performance. With the financial approach
to calculation of distribution of gains, part of the employee's wages will be
affected by market prices and conditions as well as by productivity
performance. This creates a sense of involvement and responsibility and a
feeling of'mutual interest'. Part of the employee's wages will be flexible
rising and falling according to the overall financial and productivity
31
performance of the company. The other part is fixed in order to provide
for a guaranteed minimum level of living standard for the employee.
There are various gain sharing plans, like the Scanlon Plan, Rucker
Plan, Improshare and the Japanese flexible wage system, which can be used
to formulate an equitable formula.
The payout frequency may be weekly, monthly, quarterly or
annually depending on
i)
ii)
data availability for computation
magnitude of the share
iii)
administrative costs
NPC'S PRODUCTIVITY MEASUREMENT MODEL*
Financial And Productivity Ratios
For profit sharing to be equitably done, one must be able to accurately
measure the gains. The present hesitation of management to share a part of
its financial gain is due, partly to the lack of confidence in coming up with
accurate performance measures.
There are many ways of measuring performances, but not many link
output and input costs, profitability and productivity all in one model.
Majority of the performance measures focus on either profitability or
productivity.
The National Productivity Centre, with the assistance of Dr. M.R.
Ramsay, an ILO expert, has successfuly adapted his models which
calculates partial and total productivity/performance measures and also
links productivity with return on investment and capital rotation. This
model can be extended to be used for computation in the profit sharing
scheme.
Total Productivity Measurement Approach
It is important to develop a profit-related productivity base that
provides an accurate measurement of productivity for an organisation. The
Scanlon Plan and Improshare Plan consider only labour productivity. The
Rucker Plan, though using value added in its computation, is still related
only to gains in labour productivity.
*adapted from Dr. M.R. Ramsay's RAPMODS Model
32
Take for example, a saving of $10,000 in labour costs may be achieved
through lay offs but at the sametime, energy and material costs is allocated
to increase by the same amount, therefore no real improvement in
productivity is achieved. On the other hand, a $7,000 increase in labour
costs together with a savings of $8,000 in materials and energy will give a
nett positive result.
The essence of a practical Productivity Measurement Model is its
ability to objectivate and adjust the consequences of changes in input
factors to give the best nett result to the organisation. The NPC Model is
capable of doing just that. Further more,it can be used as a tool for unking
profits to productivity, as illustrated, in a simplified manner, in Appendix
9. Appendix 10 shows the complete NPC Productivity Measurement
Model with its simulation capabilities.
CONCLUSION
The proposed concept of profit-related sharing scheme is a way to
bring about a long-term comprehensive change in an organisation's
management philosophy by creating new roles for all employees including
managers, breaking down harries to communication, enhancing co-
operation and teamwork, grealer employee involvement, and giving them
a sense of responsibility and a role in the organisation's success. This will
result in better quality of working life of employees and increased
competitiveness for the company.
It is needless to say we have lost much time and opportunity and if we
are to continue to survive, some drastic steps must be taken to redress the
unhealthy situation of the past. As mentioned earlier this concept
constitutes a big departure from traditions and it will take a lot of courage
to take this new step. Nevertheless we must take this bold step and with a
lot of understanding, sincerity, commitment and trust from all parties, I
believe we can succeed for succeed we must if we want to survive.
33
Appendix 5
WAGES AND PROFIT WINDOW
PROFITS
3
LAW PROFITS
HIGH WAGES
i
HIGH PROFITS
HIGH WAGES
4
2
LOW PROFIT
LOW WAGES
HIGH PROFITS
LOW WAGES
Appendix 9(i)
NPC PRODUCTIVITY MEASUREMENT MODEL
FOR COMPUTATION OF PROFIT SHARING
Column
A
Items
B
Base Month Actual Financial Figures
C
Computation of Factors Productivity Measures
(FPM) and Muldfactor Productivity Measure (MPM)
Row
D
Current Month Projected Figures Based on FPM/MPM
of base month
E
Current Month Actual Figures
1
Monthly Sales Figures
2
Finished Goods Inventory (FG) - increase (decrease)
3
Work-in-Process Inventory - increase (decrease)
4
Total System Output [Row (1) + Row (2) + Row (3)]
5
Monthly Labour Costs
6
Monthly Material Costs
34
7
Other Related Costs Like Energy, Fuel, Transportation
etc.
8
Aggregate Costs [Row
9
Gain over Month (Aggreate Projected Costs - Aggreate
Actual Costs)
10
Contingency Fund (say 10% kept in reserve)
(5) + Row (6) + Row (7)]
= -£ x Row (9)
11.
Share for Distribution = Row (9) - Row (10)
12.
Employees' Share (say 50%)
=
x Row (11)
35
BIODATA
Leonard Yong (B. Sc (HONS); Dip. Ed; M. Ed;
Ph.D) has been a lecturer in the Faculty of Education, Universid Malaya since 1981. He was a
chemistry and mathematics teacher in St. John's
Institution before he joined Universiti Malaya
as a tutor in 1979. Presently, he is attached to the
Department of Pedagogy and Educational Psychology in the Faculty of Education. His main
research interests are in educational psychology,
particularly in creativity. He has written a book
on creativity in Malaysian students and published and edited more than 30 articles and
publications in local and foreign journals. Dr. Yong is also frequently been called upon to
serve as a psychological and research consultant for market survey companies and major
research projects.
36
CREATIVITY FOR PRODUCTIVITY
IN THE MALAYSIA CONTEXT
By
Dr. Leonard Yong Mee Seng
(Lecturer in Faculty of Education,
University of Malaysia)
Introduction
Currently there is concern regarding the adequacy of our scientific
and technical manpower to meet the demands of Malaysia's rapid social
and economic changes. The pressing need to identify and encourage
individuals who are capable of high-level performance has directed
attention to the techniques for recognising the capable individual as early in
his school career as possible. Studies of the last two decades have suggested
that the creative potential of the citizens of a country could be one of its
greatest national assets. As Nolan (1982: p66) aptly puts it in the context of
successful business management:
"Creative skills are the key to open-mindedness, constructive
co-operative behaviour and all other desirable qualities... We
need a new perspective on creativity, which recognises it as
important as the logical analytical abilities that are so highly
prized in our current business culture."
The importance of creative thinking in enhancing learning and
consequently in the development of the individual and society cannot be
overemphasised. Over the past three decades, accumulated empirical
evidence suggests that the creative potential is latent in everyone and can be
developed through the application of appropriate strategies. In education,
especially after the launching of the first space satellite by the Russians in
1957, there was a call for educators in the United States to be more
responsible in nurturing the creative abilities in students and to seek ways
for its development. This call has resulted in considerable research interest
in creativity. The information obtained so far has contributed substantially
to our understanding about creativity and the factors which affect its
manifestations, but much research remains to be done before the results can
be universally generalised. In the context of the school, a large proportion
of these research efforts should naturally be directed to obtain more
empirical data, especially in different national and cultural settings,
regarding the influence of school and personal variables on the creativity of
students.
37
Creativity and the Educator
The last three decades of educational research and development have
led some educationists (Torrance, 1965; Jones, 1972) to suggest that man
prefers to learn in creative ways through creative and inquiry-oriented
activities. This postulation has, consequently, motivated many researchers
to seek and explore for ways of teaching in a creative manner. Some
researchers, for example Torrance (1970), have argued that teaching
creatively involves catering to a number of human needs such as curiosity,
the need to meet challenges and attempt difficult tasks, the need to give
oneself completely to a task, and the need to be an individual, that is, to be
oneself. In order to respond to thesecreative needs of the learner, the teacher
would be required to recognise and acknowledge the learner's potential.
Such a recognition would enable the creative child to come to terms with
his deep feelings and emotions that are of fundamental importance to his
personal development. To some educationists, raising the creative level of
the students will enhance the welfare of the nation, as Torrance (1965: 11)
implores:
As we studied creative behaviour among both children and
adults, it became increasingly clear that perhaps nothing could
contribute more to the general welfare of our nation and the
satisfaction and mental health of its people than a general raising
of the level of creative behaviour. There is little doubt that
prolonged and severe stifling of creative thinking cuts at the
very roots of satisfaction in living.
Rogers (1962) had proposed that certain conditions would facilitate
the development of creativity in all students. These conditions are that the
person should feel substantial 'worth to himself and his peers, and that
external criticism should be absent1. If the teacher were to provide these
conditions in the classroom, the teacher would be able to guide the learner
to a controlled kind of freedom necessary for creative behaviour. A similar
view, though based on a different theoretical viewpoint, was held by
Maslow (1959). Maslow in experimental psychologist, was of the opinion
that creativity was latent in every person although this could remain as a
suppressed potential in many people. In his Self-Actualisation Theory, he
suggestied that even when all other needs were satisfied, there would still be
problems that a person would need to solve in order to achieve selfactualisation. Maslow's research also indicated that where conditions of
freedom and syampathy prevail, creativity would emerge.
A number of other research studies indicate that not only is it possible
to develop creativity but also that this is desirable. Torrance (1963b: 16)
suggests that children can be taught to bring their creative thinking abilities
into use "in acquiring even the traditional educational skills". Although
38
traditional forms of education have been criticised, there is little evidence
that other forms would be more successful in promoting creative talent. In
fact, convincing evidence for the superiority of one form of education as a
means of promoting creativity over another is difficult to obtain.
However, a number of educators (e.g. Ogilvie, 1973) have argued that the
school can serve as a unique place where creative abilities in children can be
developed by deliberate teaching methods or by modifications of the
environment or by combinations of both. As long ago as 1967, Parnes
(1967) had suggested that the schools can do much to assist pupils to achieve
their self-actualisationa as postulated by Maslow (1954). Parnes (1967: 41)
writes on the matter as follows:
Education can do much to help the individual achieve this fullest
self-realization, whatever his level of native capacity. Many
people seem to possess the seeds of creativeness, but the
eivironment fails to provide the nourishment for growth.
Therefore, these persons never fully live. Education can provide
for "creative calisthenics" to counteract this atrophying of our
talents.
