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Ask students to discuss this Italian fresco by painter Lorenzo Lotto and
what it says about life in the Renaissance.
1. Given the marketplace setting, what does this tell us about daily life
during the Renaissance?
(Answers: It tells us that life wasn’t much different than it was in the
Middle Ages or in antiquity. People still sold food at the marketplace, and
the marketplace itself was a mix of people from different social classes
who came together to socialize, gossip, and discuss daily events.)
2. Give a brief description of the various social classes and the way they
are portrayed.
(Answers: There are wealthy merchants, soldiers, and commoners. Middleclass and poor women sell bread, household goods, fruit, and vegetables.
Men stand around discussing and arguing while a couple of boys play at
their feet.)
3. How can we tell this is a scene from the Renaissance and not from the
Middle Ages?
(Answers: The clothing is typical of the Renaissance era with billowing
folds and large feathered hats. The weapons held by the soldiers, such as
rapiers and halberds, were developed and used in the fourteenth through
sixteenth centuries.)
I. Wealth and Power in Renaissance Italy
(Economic growth, political power, and patronage laid the foundation for rebirth.
Renaissance: French word for “rebirth,” first used by art historian and critic Giorgio Vasari to
refer to the rebirth of the culture of classical antiquity. Patronage: Financial support of writers
and artists by cities, groups, and individuals, often to produce specific works or works in
specific styles.)
A. Trade and Prosperity
1. Improvements in Shipbuilding—Shipbuilding improvements allowed ships to sail yearround and carry more merchandise. As a result, Venice, Genoa, and Milan became extremely
wealthy by the middle of the twelfth century.
2. Rise of Florence—Florence was located on the Arno River and became a major commercial
and trading hub (grain, cloth, wool, weapons, armor, spices, glass, and wine). Florence also
became a major banking center where banking families controlled the city’s politics and
culture.
3. Prosperity—Wealth allowed for greater material pleasures and patronage of the arts.
B. Communes and Republics of Northern Italy
1. Communes—Sworn associations of free men in Italian cities led by merchant guilds that
sought political and economic independence from local nobles.
2. Social and Political Structures—The merger of the Italian feudal nobility and the
commercial elite led to the emergence of an oligarchy, a small group that ruled the city and
countryside, but the communes remained politically unstable. The common people (popolo),
disenfranchised and excluded from power, often used armed force to take over the city
governments. The merchant oligarchies, however, brought in military leaders (condottieri)
and mercenary armies to restore their power.
3. Signori—City governments in which one man ruled and handed down the right to rule to
his son. The signori also refers to the ruler who typically transformed his household into a
court and built magnificent palaces where he and other rulers lived and where all political business
was to be carried out. The signori also became major patrons of the arts.
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I. Wealth and Power in Renaissance Italy
C. City-States and the Balance of Power
1. Five Major Powers—Venice, Milan, Florence, the Papal States, and the kingdom
of Naples.
a. Venice—A republic, but one that was run by an oligarchy of merchants
and aristocrats.
b. Milan—A republic, but the condottieri-turned-signori of the Sforza family
ruled harshly.
c. Florence—A republic with authority vested in several councils of states.
The great banking family, the Medici, held power for centuries and
produced three popes selected for their political skills.
2. Competition and Diplomacy—City-states competed over territory and political
influence in other regions of Italy. When one state became too powerful, other
states would work to reestablish a balance of power. This led, ultimately, to the
invention of diplomacy (permanent embassies, ambassadors, etc.).
3. The French Invasion and Savonarola—The French king Charles VIII (r. 1483–
1498) invaded the Italian peninsula in 1494 to support Milan after Florence and
Naples had entered into an agreement to acquire Milanese territories. In Florence,
the invasion was interpreted as God’s punishment for moral vice and corrupt
leadership. A Dominican friar, Girolamo Savonarola (1452–1498), became the
leader of the city and imposed an ascetic order but was eventually
excommunicated, tortured, and burned. As a result of these invasions and political
intrigues, the Italian cities suffered from frightful warfare, and the peninsula was
not unified until 1870.
II. Intellectual Change
(The Renaissance was characterized by self-conscious awareness among educated Italians who believed they
were living in a new era.)
A. Humanism
1. Petrarch (1304–1374)—Petrarch was a poet and scholar obsessed with the classical Roman past who
labeled the previous 1,000-year period the “dark ages.” Around 1350, he proposed a new kind of education
called humanism that emphasized the critical study of Latin and Greek literature with the goal of studying
human nature.
2. Cicero and Plato—Roman author and statesman Cicero (106 B.C.E.–43 B.C.E.) with his language, literary
style, and political ideas and Greek philosopher Plato (427 B.C.E.–347 B.C.E.) with his emphasis on the
spiritual and eternal over the material became figures worthy of emulation to Italian humanists.
