DTC375
Computer
Technology
in History
and Society
Jessica Smith
Chapter 1
Paul Ceruzzi
Computing: A Concise
History
Introduction,Chapter 1, Chapter 2
In Ceruzzi’s introduction of his book Computing: A Concise
military use during the early 1940s, used vacuum tubes to create
History, the history of early computer technologies is explained as
a new machine similar to his differential analyzer, the ENIAC (39).
running along four threads; the digital paradigm, convergence,
The ENIAC used tubes for both storage and calculation, and so
solid-state electronics, and the human-machine interface. These
was able to solve calculations at electronic speeds. Despite
four threads describe the different facets of computing history,
emphasizing the ENIAC’s continuation with existing technology, it
with the digital paradigm presenting the idea of coding in binary,
still showed the advantage of using electronics to speed up
convergence describing the combination of different
computing processes (46-48).
technologies to create more advanced devices, solid-state
electronics embodying the idea of advancement of electronics
technology over time, including the idea that history is driven by
Movie 1.1 The ENIAC: Electronic Numerical Integrator And
Computer
technological advances, and the human-machine interface
being the way people interact with devices, commonly known as
the user interface (x-xvi).
Continuing into the first and second chapters of Ceruzzi’s
book, the four threads of computing history are followed as
Ceruzzi introduces U.S. government influence as the major drive
for developing and improving computing technologies. The first of
such instances of government influence that Ceruzzi brings up
occurs in the early 1940s when the U.S. military’s need of devices
for anti-aircraft guns and decoding German messages during
World War II influenced create. Faster speeds were needed in
order to run the calculations for such tasks efficiently, so the
transition from mechanical parts to vacuum tubes was made,
allowing calculations and computing to reach much higher
speeds (1-2). Vannevar Bush, the creator of the differential
A YouTube video posted by user JOEL DONAHUE explaining the ENIAC, the
first electronic computer
analyzer which computed firing tables for the aiming of guns for
2
With the ENIAC came the term coined by the ENIAC team
“to program”, which, even though the ENIAC is not considered a
true “computer,” it did help open interests programming. Ceruzzi
ends his second chapter with an emphasis on the concept of
programming and the purpose of solving mathematical equations
which founded the creation of the computer (48).
3
Chapter 2
Stephen Kline
“What is Technology”
Focusing on the union of man and machine, J.C.R.
ability for computers to interact with people as people do with
Licklider’s article “Man-Computer Symbiosis” elaborates on the
one another, is necessary in order to achieve the closest coupling
interaction between people and computers, where the two parties
of man and computer that the aim of the man-computer
form a tight partnership and rely on one another to perform
symbiosis desires.
processes. In his article, the aims of a man-computer symbiosis
are for computers to solve formulated problems and for people
and machines to work alongside each other in the complexity of
making decisions and controlling situations (4).
However, having said that, there are complications with
these aims. The issue with the first aim is brought up by Licklider
when he mentions that, even though problems can be solved by
computers, they rely on the preformulation or predetermination
of these problems, meaning the user has to think through and
understand the problem in order to program it for the computer.
With this, he continues to state that “if the user can think his
problem through in advance, symbiotic association with a
computing machine is not necessary” (5)
The issue of the second aim is clarified when Licklider
explains that computers need to be able to process in “real time,”
meaning much faster processing speeds than were available at
his time . Along with processing speed, and still ahead of his
time, Licklider includes that computers’ memory storage and
organization and communications, including that through displays
and controls, need to be improved as well (6). Licklider leaves the
notion that these needed improvements, along with the a general
Image of interactive subway maps from Megan Dickey’s article “New York City
Subways Are Getting A New Touchscreen Network” on Business Insider
Though many of the advancements that Licklider called for
in his aims for man-computer symbiosis were far ahead of his
time, he was able to see past the incapability of his time to the
possibilities for man-machine interaction in the future. Though not
all of his visions have been fully realized, we see today that vast
5
improvements in both of his aims for the man-computer
symbiosis have been made.
6
Chapter 3
Paul Ceruzzi
Computing: A Concise
History
Chapter 5
In chapter five of “Computing: A Concise History”, Paul
that was inexpensive and small and consumed little power” (102).