Yet another area where creativity is of great importance is in the
education of gifted students. In studies to investigate the relationship
between creativity and gifted behaviour, Treffinger (1986: 16) suggested a
model of creative learning consisting of three levels:
Level I: Learning Basic Thinking Tools where there is a recognition of the
improtance of teaching students a number of fundamental "tools" for
generating and analysing ideas such as brainstorming.
Level II: Learning and Practising Problem Solving Models where students
learn and practise methods in which the basic thinking tools are applied in a
more complex and systematic structure.
Level III: Dealing with Real Problems and Challenges where student are
challenged to use the basic tools and the problem-solving methods they
have learned as they deal with real problems.
Based on this model of creative learning, Treffinger (1986) has made a
number of recommendations which are relevant to the nurturing and
enhancement of creativity in gifted students.
Besides the nurturing of creativity in gifted students, educations has
the important function of developing creativity in all students. If the aim of
the school is to develop the full potential of its pupils in soul and body and
to provide adequate preparation for everyday life in the world of work and
39
leisure, then it needs to offer a place for all kinds of work for creativity
development. As Jones (1972: 110) explained:
The word "education" is derived from the Latin verbs
"educare" (to bring up a child) and "educere" (to lead out) — a
bringing out of what is within. If the educationist's purpose is to
nurture the child's innate capacities to the full and to give to
people not merely a useful occupation but a full and abundant
life then the creative process must in very possible way be
actively stimulated.
Following Jones's argument it appears that schools need to find ways
of rewarding creative achievement and of nurturing the development of
creative thinking abilities in pupils.
Creativity in the Malaysian Context
The Malaysian education scene can be described as generally lacking
in emphasis in encouraging students to be creative. In Malaysia, the school
system has a six-three-two-two structure. Pupils undergo six years of
primary schooling followed by three years of lower secondary education at
the end of which they sit for a national examination, the Peperiksaan Sijil
Rendah Pelajaran or Lower Certificate of Education Examination. The
majority of pupils who pass this examination proceed to two years of upper
secondary schooling at the end of which they sit for the Peperiksaan Sijil
Pelajaran Malaysia or Malaysia Certificate of Education Examination.
Folowing these eleven years of schooling, the succesful student then
proceeds to two years of pre-university education to prepare for the
Peperiksaan Sijil Tinggi Pelajaran Malaysia (STPM) or the Malaysian
Higher School Certificate Examination. Normally, the STPM is a prerequisite for students to be considered for admission into the universities
and other tertiary institutions.
Over the past two decades there has been an on-going process of
upgrading the school curriculum and it teaching. A recent effort directed at
curricular renewal is the development of the Kurikulum Baru Sekolah
Rendah (KBSR) or New Primary School Curriculum which was launced
in 1982. The main purpose of the KBSR is to equip Malaysian children
with basic and foundational skills and knowledge of the 3Rs. However,
despite efforts by educators and officers from the Ministry of Education to
modernise school teaching, the present schooling process has tended to be
knowledge-centred and to produce students who are overly examinationoriented. This emphasis has taken a heavy toll on the creativity of
Malaysian students. Researchers such as Leong (1983) and Jasbir and
Mukherjee (1983) have reported that many important aspects of school life
40
and home learning climate were predominantly motivated by the need to
do well in examinations.
There is, however, an increasing interest in providing students with
supplementary training which encourages creative thinking asbilities. One
tertiary institution, the Mara Institute of Technology (MIT), has offered
courses which train students in lateral thingking, a strategy which has been
suggested by be Bono (1970). The Oxford English Dictionary defines
lateral thinking as "a way of thinking which seeks the solution to
intractable probelms through unorthodox methods". Since 1984, this
institution has offered the lateral thinking course in many of its branches
throughout Malaysia. It is estimated that as many as 1500 of its 6000 students
enrol for this course every year. Explaning why they introduced the course
the Director-General of MIT, Mohammed Ridzuan (New Straits Times,
1985) said:
While the traditional curriculum emphasises the accumulation
of facts and knowledge, it is inadequate in stimulating thinking.
We decided to introduce lateral thinking as a formal subject last
year to help students think independently.
It can be argued that the development of Malaysia as a nation should
take cognisance of the need for creating a dynamic citizenry and a
progressive education system of which creativity is an important
component. The above measure then, is but a small step in the right
direction of ensuring that the pupil is encouraged and guided to express his
abilities in such a way that his creative tendencies are not hindered.
Learning then becomes a satisfying, pleasant and extremely beneficial
experience. The creative potiential of Malaysian youth can therefore be
developed for the enhancement of the productivity of the nation.
REFERENCES
Ausubel, D. (1968) Educational Psychology: A Cognitive View, New
York, Holt, Rinehart ans Winston.
Barren, F. (1963) Creativity and Psychological Health, Princeton, N.J.,
Van Nostrand.
de Bono, E. (1970) Lateral Thinking, New York, Basic Books.
Foster, J.F. (1971) Creativity and the Teacher, London, MacMillan.
Gowan, J.C. (1972) The Development of the Creative Individual San
Diego, California, R. Knapp.
41
Jasbir, S.S. and H. Mukherjee (1983) "Higher education in developing
countries: question of relevance." In Khoo P.S., Leong Y.C. and Koh
B.B. (eds) Fikiran-Fikiran Mengenai Pendidikan Di Malaysia,
Kuala Lumpur, Utusan Publications.
Jones, T.P. (1972) Creative Learning In Perspective, London, Butler &
Tanner.
Lehman, H.C. (1953) Age and Achievement, Princeton, N.J., Princeton
Univ. Press.
Leong, Yin Ching (1983) "Schooling and development: a study of
secondary school leavers in the district of Kuala Langat." In Khoo
P.S., Leong Y.C. and Koh B.B. (eds) Fikiran-Fikiran Mengenai
Pendidikan Di Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Utusan Publications.
MacKinnon, D.W. (1962) The Creative Person, University of California
Press.
Maslow, A.M. (1954) Motivation and Personality, New York, Harper &
Row.
Maslow, A.H. (1959) "Creativity In Self-Actualising People." In
Anderson, H.H. (ed) Creativity and its Cultivation, New York,
Harper.
Nolan, Vincent (1982) "Who Needs Creativity?". Journal of Management
Development vl, n2, p66 - 71.
Ogilive, E. (1973) Gifted Children in Primary Schools, School Council
Publication, London, Macmillan.
New Straits Times, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, Thursday, April 18, 1985.
Osborn, A. (1957) Applied Imagination, rev. ed,, New York, Charles
Scribner Sons.
Parnes, SJ. (1967) "Education and Creativity." In Gowan, J.G., Demos
G.D. & Torrance, E.P. (Eds), Creativity: Its Educational
Implications,-New York, John Wilcy.
Rogers, C.R. (1959) "Towards a Theory of Creativity" In H.H. Anderson,
ed., Creativity and its Cultivation, p69 - 82.
Rogers, C.R. (1969) "Towards a Theory of Creativity." In Parnes, S.V. &
Harding, H.F. (Eds) A Source Book for Creative Thinking, New
York, Charles Scribner & Sons, p64 - 72.
42
Torrance, E.P, (1965) Rewarding Creative Behaviour, Englewood
Cliffs, N.J., Prenctice-Hall.
Torrance, E.P. (1970) Encouraging Creativity In The Classromm,
Iowa, Wm. C. Brown Co.
Torrance, E.P. (1970) Torrance Test of Creative Thinking, Lexington,
Mass: Personal Press/Gomm and Company.
Treffmgger, Donald J. (1986) "Research on Creativity." Gifted Child
Quarterly, v30, nl, p!5 - 19.
Trefmer, Donald J., S.G. Isaksen, & R.L. Firestien (1983) "Theoretical
perspectives on creative learning and its facilatation: and overview."
Jurnal of Creative Behavuiour, v!7, p9 - 17.
43
BIODATA
Md. Pishal Abdul Raof dilahirkan di Tanjung
Bidara, Masjid Tanah, Mclaka pada 22hb September,
1962. Mendapat didikan awal di Sekolah Rendah Jenis
Kebangsaan Masjid Tanah dan Sekolah Monengah
Masjid Tanah, scbclum incmasuki Sekolah Menengah
Sains Melaka pada tahun 1978.
' /i,
Dalam bulaii JTanuari,' 1980 bertolak ke Amerika
Syarikat bagi mendalami Bahasa Inggcris di Southern
Illinois University, dan kemudian melanjutkan pengajiannya kc peringkat Sarjana Muda di dalam bidang perniagaan di Western Illinois
University hingga mendapat masters (MBA).
Sekembalinya dari Amerika Syarikat pada Tahun 1986 beliau bertugas di Politekmk Kota
Baharu, Kclantan. Selang beberapa bulan selepas itu beliau ditawarkan bertugas di UKM,
dan kini menjawat sebagai Pengcrusi Program Ekonomi & Pengurusan, Fakulti Sains
Pembangunan, UKM.
44
Usahawan dalarn Konteks Teori
Cantillon dan McClelland
Oleh.