3. Virtù—Quality esteemed by Renaissance thinkers that does not mean virtue in the sense of moral goodness
but the ability to shape the world around them according to their will and achieve excellence.
4. Leon Battista Alberti (1404–1472)—Alberti was a “Renaissance man” who wrote about his manifold
achievements (he designed churches, wrote novels and plays, invented secret codes, wrote an autobiography,
etc.).
B. Education
1. Humanist Schools—Humanist schools were based on the belief that the study of the classics would provide
essential skills for future diplomats, lawyers, military leaders, businessmen, politicians, writers, and artists.
They taught Latin grammar, rhetoric, Roman history, Greek language, literature, and philosophy.
2. Education for Women—Most humanist schools were not open to women, as the woman’s sphere was
understood to be private and domestic. However, a few women did become educated in the classics.
3. Baldassare Castiglione’s The Courtier (1528)—A treatise on how to train a gentleman that emphasized
equal training of the spiritual, physical, and intellectual aspects of a man. Castiglione also discussed the
qualities of the perfect court lady.
II. Intellectual Change
C. Political Thought
1. Civic Humanism—Civic humanism was the belief that educated men should be active in the
political affairs of their city.
2. Niccolò Machiavelli (1469–1527)—Machiavelli was a civic humanist, political theorist, and
author of The Prince (1513), in which he argues that the function of a ruler is to preserve
order and security. To preserve the state, the ruler should use any means necessary and
should show no weakness.
3. Differences with Medieval Political Philosophy—The Prince is considered the first modern
guide to politics. Medieval philosophers argued that all governments were to be judged
according to moral principles established by God. Machiavelli argued that governments should
be judged instead by how well they provided security, order, and safety. He believed that
ideals needed to be measured in the cold light of the real world.
D. Christian Humanism
1. Beliefs—Northern humanists came from the Low Countries (France, Germany, England),
absorbed Italian learning, and carried it home. They became known as Christian humanists
and argued that the best elements of Christian and classical cultures should be combined,
interpreting Italian ideas about and attitudes toward classical antiquity and humanism in
terms of their own religious traditions (combine classical ideals of calmness, stoicism, and
broad-mindedness with Christian virtues of love, faith, and hope).
2. Thomas More (1478–1535)—English lawyer, humanist, and author of Utopia (1516) which
describes an island where a beneficent government has solved all human problems, where
order and reason prevail, and where dissent is not acceptable.
3. Desiderius Erasmus (1466?–1536)—Dutch humanist with a long list of publications,
including The Praise of Folly (1509) and a new Latin translation of the Greek New Testament
(1516). He believed that the core of education should be the study of the Bible and the
classics and that Christianity should be based on inner spirituality and personal morality,
rather than outward observances and scholastic theology, an idea he called “the philosophy of
Christ.”
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II. Intellectual Change
E. The Printed Word
1. The Printing Press—This invention was based on moveable metal type
(developed in Germany by Johannes Gutenberg in the 1440s) and
facilitated by the ready availability of paper (originating in China and
brought to Europe through Muslim Spain).
2. Expanded Market for Reading—This was made possible by increased
urban literacy, the development of primary schools, and the opening of
new universities in the fifteenth century. Millions of books were able to be
printed and distributed, more than those produced in all of Western history
up to that point.
3. Impact—Printed materials allowed individuals in many different regions
to join together and form a common identity. Governments and church
leaders printed laws, declarations of war, and propaganda but also
censored books and authors whose ideas challenged their authority. A
variety of books were sold (reference sets, historical romances,
biographies, how-to manuals, etc.). Print bridged the gap between written
and oral cultures as books were read aloud to illiterate listeners.
III. Art and the Artist
A. Patronage and Power
1. Patrons—Originally, patrons were largely corporate groups who flaunted
their wealth by commissioning works of art, but later tended to be
patrician merchants, bankers, popes, and rulers seeking to glorify
themselves and their families.
2. Artists—Famous Renaissance artists included architect Filippo
Brunelleschi (built the dome on the cathedral of Florence), Lorenzo
Ghiberti (designed the bronze doors on the adjacent Baptistry), and
Michelangelo (painted the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in Rome
commissioned by Pope Julius II).
3. Reasons for Patronage—Patterns of consumption were changing among
the wealthy elite in European society during this period. In the Middle
Ages, society had been organized for war, and men of wealth spent their
money on military gear. When the Italian nobles settled in towns, they
adjusted to urban culture, hiring mercenaries rather than knights. As a
result, they had more money to spend on patronage and patronage
became a mark of status.
III. Art and the Artist
B. Changing Artistic Styles
1. Themes—While religious topics remained popular in Renaissance art,
classical themes and motifs became more significant. The facial features of
the classical gods or of religious figures were often modeled on living
persons, including the patron and his family.