Ceruzzi covers the microprocessor. In this chapter, Ceruzzi
Good performance was provided to the 4004 by storing its
explains how the microprocessor influenced the creation of
instructions in read-only-memory (ROM) or random-access-
personal computers by providing computing companies in the
memory (RAM) (103).
1970s the means to make improved systems that could downsize
industrial computers for personal use. Ceruzzi marks the
important components that allowed the creation of the personal
computer as the advancement of the integrated circuit (IC),
invention of the microprocessor, and changes of stripping and
storing memory.
The computer engineers of the 1970s wanted to design a
Ceruzzi describes the advancement of the “computer from a
room-sized ensemble of machinery to a handheld personal
device” as the result of both technological determinism and the
counterculture’s vision for personal computers from the 1960s
(111-112). Computer enthusiasts, specifically those of computer
companies, created competing microprocessor-based systems.
Of these companies, two stood out and continue to be top
smaller computer that was more practical for personal use, but
competitors today;
Ceruzzi introduces two objections that needed to be addressed
Apple and Microsoft.
before the personal computer could successfully be created.
Though Apple stood
These two objections were the commonality problem and the
out over others in the
architecture of the computer. The IC addressed the architecture
1970s, major
problem by downgrading performance, making systems cheaper,
innovations were also
smaller, more reliable, and more energy efficient; however, the
coming out from the
invention of the microprocessor specifically addressed both of
Xerox Palo Alto
these problems (100-101).
Research Center
Created by Intel, the microprocessor was introduced in
Intel’s 4004 chip in 1971. Intel’s 4004 chip addressed the
commonality objection by “introducing input-output and memory
chips, which allowed customers to customize the 4004’s
functions…” and the architecture objection by “offering a system
(PARC). Due to hiring
From “Macintosh - 1984” on Old Computers
scientists who had previously received funding from ARPA, Xerox
PARC contributed the Windows metaphor, the local area network
(LAN), the laser printer, and integrated graphics and text on
screen, all of which play crucial roles in the digital world
(117-118). The computer interface today, using icons selected
8
with a mouse, came from Xerox PARC. The graphical user
allowed customization. Through the microprocessor, computer
interface were brought together in Xerox PARC’s system, the Alto,
companies were able to implement the personal computer
in 1983. Though their products were unsuccessful, Steve Jobs
concept, bringing the digital innovations of Xerox PARC into
made an agreement with Xerox PARC, bringing the graphical
successful systems that became the founders of present-day
interface to the Apple Macintosh in 1984 (118).
computers.
Movie 3.1 1984 Apple’s Macintosh Commercial
Video posted by Mac History on YouTube of the Macintosh 1984 commercial
Though such a small component, the microprocessor
opened up several avenues of improvement for computer
systems. The efficiency and compactness that systems could
now be framed around allowed the computer to be brought to a
personal level, and the input-output and memory capabilities
9
Chapter 4
Bruno Latour
“On Using ANT for
Studying Information
Systems”
In Bruno Latour’s chapter “On Using ANT for Studying
are of their own doing, “passive intermediaries” that receive
Information Systems: A (somewhat) Socratic Dialogue” for Actor
their actions from other agents are not considered actors and
Network Theory (ANT), Latour creates a scene of a conversation
should not be included in the description. Since the actions of
between a teacher and their student, wherein the student begins
actors are uniquely their own, actors are irreplaceable.
a conversation on ANT. Through this conversation, the teacher
describes ANT to the student as a method of looking at
information, often using statements that describe what ANT is
not.
Taking both the actors and the networks they reside in,
Latour then provides some insight on how one would use ANT to
produce descriptions. Accord to Latour’s “teacher” in his reading,
all actions and relationships in a network should be described
Movie 4.1 Actor-Network Theory in Plain English
From a class artblog on Actor Network Theory
Looking at scenarios using ANT, Latour seems to describe
that there are two different factors; actors that preform actions
and networks within which these actors have specifics
relationships with one another. In ANT, each actor’s action is
A YouTube video submitted by user delukie that helps explain ANT
unique. As Latour describes, actors are only actors if their actions
11
accurately and objectively, as to not add any fluff that takes away
from the actions themselves or tries to interpret the actions
according to a specific context.