Md Pishal Abd. Raof,
UKM, Eangi
PENGENALAN
Siapakah usahawan sebenarnya, apakah ciri-cin istimewa yang
dimihkmya merupakan dua persoalan yang sermg menjadi topik
perbmcangan apabila menyentuh tajuk usahawan dan keusahawanan
Danpada pembacaan yang dibuat, seolah-olah usahawan menyerupai
berbagai 'rupa' dan memegang berbagai watak dan peranan Ini dapat
dirasakan dengan terdapatnya banyak teon yang telah dikemukakan oleh
ahh-ahh ekonomi, sosiologi dan psikologi yang memperkatakan tentang
siapakah usahawan yang sebenarnya Pada dasarnya, memang pakar-pakar
ekonomi dan pemikir-pemikir hingga ke han mi masih belum bersepakat
mengenai siapakah dia usahawan dan apakah tugas dan peranan yang
dimamkannya1 Apakah yang rnenjadi persoalan, mehhat kepada
perkembangan yang sedang berlaku sekarang, di mana dasar kerajaan
menggalakkan pertumbuhan ekonomi dan pembangunan aktiviti-aktiviti
keusahawanan, permasalahan mi lebih daripada hanya dilema akademik
Selagi pakar-pakar ekonomi dan pembuat dasar tidak bersepakat terhadap
identiti dan fungsi usahawan, maka selama itulah hasrat dan dasar kerajaan
untuk mempertmgkatkan pengeluaran yang selama mi dikawal oleh
keputusan-keputusan keusahawanan tidak mungkm tercapai sepenuhnya
Di atas kesedaran milah, maka artikel mi akan Cuba untuk mendedahkan
kembah dua teon yang ada menyebut tentang siapakah usahawan dan
beberapa knteria yang harus dimihki oleh usahawan Dua teon yang
dimaksudkan lalah Teori Cantillon dan Teori McClelland
Teori Cantillon2
Teori mi telah dikemukakan oleh seorang ahh ekonomi berbangsa
Perancis yang bernama Richard Cantillon Dia merupakan mdividu
pertama yang telah memberikan golongan usahawan satu peranan penting
Pandangan mi dipegang oleh sebilangan besar ahh-ahh ekonomi termasuklah penuhspenuhs "The Entreprenuer" laitu Robert F Hebert dan Albert N Link Mereka dikenah
bukan kerana teori-teori mereka tetapi kntikan-kntikan mereka terhadap teon-teon yang
telah dikemukakan
45
dalam bidang permagaan. Cantillon serta beberapa individu lain seperti
Law telah memperkenalkan beberapa sifat atau cm yang perlu ada pada din
seseorang usahawan, seperti berpandanganjauh, memihki kemahiran serta
berkebolehan, beram menanggung nsiko dan sentiasa mengambil sesuatu
langkah dan tmdakan yang bermakna
Sumbangan terpentmg Cantillon, walaupun terdapat banyak
sumbangannya yang lain, mlah menghasilkan teon ekonomi pertarna
mengenai keusahawanan Di dalam bukunya, Cantillon membuat banyak
rujukan yang menekankan usahawan sebagai tokoh utama yang beroperasi
di dalam satu-satu set pasaran ekonomi Menurutnya, pasaran merupakan
"a self-regulating network of reciprocal exchange arrangements"
Di pasaran milah harga-harga ditetapkan dan tidak ketmggalan dalam
menentukan harga-harga pasaran itu lalah golongan yang dikenah sebagai
usahawan. Walaupun pandangan mengenai pasaran itu dikemukakan pada
abad yang kelapanbelas lanya didapati agak moden dan diakui oleh J J
Spengler (1960) Pandangannya mengenai pasaran itu juga dapat dihhat
dengan lebih jelas di dalam penuhsan Hebert dan Link;
The parts that make up this system - custom, law, trade relations
- evolve over time in response to "need and necessity", which m
turn bind all the inhabitants together into reciprocal
arrangements The driving force of this system is self-interest
which is manifest most prominently Although not exclusively,
by the actions of a class of entrepreneurs who are responsible, in
Cantillon's words for "all exchange and circulation of the
State " (1982, 16)
Walau bagaimanapun apa yang menank perhatian, lalah personaliti
usahawan menurut Cantillon mi tidak dapat disehtkan secara tersusun ke
dalam hiraki sosial yang wujud di zaman penuhsannya. Ini berlaku kerana
Cantillon sendm tidak menjadikan kedudukan sosial sebagai suatu yang
perlu dan penting kepada bidang keusahawanan Sebahknya apa yang
dikira perlu adalah fungsi, bukan personaliti usahawan itu Oleh kerana
itu, tidak menjadi suatu kehairanan apabila dia bersedia menenma hatta
pemmta sedekah dan pencuri sekahpun sebagai usahawan Kerana pada
pendapatnya golongan im, seperti usahawan-usahawan lamnya, turut
terpaksa menghadapi keadaan-keadaan ketidakpastian Pandangannya itu
ditegaskan lagi dengan menyatakan bahawa seseorang usahawan boleh
memegang beberapa tugas dan peranan pada satu-satu masa Umpamanya,
apa yang sermg berlaku lalah usahawan-usahawan selalunya tenkat di
dalam beberapa persetujuan sahng-dagang dengan peserta-peserta pasaran
yang lain Im menjadikan mereka pengguna pada suatu ketika dan
pelanggan pada ketika yang lam pula
46
Berkemahuati Kuat dan Berani
Di dalam teorinya mengenai usahawan, Cantillon bersependapat
dengan McClelland bahawa salah satu ciri yang perlu ada pada diri
seseorang usahawan ialah berkemahuan kuat dan berani menghadapi
sebarang cubaan — persamaan ini dapat dilihat dengan lebih ketara lagi
apabila memperbincangkan teori McClelland kelak. Menurutnya lagi hasil
daripada aktiviti berani usahawan itu, yang turut didorong dengan
kemahuan yang kuat, akan membawa kesan-kesan sosial. Ini dapat
diperhatikan daripada gelagat dan tingkahlaku seorang usahawan semasa
menghadapi perubahan harga (iaitu peluang-peluang keuntungan) yang
secara berterusan akan mombawa kepada perseimbangan di antara
permintaan dan penawaran di dalam pasaran. Gambaran usahawan sebagai
mekanisma pembawa perimbangan dalam sesebuah ekonomi pasaran ialah
yang telah dijadikan sebagai asas rujukan kepada teori ekonomi mengenai
permintaan dan penawaran yang ada pada hari ini.
Penanggung Risiko
Cantillon seterusnya memperkenalkan usahawan sebagai penanggung risiko. Beliau merupakan orang pertama yang menekankan
pentingnya ciri tersebut kepada personaliti seorang usahawan. Pendapat
beliau itu masih diterima hingga ke hari ini. Melalui penekanan ciri
tersebut, beliau telah menghalakan teori keusahawana kesatu arah baru.
Menurutnya keseluruhan penduduk boleh dibahagikan kepada dua
kategori. Golongan pertama merupakan golongan usahawan yang
berpendapatan tidak tetap. Manakala golongan kedua pula mengandungi
usahawan-usahawan yang berpendapatan tetap. Bagi kategori yang
pertama, risiko merupakan unsur yang terpenting dan tidak boleh
diasingkan. Apatah lagi terutama apabila menyentuh bidang perniagaan
yang sentiasa tidak dapat dipisah dari unsur persaingan. Oleh itu bagi
Cantillon, persaingan dan keusahawanan tidak boleh dipisahkan kerana
yang satu tercerna hasil daripada kewujudan yang satu lagi. Kategori yang
kedua pula, tidak mempunyai ciri risiko seperti yang dimiliki oleh kategori
yang pertama tadi.
Berpandangan Jauh
Teori Cantillon mengenai peranan usahawan lebih menitikberatkan
ciri-ciri "supply-side." Pada pandangannya, usahawan-usahawan tidak
membuatkan permintaan bertambah. Mereka hanya berperanan
menyediakan barangniaga di tempat yang dikira strategik bagi memenuhi
permintaan pelanggan dan pengguna. Ini tentunya sedikit sebanyak
menyempitkan peranan usahawan sebenar dan tidak dapat diterima oleh
segolongan besar teori selepasnya. Walau bagaimanapun apa yang ingin
ditekankan di peringkat ini ialah, untuk membolehkan usahawan47
usahawan menentukan tempat-tempat dan lokasi-lokasi yang dikatakan
strategik tadi. Selain dari itu, mereka seharusnya memiliki ciri yang
berikutnya iaitu berpandangan jauh. Sekali lagi di sini, Cantillon agak
berbeza pendapat dengan pemikir-pemikir lain. Dia menegaskan bahawa
berpandangan jauh tidak membuatkan usahawan sebagai pembawa
pembaharuan — walaupun kita akan kerapkali dapati yang usahawanlah
merupakan golongan pertama yang akan cuba untuk menyeimbangkan
perbezaan yang berlaku di antara penawaran dan permintaan.
Penibabitan golongan usahawan dalam usaha menyeimbangkan
penawaran dan permintaan, secara tidak langsung, membayangkan
berlakunya pakatan bersama pihak-pihak pengeluar atau pembekal.
Pakatan sebegitu bukan sahaja mempunyai kesan ke atas perletakan harga,
tetapi juga kuantiti pengeluaran. Melihatkan kepada peranan yang
dimainkan oleh usahawan di dalam pakatan-pakatan seperti itu, mereka
lebih merupakan 'arbitrageur'. Di mana sebagai 'arbitrageur' dia
semestinya akan mengambilkira kemungkinan-kemungkinan kerugian
yang mungkin berlaku disebabkan perbezaan masa yang diambil untuk
mengadakan barangniaga di tempat-tempat strategik tadi. Kemungkinan
kerugian inilah yang merupakan risiko sebenar yang cuba untuk
diterangkan sebelum ini.
Teori McClelland3
Teori McClelland pula ialah satu teori psikologi yang telah
dikemukakan pada tahun 1961 dan kemudian diadakan sedikit perubahan
pada tahun 1969. Teori yang menekankan motif psikologi ini lebih
merupakan lanjutan daripada teori Schumpeter dan Weber.
Secara ringkas, Teori Schumpeter (1934) mengutarakan pandangan
bahawa:
Fungsi tunggal usahawan ialah pembaharuan. Dalam
pengertian ini, seorang usahawan adalah seorang pemimpin
perniagaan yang didorongkan oleh satu "atavistic will to
power". la muncul secara rawak di dalam mana-mana
masyarakat dengan sifat khususnya sebagai memiliki
kemampuan naluriah untuk melihat apa yang berlaku di sekelilingnya dengan satu cara tersendiri yang kemudiannya pula
ternyata benar, mempunyai keupayaan daripada segi fikiran
dan kemahuan untuk mengatasi cara berflkir yang kolot, dan
berkemampuan pula untuk menangkis tentangan sosial.
3
'
David McClelland, The Achieving Society, New York, 1961.