2. Human Ideals—Human ideals were more prominent in the Renaissance
as opposed to the spiritual ideals typical of medieval art. Realism (Giotto),
linear perspective (Andrea Mantegna), a revival of the classical figure
(Donatello), and the ideals of balance and harmony (Filippo Brunelleschi)
were all elements incorporated into Renaissance painting, sculpture, and
architecture. Northern European artists pioneered oil-based paints (Jan
van Eyck) and made advances in woodcuts, engravings, and etchings
(Albrecht Dürer).
3. Artistic Centers—Renaissance artistic centers included Flanders (where
the art was more religious in orientation), Florence, Rome (the popes
wanted visual representations of their power and wealth), and Venice.
4. Mannerism—Mannerism was a style pioneered by Titian (1490–1576)
and others in which artists used distorted figures, exaggerated
musculature, and heightened color to express drama and emotion more
intently.
III. Art and the Artist
C. The Renaissance Artist
1. Concept of Genius—Artists came to be acclaimed as “rare men of
genius” who had special talents. In the Middle Ages, people believed that
only God created art through the help of individuals. Renaissance artists
believed that a work of art was a deliberate creation of a unique
personality transcending rules and traditions. Michelangelo and Leonardo
da Vinci are examples of the Renaissance artist as genius.
2. Training—Although they could assert their own artistic styles, major
artists spent years copying paintings, learning how to prepare paint, and
reading books about design and composition. Eventually, informal groups
of artists turned into more formal artistic “academies.”
3. Women Artists—All of the major Renaissance artists were male. Women
were active in textiles, needlework, and porcelain which were regarded as
“minor” or “decorative” arts. A few women became well-known painters,
but they were not allowed to study certain subjects or techniques and
were prohibited from joining groups of males artists or the newly
established academies.
4. Limits of Renaissance Culture—As women were excluded from
institutions of Renaissance culture, so were most persons from humble
backgrounds. The Renaissance was the domain of a small learned male
elite, which stood in sharp contrast to the uneducated masses who
continued to live as they had in the Middle Ages.
Analyze this 1482 painting by Renaissance artist Botticelli called Primavera
(Spring) and discuss the role and significance of antiquity in Renaissance
art.
1. Describe the figures and the setting.
(Answers: The figure in the center is Venus, goddess of love. Above her is
her son Cupid, god of love, shooting his bow. On her right is Flora, the
goddess of flowers and fertility, and on the left are the Three Graces,
goddesses of banquets, dance, and social occasions. At the far right, the
wind god Zephyrus chases the nymph Chloris. The setting is an idyllic
grove of orange trees representing serenity and beauty.)
2. Venus resembles a prominent historical figure. Who is this figure, and
how is Venus similar to her?
(Answers: Although this is a mythological scene, the Venus resembles the
Virgin Mary. Her stance and gestures are very similar, and some historians
believe this was the artist Botticelli’s intention.)
3. How does Venus represent the ideal for female beauty during the
Renaissance?
(Answers: She is slender with pale skin, a high forehead, sloping
shoulders, and red-blond hair.)
IV. Social Hierarchies
A. Race and Slavery
1. Race—The concept of race during the Renaissance was used interchangeably with people and
nation (not the same use in the modern sense).
2. Slavery—There existed a long tradition of slavery beginning in the Roman Republic and in the
Christian and Muslim worlds (there were both white and black slaves).
3. Black Slaves—Beginning in the fifteenth century, black slaves entered Europe in sizable
numbers. The Portuguese imported black slaves from the west coast of Africa and by 1530, 4,000–
5,000 slaves were being sold annually to the Portuguese.
4. Black Servants and Laborers—Black servants were much sought after in northern Europe, Italy,
and England, were regarded as exotic, and were considered amusements at court. They also
worked as agricultural laborers, craftsmen, and seamen.
B. Wealth and the Nobility
1. Hierarchy of Wealth—A hierarchy based on wealth was beginning to emerge in the fifteenth
century, especially in cities. This group included wealthy merchants who lived in splendor and had
gained considerable political power. This hierarchy was more prone to fluctuating than the
hierarchy of orders, since fortunes could be gained and lost within a generation.
2. Hierarchy of Orders—The old status still persisted (even poorer nobility had a higher status than
wealthy commoners). English and Spanish merchants were eager to marry their daughters into
often-impoverished noble families.
3. Honor—Honor became a consideration for both the nobility (which favored certain weapons and
battle tactics because they were more honorable) and urban dwellers (where certain occupations
such as city executioner or brothel manager were well paid but dishonorable). Sumptuary laws
reflected both wealth and honor.
IV. Social Hierarchies
C. Gender Roles
1. “Debate about Women”—At the end of the fourteenth century, a debate
emerged among writers and thinkers in the Renaissance about women’s
qualities and proper role in society. There were misogynist critiques of
women (females were devious, domineering, and demanding) and praise
of women (as loyal, brace, and moral) put forward by individuals such as
Christine de Pizan.