48
Manakala rangka Teori Weber (1965) pula menekankan bahawa:
Usahawan yang penuh tenaga dilahirkan oleh penerimaan
kepercayaan agama yang berasal dari luar. Penganutpenganutnya yang teguh imannya, yang berpegang kepada
konsep perintah tuhan dan takdir sebagaimana yang
disampaikan oleh penganjur agama itu menghasilkan ikhtiar
yang intensif di dalam menjalankan pekerjaan, penyusunan
yang sistematik ke atas cara-cara dan matlamat, dan
pengumpulan harta yang produktif.
Kedua-dua teori di atas, seolah-olah dilanjutkan lagi oleh
McClelland yang kemudiannya menegaskan bahawa "keperluan kepada
pencapaian" merupakan faktor terpenting yang menghasilkan usahawan.
"Keperluan kepada pencapaian" atau "need for achievement" itu pula
sebaliknya bergantung kepada suasana kekeluargaan di mana individu
tersebut telah dibesarkan. Suasana kekeluargaan yang wujud itu
mencerminkan nilai dan penghargaan ibu-bapa yang kemudiannya
mempunyai kesan yang besar terhadap pertumbuhan dan perkembangan
pemikiran anak-anak.
Kebebasan dan Keahlian
Menurut McClelland, "keperluan kepada pencapaian" akan tercerna
sekiranya kanak-kanak dilatih supaya pandai menjaga diri dari semenjak
kecil lagi dengan diberi sokongan dan tunjukajar yang secukupnya untuk
berkebolehan semasa berhadapan dengan orang ramai dan dalam
menghadapi perkara-perkara yang berlaku disepanjang kehidupannya.
Walau bagaimanapun latihan dan tunjukajar itu tidak boleh berlaku terlalu
awal atau terlalu lewat. Sekira ia berlaku pada peringkat yang terlalu awal,
ini memungkinkan berlakunya "parental authoritarianism". Di mana
sianak menjadi "pak turut" yang hanya akan melakukan sesuatu setelah
diperintah melakukannya. Ini sama sekali akan menyekat kebolehan anak
untuk membuat pilihan sendiri dan tidak membolehkan anak tadi
membentuk satu sikap berdikari yang merupakan unsur penting dalam
"keperluan kepada pencapaian". Keadaan yang tidak diingini ini sering
didapati wujud di dalam keluarga kelas rendah. Di mana bapa
kebiasaannya akan bersifat "authoritarian" dan berkehendakkan anak-
anak menjaga diri mereka sendiri seberapa cepat yang mungkin demi
meringankan beban kewangan yang ditanggung oleh keluarga.
Sebaliknya pula, kebanyakan kanak-kanak dalam keluarga kelas
pertengahan dan atasan diberi perlindungan yang terlalu lama.
Perlindungan yang terlalu lama daripada memikul tanggungjawab yang
berat, seperti menjaga diri, boleh menyebabkan anak-anak tadi terlalu
bergantung kepada keputusan ibubapa. Ini sama sekali bertentangan
49
dengan hasrat untuk mewujudkan sifat "keperluan kepada pencapaian"
yang diinginkan. Ringkasnya, mengikut kajian yang telah dijalankan,
kanak-kanak akan membesar dengan sifat "keperluan kepada pencapaian"
yang tinggi sekiranya diberi latihan yang betul dan sempurna pada umur
antara enam hingga lapan tahun.
Sokongan Suasana Keluarga
Satu perkara penting dalam pembangunan sifat "keperluan kepada
pencapaian" yang tinggi ialah sokongan dalam bentuk suasana yang betul
dari keluarga. Di sini kanak-kanak perlu diberi rangsangan dan dorongan
dalam menghadapi apa jua cabaran. Ibubapa di peringkat ini dikehendaki
menetapkan satu tahap pencapaian yang tinggi tetapi masih boleh dicapai.
Kepada kanak-kanak tadi, mereka akan mengambil piawai tersebut dan
akan cuba sedaya upaya untuk mencapainya tanpa meluahkan rasa tidak
setuju mereka. Di pihak ibubapa pula, mereka akan membiarkan anakanaknya untuk cuba mencapai piawai yang ditetapkan tanpa banyak
campur tangan. Kejayaan yang dicapai oleh anak-anak mereka akan
disambut dengan cara yang sebaik-baiknya tanpa keterlaluan sehingga
boleh menyekat peluang dan ruang anak-anak mereka bergerak lebih
maju. Hasil daripada kajiannya, McClelland mendapatt bahawa keadaan
yang serupa, seperti yang dijelaskan di atas,.banyak berlaku di kalangan
kelas pertengahan bawahan yang merupakan kelas terbanyak menghasilkan usahawan.
Jelasnya, untuk melihat lebih ramai golongan usahawan yang
memiliki sifat "keperluan kepada pencapaian", kedua-dua faktor
kebebasan dan keahlian kanak-kanak serta sokongan persekitaran kekeluargaan amatiah diperlukan.
Keperluan Kepada Pencapaian
'Keperluan kepada pencapaian" ialah faktor pendorong psikologi
terpenting yang dapat menggerakkan seseorang usahawan itu. Ke-
perluan ini boleh dimengertikan sebagai satu keinginan atau dorongan
di dalam diri seseorang yang dapat menggerakkan tingkahlaku ke arah
pencapaian. Di mana pencapaian pula, dalam konteks keusahawanan,
merupakan pencapaian satu-satu matlamat atau cita-cita yang selama ini
menjadi satu cabaran kepada kemampuan individu tersebut. Sehubungan
dengan itu jika sesuatu tugas atau tanggungjawab itu dilihat sebagai senang,
mudah dan tidak membawa apa-apa cabaran, rnaka tidak terdapat di
dalamnya unsur-unsur penggerak dan pendorong.
Keinginan Kepada Tanggungjawab
Menurut McClelland, usahawan-usahawan sentiasa menginginkan
tugas peribadi untuk disempurnakan. Mereka lebih suka untuk
50
menggunakan sumber-sumber sendiri dengan cara pilihan mereka dalam
mengajar cita-cita dan sanggup memikul apa sahaja risiko hasil daripada
tindakan yang diambil. Bekerja dalam bentuk kumpulan tidak menjadi
satu masalah kepadanya, selagi mereka dapat memberi sumbangan secara
peribadi ke atas hasil yang dicapai.
Cenderung Kepada Risiko Berbentuk Sederhana
Kepada McClelland, usahawan-usahawan bukanlah pemain-pemain
judi. Mereka lebih suka mempunyai cita-cita yang memerlukan kepada
satu tahap pencapaian yang tinggi. Satu tahap yang, mereka rasakan akan
menuntut satu usaha yang gigih, tetapi pada masa yang sama, yakin akan
dapat memenuhinya. Di sini McClelland bersetuju dengan pandangan
Cantillon yang lebih awal tetapi McClelland rnenghadkan risiko-risiko
hanya kepada risiko yang berbentuk sederhana sahaja.
Kemungkinan Mencapai Kejayaan
Yakin dengan kebolehan sendiri, untuk mencapai apa yang dicitacitakan, adalah satu kualiti utama peribadi seseorang usahawan. Mengikut
pandangan McClelland, usahawan-usahawan selalunya akan mengkaji
terlebih dahulu fakta-fakta yang boleh mereka kumpulkan. Melalui faktafakta yang telah mereka kumpulkan mereka membuat pendirian.
Sekiranya fakta-fakta yang dikumpulkan tadi mencukupi, mereka akan
berpegang kepada keyakinan mereka yang asal dan akan meneruskan tugas
yang sedia menanti.
Dorongan Melalui Maklumbalas
Semua usahawan ingin mengetahui tahap pencapaian mereka sama
ada ianya menggalakkan atau sebaliknya. Mereka tidak mudah berputus
asa malah belajar daripada pengalamannya. Dengan mengetahui
pencapaiannya selama ini, mereka akan lebih terdorong untuk mencapai
satu tahap pencapaian yang lebih tinggi lagi.
Aktiviti Penuh Bertenaga
Usahawan-usahawan mempamerkan satu tahap daya dan tenaga yang
lebih tinggi daripada purata individu lain. Mereka selalunya aktif dan
cergas dan kerap menghabiskan masa mereka untuk memenuhi kehendak
tugas. Bagaimanapun masa yang berlalu tetap diambil kira dan sentiasa
dalarn perhatian. Kesedaran inilah yang turut memberi dorongan untuk
sentiasa bertenaga dalam menjalankan setiap kerjaya mereka.
Berorientasikan Masa Depan
Seperti juga Cantillon, usahawan McClelland merancang dan
memikirkan apakah perkara-perkara yang akan dan mungkin berlaku pada
51
masa hadapan. Dalam berbuat demikian, usahawan tidak lari daripada
hasrat untuk mencari peluang dan potensi baru untuk mendapatkan sesuatu
yang berharga dan bernilai.
Kemahirari Dalam Pengorganisasian
McClelland seterusnya berpendapat, bahawa usahawan-usahawan
selalunya menunjukkan kemahiran yang tinggi dalam pengorganisasian
kedua-dua kerja dan tenaga manusia untuk pencapaian apa yang dicitacitakan. Mereka juga meletakkan objektif yang tinggi dalam pemilihan
individu-individu untuk tugas-tugas khusus. Hanya personaliti yang
benar-benar berkemahiran, dan tidak sahabatnya, dipilih untuk menjamin
dan mempastikan kerja yang dibuatnya adalah lebih sempurna dan
berkesan.
Sikap Terhadap Wang
Akhir
sekali,
McClelland
melalui
kajian
dan
penelitiannya
merumuskan yang usahawan tidak meletakkan wang sebagai objektif
pertamanya. Bagi golongan usahawan, keuntungan dalam bentuk wang
adalah perkara kedua selepas pencapaian cita-cita pertamanya iaitu untuk
berjaya dalam apa juga yang dilakukannya. Golongan yang benar-benar
usahawan menilai wang bukan untuk tujuan peribadi semata-mata.
Mereka melihat wang tidak lebih daripada sebagai satu simbol konkrit ke
arah pencapaian objektif yang lebih mencabar — satu bukti kepada
kebolehan serta kesanggupan mereka yang unggul.
Kesimpulan
Melihat kepada keadaan ekonomi dunia yang semakin mencabar,
bidang keusahawanan sudah sewajarnya mendapat lebih perhatian.
Langkah bagi menekankan bidang ini amat perlu agar setiap negara tidak
terus terlalu bergantung kepada negara-negara lain. Sehubungan dengan
itu, adalah penting untuk sumber-sumber yang ada di negara ini dapat
digunakan; pertamanya; oleh usahawan-usahawan anak tempatan sebelum
yang selebihnya dijual dan dieksport ke negara mar. Dengan cara begitu
hasil negara tidak terlalu bergantung kepada pasaran antarabangsa sematamata di mana tanpa pasaran luar, sumber-sumber yang ada terpaksa dijual
dengan harga yang rendah dan, lebih teruk lagi, terbiar tanpa pengguna.
Oleh kerana itu penekanan ke atas bidang keusahawanan merupakan
satu langkah yang bijak pada ketika ini. Namun hasrat yang sedemikian
harus diikuti dengan penerangan dan penjelasan lanjut mengenai apakah
bidang keusahawanan dan siapakah yang seharusnya mengambil peluangpeluang yang disediakan itu. Kerana bukan semua golongan layak dan
boleh berjaya sebagai usahawan. Tanpa ciri-ciri tertentu yang perlu ada
52
sebelum seseorang layak digelar usahawan, kemungkinan-kemungkinan
kerugian amatlah besar. Semoga pendedahan kembali dua teori di atas
dapat mendorong lebih banyak penulisan seperti ini dan seterusnya dapat
menolong dasar kerajaan di dalam mempertingkatkan pengeluaran dan
menggalakkan usaha-usaha ke arah peningkatan bidang keusahawanan.
RUJUKAN
Cantillon, R. 1931. Essai sur la nature du commerce en general, edited
and translated by H. Higgs. Macmillan London.
Hebert, R.F & Link, A.L. 1982. The Entrepreneur, Praeger Publishers,
New York.
McClelland, D. 1961. The Achieving Society, Litton Educational
Publishing, Inc., New York.
Hj. Yaakob, M.F. 1981. Peniaga dan Perniagaan Melayu: Suatu Kajian
Di Kota Baharu Kelantan, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala
Lumpur.
Schumpeter, J.A. 1934. The Theory of Economic Development,
Oxford University Press, New York.
Spengler, JJ. W.R. Alien 1960. 'Richard Cantillon: First of the
Moderns'. In Essays in Economic Thought: Aristotle to
Marshall, edited by JJ. Spengler and Rand McNally, Chicago.
Weber, M. 1965, The Protestant Ethnics and The Spirit of
Capitalism, Urwin University Books, London.
53
BIODATA
Sabitha binti Marican dilahirkan di Johor. Mendapat Diploma dalam bidang Mikrobiologi dari
Institut Teknologi Mara tahun 1982, sebelum
bertugas
sebagai
Penolong
Pegawai
Penyclidik
selama 3 bulan, dan 7 bulan sebagai Pegawai
Pcrhubungan A warn di Mardi, Selangor. Kemudian melanjutkan pelajaran di Amerika Sya)"
rikat dalam bidang Kesihatan Alam Sekitar dan
rncncrima Ijazah Serjana Muda dari Point Park
College tahun 1985. Selepas itu beliau diberi peluang pula mcnjalankan praktikal selama 2 bulan di Department of Environment Resounces
Pittsburgh, sebelum melanjutkan pelajaran ke peringkat Ijazah Lanjutan dan mcnerima
Ijazah Pentadbiran Awam di Universiti Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania pada tahun 1987. Pada
masa ini bertugas sebagai Pensyarah di Universiti Utara Malaysia dalam Bahagian
Pentadbiran Awam.
Bidang pengkhususan ialah 'Dasar Awam', 'Stress Management', 'Conflict Management'
dan 'Career Development'. Pernah juga menjaiankan penyelidikan tentang kesan
kependudukan setinggan di Bandaraya Kuala Lumpur.
54
PENELITIAN TERPERINCI KE
ATAS PRODUKTIVITI WANITA
DI TEMPAT KERJA
Oleh:
Sabitha Marican
(Pensyarah Universiti Utara Malaysia)
PENGENALAN
Amnya pekerja yang dikatakan produktif ialah apabila tenaga yang
dicurahkan oleh mereka menolong organisasi mencapai matlamat
organisasi dengan berkesan. Di sini penulis akan memberi tumpuan pada
pekerja wanita dan produktiviti di tempat kerja.
Sebagai perbandingan wanita moden kini sudah mula melayakkan
diri sebagai sama dengan saingan mereka, di mana wanita boleh memiliki
harta sendiri, persamaan dari segi poiitik, ada hak mengundi dan memasuki
bidang pendidikan dan kerja yang dahulu hanya layak disandang oleh
kaum lelaki sahaja. Walau bagaimanapun, apabila kebanyakan pengurusan
mendengar ungkapan 'pekerja wanita*, ia masih membawa konotasi
yang negatif, disebabkan peranan mereka selalunya dikaitkan dengan
perkahwinan atau sebagai ibu atau surirumah. Ini menunjukkan mereka
tiada ruang untuk menceburkan diri dalam pekerjaan di luar rumah. Tetapi
kini kita sudah berada di zaman serba moden di mana kita tidak boleh lagi
berpegang pada pandangan yang sudah usang dan tidak produktif ini. Dari
itu pengurusan harus melihat dengan serius lagi akan masalah wanita yang
selalu dikatakan tidak produktif itu dan cara-cara mengatasinya.
Diskriminasi dan Eksploitasi Wanita
Mengikut Pertubuhan Bangsa-Bangsa Bersatu, sebanyak 70%
daripada pekerja di zon perdagangan bebas selatan dan Asia Tenggara,
Filipina, Afrika dan Amerika Latin terdiri daripada wanita. (Dewan
Masyarakat, Nov. 1987).
Merujuk kepada perangkaan yang didapati dari Kajian Tenaga
Buruh 1980 pula menunjukkan kedudukan wanita Malaysia memang
tersekat dari segi pentadbiran dan pengurusan. Data menunjukkan bahawa
kerja-kerja pentadbiran dan pengurusan hanya dipegang oleh 6.5% wanita
dan yang selebihnya 93.5% oleh kaum lelaki. Dan di tahap profesional dan
teknikal 61% adalah di tangan lelaki dan hanya 39% dipegang oleh
wanita. Ini amatlah menyedihkan memandangkan pekerja wanita di
55
negara ini yang dianggarkan sebanyak 1.7 juta orang. Dari rajah 1 juga kita
dapat lihat bahawa peluang wanita dalam bidang pentadbiran dan
pengurusanlah yang paling tipis sekali iaitu hanya 0.4%. Sedangkan yang
paling banyak sekali ialah dalam kerja-kerja buruh, di mana 40% dari
jumlah buruh di negara ini terdiri dari kaum wanita. (Rancangan Nona,
TV3, 28/11/88)
Dari segi pembayaran gaji pula, sembilan persepuluh buruh wanita
mendapat gaji kurang daripada $375 sebulan. Kebanyakan majikan
mengambil kaum wanita bekerja bukan sahaja kerana mereka, mendapat
tenaga kerja yang murah, tetapi rajin dan senang diarah.
Persepsi Masyarakat
Mengikut kata-kata Tan Sri Kadir Yusof sebagai Peguam Negara,
pada bulan April 1975 dalam satu seminar, "Tidak ada undang-undang
yang mendiskriminasikan wanita di negara ini. Undang-undang di
Malaysia memberikan peluang yang sama antara lelaki dan wanita. Apa
sahaja diskriminasi yang berlaku di negara ini berpunca dari sikap
seseorang".
Ekoran daripada kata-kata 'sikap' yang diucapkan oleh Tan Sri, kita
boleh katakan bahawa ia berhubung rapat dengan persepsi masyarakat.
Oleh kerana pengurusan juga merupakan anggota masyarakat, maka kita
tidak boleh lari dari membicarakan peranan masyarakat dan persepsi
mereka dalam menghalang kerjaya wanita. Kebanyakkannya berpunca
dari stereotaip dan prejudis yang dibawa oleh mereka yang akhirnya
membuat wanita didiskriminasi dan dieksploit.
Salah satu aspek yang patut dilihat ialah pendidikan. Jika diteh'ti dari
penngkat sekolah rendah, menengah dan seterusnya, penekanan subjeksubjek bagi penuntut wanita adalah mirip ke arah domestik. Biasanya
kanak-kanak perempuan ini digalakkan mengambil Sains Rumahtangga,
Sains Pertanian dan jarang sekali Seni Perusahaan atau Seni Perdagangan.
Tetapi sekarang masa telah berubah, ramai penuntut wanita telah
menceburi pelajaran-pelajaran dan bidang-bidang yang dimonopoli oleh
lelaki seperti kejuruteraan, doktor, kejenteraan dan sebagainya.
Selari dengan pandangan di atas, walaupun dengan wujudnya pergerakkan dan pertubuhan wanita yang menjaga imej wanita, masyarakat
masih mengharapkan pekerja wanita yang telah berkahwin untuk meneruskan tugas-tugas tradisional mereka sebagai seorang isteri, ibu, menjaga kebersihan rumah dan melayan tetamu dan sebagainya. Dengan itu
wanita juga selalu menghadapi konflik apabila hal rumahtangga bergeser
dengan kerjaya mereka. Contohnya, apabila anak-anak mereka sakit atau
pening, giliran siapa pula untuk menjaga mereka. Dan jika anak-anak
56
mereka menghadapi masalah di sekolah, siapa pula yang akan ke sekolah
untuk berbincang dengan guru-guru mereka? Lebih-Iebih lagi dalam
menjaga anak-anak. Anak-anak yang mempunyai ibu-ibu yang bekerja
dikatakan penjagaan anak-anak mereka selalu terabai kerana terlalu sibuk
dengan tugas masing-masing, tetapi sekarang kita patut sedar bahawa
kanak-kanak yang mendapat jagaan rapi ibunya siang dan malam tidak
semestinya akan membina kanak-kanak yang lebih sihat.