2. Popular Interest in “the Debate”—Prints that juxtaposed female virtues
and vices were very popular and spread throughout Europe. Classical or
biblical women became exemplars of virtue, whereas women in
contemporary dress represented the vice-ridden woman.
3. Debates about Female Rulers—Arguments about female rulers emerged
particularly when women served as advisers to child kings or as monarchs
(typical concern: was social rank or gender more important?). There still
was a prevailing sentiment that women were unfit to rule.
4. Women’s Status—Women were to be subordinate to men according to
the prevalent hierarchical understanding of society, since disorder in
gender hierarchy meant social upheaval. Women were understood as
either “married or to be married,” and their incomes were half to twothirds those of men.
V. Politics and the State in Western Europe
A. France
1. Political Stabilization—Charles VII (r. 1422–1461) revived the monarchy and France following
the devastation of the Black Death and the Hundred Years’ War. He reconciled the Burgundians
and Armagnacs, expelled the English from all regions except Calais, and strengthened royal
finances through new taxes on salt and land.
2. First Permanent Royal Army—Charles established the first permanent royal army in Europe with
regular companies of cavalry and archers. His son Louis XI (r. 1461–1483), known as the “Spider
King,” used the army to control the nobles’ militias, to curb urban independence, and to conquer
Burgundy.
3. Key Marriages—The French monarchy was strengthened with the marriage of Louis XII (r. 1498–
1515) to Anne of Brittany, adding Brittany to the French state.
4. Religious Stability—The Concordat of Bologna (1516) between King Francis I and Pope Leo X
approved the pope’s right to receive the first year’s income of new bishops and abbots in
exchange for the French ruler’s right to select French bishops and abbots.
B. England
1. Disorder—The aristocracy indulged in violence at the local level during the reign of Henry IV (r.
1399–1413), and the houses of York and Lancaster waged a civil war called the Wars of the Roses
(1455–1471).
2. Stabilization—The Welsh house of Tudor worked to restore royal prestige, crush the power of
the nobility, and establish order and law at the local level by ruthless means. In foreign policy,
diplomacy was used rather than war, thereby removing the monarchy’s financial dependence on
Parliament.
3. Methods—King Henry VII (r. 1485–1509) chose small landowners and legally trained urban
residents as his closest advisers rather than members of the nobility. He used the Court of Star
Chamber to deal with aristocratic threats (torture, forewent the use of juries, secret sessions). At
his death, the country had become domestically and internationally stable, the treasury was
substantially augmented, trade was thriving, and the power of the monarchy was restored.
V. Politics and the State in Western Europe
C. Spain
1.Confederation—Despite the political marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of
Castile (r. 1474–1516), Spain existed as a loose confederation of separate kingdoms,
each with its own parliament, laws, courts, coinage, and taxation.
2. The Spanish Monarchy—Like the monarchs of France and England, Ferdinand and
Isabella curbed aristocratic power by excluding high nobles from the royal councils,
recruiting men trained in Roman law, and establishing the equivalent of a national
church. They expanded their territories in 1492 to include Granada and the remaining
Arab territory in southern Spain, marking the end of the reconquista.
3. Anti-Jewish Attitudes—Jews had long been granted rights and privileges in Spain, but
there was a strong undercurrent of resentment toward Jewish influence and wealth. In
the fourteenth century, anti-Semitic pogroms swept through the towns. Forty percent of
the Jewish population was either killed or forced to convert and become conversos or
New Christians (this term included both Jews and Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula who
accepted Christianity; in many cases they included Christians whose families had
converted centuries earlier).
4. The Inquisition—The Inquisition of the late fifteenth century stemmed from the
resentment at the success of the conversos. Inquisitors looked for signs of conversos
who hadn’t completely converted (refusing to eat pork) and began to argue that “blood”
was more important than religious status, meaning Jews could never be true Christians.
5. Expulsion (1492)—All practicing Jews were expelled from Spain, and many Muslims in
Granada were forcibly baptized. The Iberian Peninsula became politically united for the
first time in 1580.
Ask students to discuss this painting of tax collectors and how they
were perceived during the Renaissance.
1. What did the tax collectors have to help them do their job? How
is this different from tax collection today?
(Answers: Tax collectors had to keep records in a book; they
collected the taxes themselves and older records can be seen stored
on shelves behind them. Today, taxes are often collected
automatically in every paycheck or added on to goods when
purchased. Records are kept on computers, and tax collectors are
state employees.)
2. For whom did tax collectors work?
(Answer: Tax collectors often did not work for a king, but were
independent contractors who made their living by taking a
percentage of what they collected.)
3. What is the overall tone of this image?
(Answers: Tax collectors are viewed as being greedy, having no real
authority, and only caring about money.)