Umpamanya kanak-kanak yang lebih terbuka dengan orang dan
suasana yang berlainan akan mengembangkan otak yang lebih cergas. Jika
dipandang ibu-ibu yang menyumbangkan sepenuh masa di rumah akan
lebih senang untuk menjerit atau memarahi anak mereka daripada ibu-ibu
yang bekerja. Bagaimanapun, ibu-ibu yang bekerja biasanya menyedari
akan hakikat bahawa masa yang sedikit bersama anak-anak itu amat
berharga. Oleh itu ianya akan digunakan dengan sepenuhnya.
Wanita kerjaya juga terpaksa menghadapi cabaran dan konflik apabila
timbul persoalan dalam mencari peluang untuk menimba kejayaan dalam
karier. Adakah itu hak suami atau isteri? Seterusnya jika kerjaya salah
seorang lebih menonjol dari yang satu lagi, siapakah yang harus berkorban? Memandangkan berbagai-bagai konflik yang akan wujud, samada
wanita kerjaya yang berkahwin atau belum, pihak pengurusan selalu cuba
mengambil langkah awal, dengan tidak mengambil pekerja wanita; kalau
adapun untuk kerja-kerja 'pelengkap' yang tidak ada peluang untuk
meninggikan kerjaya mereka. Tidak kurang juga yang menganggap
bahawa wanita hanya bekerja untuk mendapat duit tambahan untuk
belanja. Sekarang hakikatnya bukan begitu. Ramai wanita bekerja kerana
keperluan ekonomi dan tidak kurang juga untuk mengembangkan status
sebagai wanita profesional, dan meninggikan lagi harga diri (self-esteem)
wanita. (Dewan Masyarakat, Nov. 1987).
Mengikut kata Ashley Montagu (Montagu, A, 1962:191) bahawa apa
yang dikehendaki oleh wanita Amerika ialah banyak simpati dan difahami
oleh orang lain. Dan tidak kurang pentingnya juga ialah kematangan
.pemikiran kaum lelaki terhadap peranan wanita. Kita boleh katakan
bahawa ini bukan sahaja benar untuk wanita Barat tetapi juga bagi wanita
Timur. Kerana Puan Azah Aziz pernah menyebut bahawa "Yang kita
hendak lawan sebenarnya bukan diskriminasi tetapi semangat chauvinis
.lelaki."
Disebabkan oleh berbagai-bagai anggapan yang negatif ini, wanita
terpaksa bekerja dengan lebih keras jika dibandingkan dengan pekerja
lelaki untuk menunjukkan kesungguhan dan kebolehannya dalam tugastugas yang diberikan kepada mereka. Bukannya senang untuk kita
mengubah persepsi masyarakat yang telah berakar umbi berdekad-dekad
lamanya.
57
Mengapa Wanita Dianggap Tidak Produktif
Stereotaip yang negatif terhadap wanita telah menjadikan kaum
wanita sendiri sebagai mangsa. Ini disebabkan ramai kaum wanita sendiri
yang mempercayai stereotaip yang negatif ini, sehinggakan mereka
menilai rendah terhadap kerja-kerja yang dilakukan oleh wanita. Ini
menjadi sebahagian daripada punca halangan kepada pencapaian mereka.
Mengikut kajian Goldberg (1972), beliau mendapati bahawa wanita
profesional akan menilai dengan lebih tinggi bagi kerja yang sama
dilakukan oleh orang lelaki daripada wanita. Walaupun kerja itu secara
tradisional dimonopoli oleh kaum wanita seperti jururawat.
Walaupun wanita mendapat pendidikan yang sama seperti lelaki,
tetapi pekerja lelaki tetap diberikan jawatan dan gaji yang lebih menarik
dan baik. Selain daripada itu, pengurusan juga selalu menumpukan usaha
dan masa yang lebih untuk 'menjaga pekerja-pekerja lelaki dari wanita'.
Tindakan seperti ini tentulah menimbulkan ketidakpuasan dalarn kerja dan
sudah pasti mengganggu produktiviti kerja mereka dan dengan secara
tidak langsung, produktiviti pekerja wanita tentu akan menurun.
Disebabkan oleh prejudis dan stereotiap inilah ramai wanita cuba
mengelakkan diri mereka dari apa-apa kejayaan ataupun bercita-cita
tinggi, kerana kesemuanya ini akan mencerminkan bahawa ia tidak selaras
dengan sifat seorang wanita tradisional. Kalau adapun mereka terpaksa
mengharungi berbagai-bagai cabaran dan dugaan.
Mengapa campurtangan pengurusan perlu untuk meningkatkan
produktiviti wanita
Adalah amat penting bagi pengurusan campurtangan jika hendak
meninggikan produktiviti wanita di tempat kerja. Ini disebabkan
kebanyakan daripada polisi-polisi yang wujud dalam organisasi tidak
menolong kebanyakan pekerja wanita. Kenyataan ini tidak boleh
dikatakan keterlaluan. Untuk memper-kuatkan kenyataan ini penulis akan
mengutarakan beberapa kajian dan pendapat pakar pengurusan tentang
produktiviti di tempat kerja. Pertama sekali ialah tentang motivasi. Kita
tahu motivasi adalah salah satu daripada faktor yang penting untuk
meninggikan produktiviti pekeija. Mengikut teori Herzberg (Herzberg, F.
1968:57) tentang motivasi, pekerja secara am, boleh dikategorikan kepada
dua. Pertamanya ialah faktor yang membuat pekerja-pekerjanya berasa
tidak puashati. lanya berkaitan dengan:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Polisi-polisi yang wujud dalam organisasi dan pentadbirannya.
Penyeliaan
Hubungan dengan penyelia/ketua
Suasana kerja
58
56.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Gaji
Hubungan dengan teman sekerja
Peribadi
Hubungan dengan subordinat
Status
Keselamatan
Sebaliknya faktor-faktor yang memberikan kepuasan kepada pekerja
ialah:
1.
2.
3.
Pencapaian
Dikenali ramai
Kerja yang disandang sekarang
4.
Tanggungjawab
5.
6.
Dapat meninggikan lagi kerjayanya
Pengembangan diri
Dan semua faktor-faktor yang diberikan oleh Herzberg memang
ketara bahawa sebahagian besar daripada faktor-faktor yang boleh
memberikan kepuasan tidak wujud di kalangan pekerja wanita yang
akhirnya mengurangkan motivasi untuk bekerja dan secara langsung
menjadikan mereka tidak produktif di tempat kerja. Dari itu pengurusan
harus melihat kembali faktor-faktor ini dengan lebih serius lagi.
Layanan yang adil di tempat kerja adalah satu lagi isu yang selalu
ditimbulkan oleh pekerja wanita. Layanan yang adil (equity causes satis-
faction) akan membuat pekerja berasa puas hati dan produktif, jika tidak
mereka akan berasa tidak senang hati tidak produktif, dan kecewa. Tahap
keadilan yang dikecapi atau dirasai itu akan menentukan tahap kepuasan
dalam kerjanya. Ini adalah berdasarkan kepada dua teori.
Pertama ialah teori 'discrepancy'. (Lawler, 1973:49-60). Teori ini
menyatakan keadilan yang dapat dirasai itu ditentukan oleh pengimbangan
di antara ganjaran yang mereka rasa patut di terima dan ganjaran yang
mereka terima sebenarnya. Jika ganjaran yang diterima sebenarnya sama
seperti apa yang diharapkannya maka pekerja itu akan berasa puas hati. Jika
tiada pengimbangan antara apa yang diharapkan dan dikecapinya akan
membawa perasaan tidak puas hati. Contohnya, wanita yang menerima
gaji yang tidak setimpal dengan kuantiti kerja yang dilakukan.
Satu lagi teori ialah teori keadilan (equity teory). Mengikut teori ini
pula pekerja akan membanding jenis ganjaran yang diterimanya dengan
orang lain. Jika pekerja itu mendapati orang yang dirujuknya mendapat
ganjaran yang -lebih bagi usaha yang sama, ini akan menimbulkan
ketidakpuasan dalam kerjanya itu. Contohnya, wanita yang menaburkan
59
usaha yang sama seperti saingan mereka menghadapi lebih banyak cabaran
dan dugaan dan mempunyai peluang yang kurang daripada pekerja lelaki
dalam mendapat kenaikan pangkat.
Pekerja yang mendapat kepuasan dalam kerja akan menjadi lebih
produktif. Ini disebabkan pekerja yang mendapat kepuasan itu akan
menunjukkan sikap yang lebih positif terhadap kerja, teman sekerja dan
orang atasan mereka. lanya juga akan mendorong pekerja itu untuk
bekerja lebih keras dan gigih sebagai membalas budi organisasi itu dan
secara langsung meninggikan produktiviti. Di samping itu, mereka juga
akan menaruh perasaan setia terhadap organisasi kerja, di mana
menyenangkan pengurusan berurus dengan mereka. Pendapat ini seakanakan sama dengan teori yang berpendapat bahawa penglibatan dalam kerja
akan membuat seseorang itu terikat (committed) kepada kerjaya, dan
apabila ia berasa terikat maka dia akan bermotivasi untuk bekerja dengan
cara yang dapat membantu organisasi itu dalam mencapai matlamatnya
(Reif, W.E. 1973:26). Teori ini amatlah penting untuk difahami oleh
pengurusan kerana ramai wanita dianggapkan tidak 'committed' dengan
kerjayanya.
Satu lagi teori yang boleh menunjukkan bahawa rasa puas hati dan
motivasi dalam kerja adalah faktor-faktor yang penting dalam
mewujudkan pekerja yang produktif, dan bukannya disebabkan ia lelaki
atau wanita, ialah teori Herzberg. Pendapat Herzberg adalah seperti dalam
rajah berikut (Herzberg, 1959)
^____________________o___________________+_
- ketidakpuasan
dalam kerja
- tiada ketidakpuasan
dalam kerja
- kepuasan dalam kerja
- orientasi yang
negatif terhadap
kerja
- perasaan neutral
terhadap kerja
— perasaan positif
terhadap kerja
Seterusnya pekerja yang berasa puas hati itu juga akan mengurangkan kadar ganti pusing dan ponteng kerja. (Porter, 1973:151 - 176). Memandangkan kedua-dua faktor negatif ini merangkumi sebahagian
besar daripada kos tenaga kerja, dan selalunya wanita yang dianggap
berbuat demikian, maka dengan secara tidak langsung, ini akan
mengurangkan perbelanjaan organisasi itu.
Selain daripada itu, pekerja yang puashati dengan kerja mereka akan
lebih stabii dari segi mental dan fisikal mereka. Dari itu pekerja akan
menghadapi tekanan hidup yang kurang di tempat kerja yang
membolehkan pengurusan menyalurkan tenaga kerja pekerja itu kepada
hal-hal yang lebih produktif, di samping mengurangkan kos yang terpaksa
60
dibiayai oleh mereka jika pekerja diserang apa-apa penyakit hasil daripada tekanan hidup di tempat kerja.
Pernyataan ini dapat dikuatkan lagi dengan pendapat pakar fisiologi
Hans Selye. Mengikut beliau tanpa tekanan seseorang itu boleh dikatakan
seperti mati. Tetapi terlalu banyak tekanan juga akan membawa akibat
yang buruk terhadap pekerja. Ini boleh ditunjukkan seperti dalam rajahrajah berikut:
Rajah I
Produktif
Rendah
Optimum
Tinggi
Tekanan di tempat kerja
Contoh: Ketidakpuasan dalam kerja
Rajah II
Kefungsian
Instrumental
cuba melawan
perasaan
kejutan
kehabisan tenaga perasaan
tekanan
H. Selye (1956). The Stress of Life. New York: McGra-Hill, p.87.
61
Dari gambarajah di atas dapatlah kita rumuskan bahawa pengurusan
haruslah berhati-hati agar tekanan-tekanan yang dihadapi oleh pekerja
wanita tidak melebihi had optimumnya. Ini bukan sahaja akan
menyenangkan wanita menyesuaikan diri di tempat kerja, tetapi juga
penglibatan mereka dalam hal-hal yang diluar kerja ataupun rumahtangganya. Contohnya, jika pengurusan dapat mengurangkan tekanantekanan disebabkan oleh halangan-halangan di tempat kerja, maka ini
sekurang-kurangnya dapat mengimbangkan tekanan yang dihadapi oleh
pekerja-pekerja yang mempunyai dua peranan, di mana kebanyakan dari
wanita terpaksa mengurus dan menjalankan kedua-dua beban kerja di
rumah dan di tempat kerja.
Selalu benar kita dengar bahawa pusing ganti pekerja wanita adalah
tinggi, dari itu pengurusan mendapati pekerja wanita hanya akan
merugikan organisasi. Jika diteliti tentang kesahihannya, kebanyakan
wanita menjawat jawatan-jawatan seperti kerani, jurutaip dan kerja-kerja
lain yang senang ditukar, diganti ataupun diberhentikan. Dari itu jenis
kerja-kerja yang diberikan kepada pekerja yang membuat mereka senang
ditukar ganti dan bukanlah disebabkan mereka seorang wanita. Dengan
itu pengurusan hendaklah menyemak kembali polisi-polisi dan prosedur
yang ada dari masa ke semasa agar dapat mengurangkan halanganhalangan yang ada supaya tidak kehilangan tenaga kerja wanita yang
berpotensi.
Cara-cara mengatasi halangan
Di antara beberapa cara meningkat produktiviti wanita di tempat
kerja ialah dengan mengurangkan halangan-halangan yang mereka hadapi.
Pengurusan boleh mengadakan program-program untuk menukar
pandangan mereka terhadap wanita. Salah satu langkah yang boleh
diambil ialah dengan memberika-ii maklumat- maklumat yang 'sebenar'
tentang peranan wanita kepada pekerja.
Sesi perbincangan yang
mengandungi lelaki dan perempuan harus digalakkan, agar dapat
menjelajah dan menjelaskan segala salah faham yang timbul. Kadangkadang lakonan peranan (role playing) juga boleh dilakukan agar dapat
menukar pandangan mereka (lelaki) yang salah terhadap wanita. Misalnya,
seorang lelaki (x) akan mengambil alih peranan wanita (y) dan (y) pula
cuba melakukan tugas-tugas yang dijalankan oleh (x). Program-program
begini dapat menolong menukar pandangan setengah-setengah lelaki yang
prejudis atau stereotaip terhadap wanita, dengan harapan dapat membina
satu suasana yang lebih menggalakkan dan produktif bagi kaum wanita
yang bekerja.
Beberapa kajian (Bern, 1979, 1980, Spence & Helmreich, 1978, 1979),
menunjukkan bahawa individu yang mempunyai ciri-ciri androgini
(androgyny), iaitu ciri-ciri kelelakian dan kewanitaan selalunya adalah
62
lebih gembira dan dapat menyesuaikan diri dengan lebih baik daripada
terlalu terikat dengan stereotaip dan peranan-peranan tradisional sebagai
seorang wanita atau lelaki. Yang dimaksudkan di sini ialah apabila seorang
wanita dapat menunjukkan ciri-ciri lelaki seperti sedia bersaing dan
menghadapi cabaran, berani menentang dan sebagainya, dan seorang lelaki
pula yang boleh menunjukkan kelembutan atau lain-lain ciri-ciri
kewanitaan, akan lebih senang menyesuaikan diririya daripada indlvidu
yang tidak fleksibal langsung. Irii menunjukkan bahawa tidak salah jika
wanita berani melangkah ke hadapan untuk mencuba ciri-ciri (trait) yang
selama ini dikatakan hanya mampu dilakukan oleh orang lelaki sahaja.
Dalam pada itu wanita itu sendiri mesti cuba menukar nasibnya.
Memang benar masyarakat kita seolah-olah telah mengabadikan peranan
wanita tradisional sebagai seorang surirumah tangga. Selagi seorang wanita
mempercayai dan menganggap dirinya sedemikian, mereka selalunya
tidak dapat merasakan mereka punya status yang sama walaupun di rumah.
Peranan sebagai surirumah itu sendiri selalunya mengekalkan status wanita
sebagai orang bawahan dan menghadkan kebebasan mereka.
Satu lagi kelemahan yang patut diatasi oleh kaum wanita ialah takut
untuk mencuba. Selalunya orang-orang yang selalu mengecapi kejayaan
ialah mereka ingin mengambil risiko dan ingin mencuba. Kadang-kadang
individu itu sanggup mengabaikan masa, tenaga, pangkat dan apa sahaja
asalkan mereka dapat menaiki ke mercu kejayaan mereka. Tetapi selalunya
kaum wanita takut untuk mencuba, bukan kerana mereka tidak tahu,
tetapi mereka hendak mempastikan bahawa mereka mempunyai jawapan
bagi kesemua masalah dan mempastikan bahawa mereka boleh berjaya.
Tetapi ini tentulah mustahil kalau kita secara perseorangan mempunyai
jawapan bagi kesemua masalah. Tidak ada seorangpun yang mempunyai
jawapan bagi semua masalah dan tidak ada suatupun yang boleh menjamin
kejayaan untuk selama-lamanya. Hanya yang wujud ialah masalah yang
masih ketandusan jawapan dan peluang-peluang yang menanti untuk
dicuba. Dengan lain perkataan, wanita patut sedar bahawa semua orang
membuat kesilapan; dari itu tidak salah kalau kaum wanita membuat silap;
tetapi apa yang diharapkan dari semua (lelaki dan wanita) agar jangan
mengulangi kesilapan yang sama. Tanpa ingin cuba mengambil risiko,
bukan sahaja wanita, tetapi tiada siapapun yang akan dapat membina
keyakinan untuk menjalankan apa jua tugas.
Bagi mengatasi masalah ini, pengurusan boleh menggunakan
peneguhan positif (positif reinforcement) untuk meninggikan pandangan
wanita terhadap diri mereka (self-esteem). Ini disebabkan kebanyakan wanita yang dalam keadaan konflik selalunya cuba memendamkan perasaan
mereka dan membuat tindakan hanya untuk mengambil hati orang lain.
Sebaliknya kaum lelaki pula mempunyai cara yang lain, atau mungkin
lebih suka berkonfrantasi dengan keadaan itu dari cuba mengelakkannya.
63
Jika dilihat dari sudut yang lain pula, halangan-halangan ini juga
disebabkan kebanyakan daripada program-program latihan secara
tradisional adalah berorientasikan untuk kaum lelaki. Dari itu perancang
program organisasi itu mestilah berusaha agar program-program yang
wujud sekarang itu dapat dikaji dan dirombak mengikut kesesuaian masa
dan kehendak orang ramai yang menjalani latihan, iaitu untuk kaum
wanita dan lelaki.
Program khas untuk wanita perlu diadakan. Ini penting, kerana
wanita mempunyai masalah seperti harga diri (self-esteem) dan peranan
sebagai wanita kerjaya yang patut diatasi, di mana ianya akan "tergendala
dengan adanya orang lelaki dalam program itu. Ada kajian menunjukkan
bahawa jika seorang wanita itu menganggap dirinya dipilih kerana
jantinanya, maka tanggungjawabnya terhadap organisasi itu akan berkurangan dan wanita itu akan menghadapi masalah dalam mendapat kepuasan dari kerja, penyelia ataupun kawan sekerjanya, wanita itu juga
akan mengalami lebih banyak konflik dalam kerjanya jika dibandingkan
dengan wanita yang tidak mempunyai anggapan sedemikian. Aimes dan
Heide, mengesyorkan bahawa pendedahan dan latihan patut diberikan
kepada wanita berkenaan kemahiran dan perihal sikap. Dalam fasa pertama
mereka dikenalkan pada topik-topik yang berkaitan dengan pengurusan
atau lain-lain topik yang berkaitan dengan kerja mereka, termasuklah
politik organisasi (organizational politics) dan pandangan terhadap diri
mereka. Fasa kedua, pendedahan adalah berkaitan dengan dua dimensi
yang agak runiit iaitu sikap yang diterima umum dan persediaan dari segi
psikologi dan sosial untuk menghadapi halangan-halangan tersebut dan
dapat meningkatkan lagi produktiviti mereka.
Tetapi ini tidak bermakna latihan bersama tidak patut diadakan
latihan. Malah secara bersama (lelaki dan wanita) ini akan dapat
menimbulkan keghairahan masing-masmg untuk bekerjasama dan
menimbulkan perasaan percaya mempercayai dan menjadi kawan
seperjuangan dan bukan ingin tindas menindas. Dari itu latihan bersama ini
patut dianjurkan selepas program khas bagi wanita.
Mengikut Halcomb, memang telah diterima secara am bahawa
wanita perlukan pertolongan dari mentor, sama ada ia bergantung pada
lelaki atau tidak. Kajian juga telah menunjukkan bahawa dengan adanya
mentor bagi wanita, dan dengan mendedahkan mereka pada model
peranan pegawai-pegawai atau individu lain yang berjaya dalam pekerjaan
yang berkaitan dengannya, akan dapat menolong dan mendorong wanita
itu untuk memperbaiki kerjayanya. Dari itu pengurusan juga patut
mengambil usaha untuk mengadakan atau menggalakkan proses mentor
ini.
64
Satu lagi cara yang boleh diusahakan oleh pengurusan ialah dengan
melihat kembali teori Herzberg tentang motivasi pekerja dan produktiviti.
Herzberg telah menyenarai sebab-sebab mengapa pekerja-pekerja berasa
tidak puas hati. Kalau hendak diikutkan, senarai ini boleh dipanjangkan
lagi tanpa berakhir. Memang tabii manusia begitu di mana senang hendak
mencari perkara-perkara yang negatif. Dari itu pengurusan boleh melihat
dari sudut yang lebih positif tentang faktor-faktor Herzberg yang boleh
membawa kepuasan dalam kerja, di samping menggunakan faktor-faktor
yang tidak membawa kepuasan sebagai satu peringatan. Jika diteliti
kembali faktor-faktor kepuasan Herzberg, ianya saling berkait antara satu
sama lain. Contohnya anggapan yang mengatakan bahawa wanita selalu
diberikan kerja-kerja sebagai pelengkap dalam organisasi. Dari Kajian
Tenaga Buruh 1980, menunjukkan hanya 0.4% wanita sahaja terdapat
dalam bidang pentadbiran dan pengurusan. Yang lainnya dalam bidang
perkeranian dan tugas berkaitan (11.0%), jualan dan tugas berkaitan (8.7%),
perkhidmatan (11.7%). Dari itu tahap pencapaian wanita memanglah agak
rendah. Kebanyakan kerja yang disandang oleh mereka terdapat di bawah
hirarki ataupun sebagai pekerja pelengkap. Keadaan ini menjadi masalah
bagi pekerja wanita untuk mengembangkan kerjaya atau kebolehan yang
ada pada diri mereka. Tanggungjawab mereka dalam banyak hal adalah
melaksanakan tugas yang telah dikerahkan kepada mereka dan bukan atas
keputusan mereka sendiri. Sebagai tambahan, mengikut Wall Street
Journal, kaum wanita hanya memegang 6% daripada semua pekerja kelas
pertengahan dan 1% sahaja yang memegang jawatan sebagai pengarah/
ketua jabatan (Wall Street Journal, 1977). Dari itu pengurusan mestilah
berjaga-jaga agar langkah-langkah yang diambil tidaklah meng-halang
perkembangan kerjaya wanita dalam organisasi itu. Ini penting kerana,
ianya juga merupakan salah satu faktor yang asas dalam meningkatkan
produktiviti pekerja.
Seterusnya, pengurusan juga harus berhati-hati dalam pemberian gaji
yang setimpal. Gaji juga merupakan salah satu faktor yang utama membuat
wanita tidak puas hati tentang kerja mereka. Pembahagian gaji yang tidak
setimpal memang wujud di mana-mana. Mengikut satu kajian yang dilakukan di Arnerika, menunjukkan bahawa hanya 1% wanita sahaja mendapat lebih dari US$10,000/tahun jika dibandingkan dengan 13% lelaki
yang berada dalam lingkungan ini. Yang lebih ketara ialah graduan wanita
mendapat gaji yang lebih rendah jika dibandingkan dengan graduan lelaki
(Dept. of Labor, U.S, 1972:17). Tujuan penulis mengambil kajian di luar
negeri ialah sebagai satu perbandingan, untuk menunjukkan halanganhalangan dan cabaran-cabaran yang terpaksa diharungi oleh kaum wanita
di Amerika walaupun dengan adanya pergerakan yang menjaga hak asasi
wanita dan persamaan di tempat kerja. Di Malaysia tidak ada undangundang yang mendiskriminasikan wanita di tempat kerja dan pada masa
yang sama undang-undang tidak pula akan mengambil tindakan walaupun
organisasi berbuat demikian (Worker's Guide 19). Dari itujika pengurusan
65
membuat apa-apa keputusan yang mendiskriminasi wanita atas sebab
jantina, maka la adalah terpulang pada budi bicara orgamsasi untuk
menentukan nasib wanita itu seterusnya Oleh itu bukan sahaja pihak
pengurusan dan orang-orang atasan sahaja mengonentasikan pemikiran
mereka ke arah yang lebih positif terhadap wanita, tetapi juga seluruh
anggota orgamsasi itu, tidak kira wanita atau lelaki Salah satu caranya mlah
dengan membuka peluang bagi pekerja wanita yang berkelayakkan untuk
menyandang jawatan yang setimpal dengan usaha mereka. Dan itu,
pengurusan untuk produktiviti bukan sahaja menjalar dan atas ke bawah
tetapi dua hala Dengan adanya pergabungan usaha semasa anggota
orgamsasi itulah yang akan menentukan kejayaan dan produktiviti
sesebuah orgamsasi itu pada akhirnya
Dalam pada itu kaum wanita juga secara perseorangan mesti cuba
memngkatkan produktiviti mereka Di antara caranya lalah wanita
haruslah mengenah dan mempelajan untuk mengatasi 3 jems halangan
yang mereka hadapi itu. Halangan-halangan mi boleh dikategorikan
sebagai halangan-halangan psikologi, sosial, orgamsasi Secara nngkas
halangan psikologi mi mlah kurang mempercayai din sendin, atau
pandangan yang negatif terhadap din sendiri disebabkan oleh batasanbatasan yang dikenakan ke atas dinnya sebagai seorang wanita tradisional
Walhal halangan sosial pula mlah dan segi pandangan dan penekanan oleh
masyarakat tentang servis dan peranan wanita itu sendiri Dengan kata lain
seseorang wanita yang tampak telah melanggar batasan tatasusila yang
telah ditetapkan, akan mengalami lekanan sosial Sementara halangan dan
orgamsasi mlah dan segi pentadbiran personalia, suasana orgamsasi dan
perhubungan antara kawan dan teman sekerja Secara am, imlah bcntukbentuk halangan yang patut dimgati apabila hendak cuba mengatasi
cabaran di tempat kerja Dan itu wanita yang hendak maju dan mara ke
hadapan megtilah menghadapi cabaran mi, dan memlai secara reahstik akan
kos dan faedahnya Wanita itu juga patut menyedari bahawa mlai-mlai dan
sistem kepercayaan kita adalah bergantung pada sikap dan tmdakan kita
Wanita yang dapat mengubahsuai sikapnya dan menyesuaikan din dengan
strategi pengurusan yang tertentu adalah berdasarkan kepada mlai-nilai
dirinya. Keselesaan yang dialammya itu akan mencermmkan samada
strategi itu selaras atau tidak dengan kepercayaan yang dipegang olehnya
Seterusnya mengikut Stoll (Stoll, 1973), bahawa wanita sukan masa
kim adalah lebih gagah dan apa yang dihhat 30 tahun dahulu Im
menunjukkan bahawa 'kelemahan' seorang wanita adalah mengikut
pandangan tradisional masyarakat sahaja dan bukan disebabkan oleh
jantma mereka Dengan itu kaum wanita juga mampu menjalankan apaapa tugas yang dibenkan pada mereka, walaupun yang memerlukan
kekuatan fizikal
66
Kesimpulan
Dalam mengatasl halangan di tempat kerja bagi meninggikan
produktiviti wanita di bidang pengurusan haruslah punya penglibatan
kediia-dua pihak pengurusan dan kaum wanita. Sementara pihak
pengurusan pula harus mengambil pandangan yang positif terhadap
pekerja wanita. Wanita itu hendaklah dipandang sebagai individu
tersendiri dan bukan dari persepsi mereka yang diubahsuai oleh stereotaip
dan prejudis yang ada dalam masyarakat kita. Produktiviti dalam sesebuah
organisasi tidak akan wujud dengan sendirinya, lebih-lebih lagi produktiviti yang diharapkan dari kaum wanita yang menghadapi berbagaibagai cabaran dan halangan di tempat kerja yang akan terus berlarutan
selagi tindakan dan perubahan tidak dilaksanakan dalam menguruskan
pekerja wanita.
RUJUKAN
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the Pedhazur — Teten bum and Locksley — Colten Critiques. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1047 - 1054.
2. Bern, S.L. (1980) Beyond androgyny: Some presumptuous
preseribtions for a liberated sexhal identify. In J. Sherman and F.
Denmark (Eds.). The future of woman: Issues in psychology. New
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3. Goldberg, P. (1972). Are women prejudiced against women. In C.
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6. L.W. Porter and R.M. Steers, (1973) Organization, Work and
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67
9. Montagu, Ashley (1962). the humanization of Man. New York: Grove
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Jenis Pekerjaan
Peratus
Profesional dan teknikal
Pentadbiran dan Pengurusan
7.9
0.4
Perkeranian dan tugas berkaitan
11.0
Jualan dan tugas berkaitan
Perkhidmatan
Pertanian
Pengeluaran, pengangkutan dan lain-lain
8.7
11.7
39.0
21.4
68