Altogether, ANT is a method of looking at information within
networks; however, the way in which Latour goes about
conveying exactly what ANT is, by using this conversation
scenario, comes across as slightly confusing and requires some
guesswork to patch together concepts that the “teacher” tries to
convey.
12
Chapter 5
Walter Ong
“Writing Restructures
Consciousness”
In the readings of chapter “Writing Restructures
context in which spoken words come into being” because they
Consciousness” of Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the
have been taken out of the present and put into a realm of their
Word by Walter Ong, views of oral communication and the written
own, to be read at any time, as if separated from the world which
word are compared and addressed. We see that, over time, what
they strive to apply to (100).
was once a world focused on verbal communication and
mistrusting of the written word has come to value writing as an
essential, necessary skill. This chapter encompasses the idea that
writing has become so valuable through time because it
preserves, restructures, and improves conscious thought.
Ong first addresses writing as ‘autonomous’ discourse,
Along with his rejection of texts as a credible source, Plato
also held anti-writing views because he felt that writing what one
thought “destroys memory” and overall weakens the mind, similar
to current anti-computer attitudes (78-79). This weakening of the
mind through writing is compared to pressing flowers to death
between book pages, though Ong challenges with the idea that
meaning writing “cannot be directly questioned or contested”
written text’s “removal from the living world” and “rigid visual
because “written discourse has been detached from its
fixity” helps preserve conscious thought for others to resurrect
author” (77). This is elaborated on throughout the chapter, and in
through reading later on (80). Ong recognizes that, although
part through objections by Plato, one of them being that he felt
writing is an unnatural, artificial, the opposite of oral speech,
“witnesses were prima
humans are intelligent beings that work well with artificial
facie more credible than
technologies, and if our ability
texts because they could
to write helps us collect our
be challenged and made
conscious thoughts and
to defend their
organize and preserve them
statements, whereas
for others, we should take
texts could not” (95).
advantage of that ability
Plato’s objection to
(81-82). Thankfully, despite
writing in this statement
negative views of writing in
is supported by the idea
earlier times, the physicality of
that “written words are
early writing encouraged
isolated from the fuller
scribal culture to continue,
Artwork of Plato from “Dialogues of Plato” on Internet
Sacred Text Archive
Image of scribes from “Scribes in Ancient
Greece” on Fine Art America
14
which was a heavy influence in the society of ancient Greece and
Rome (93).
Though Plato, and others with his views, distrusted writing,
writing is now, and has been for a centuries, a major form of
communication that helps articulate and deliver a clear, concise
version of conscious thought. Though written words have been
separated from their author, they preserve the author’s ideas and
allows them to be passed on for others to contemplate and
integrate into their own conscious thought.
15
Chapter 6
Steven Fischer
A History of Writing
Chapter 1
In the first chapter “From Notches to Tables” of A History of
Writing by Steven Fisher, the development of writing is
addressed. As Fischer moves through different forms of writing
through history, he specifically compares those writing practices
to the standards of ‘complete writing’ to see which qualifications
they meet.
While early writing often used pictography and logography
From “The Ishango Bone” on The Living Moon
in the form of graphic symbols and mnemonics, eventually
combining to become graphic mnemonics, it never met all three
These slash marks, made on durable surfaces, were graphic
of the criteria for complete writing, but usually met at least one of
marks that most likely recorded human perception; they were
them (12,14). Fischer explains different forms of such early writing
information storage (16-17). However, though this writing system
to compare how meet or fail to meet these criteria. One writing
used graphical marks on a durable surface and meant to
system, knot records, such as the quipu of the ancient Peruvian
communicate, the notch writing system lacked relation to
From “Quipu” on Ancient Scripts
Incas, used a series of
articulate speech (17). The last writing system Fischer addresses
knots, sometimes color-
is the clay tablet, which used
coded, in a string
graphic art to convey complex
hierarchy (14). The knot
ideas, though failing to meet
record system were
the requirements of complete
mainly memory prompts,
writing because it did not
and although their
relate to articulate speech (19).
purpose was
Even though the graphic tablet
communication, they were not artificial graphic marks on durable
was not complete writing, it
surfaces nor did they relate to articulate speech. Going back even
met the demand of its users
further than ancient Peru, the use of notches, such as on the
through “elaborate and
Ishango bone, as a writing system for “idea transmission” was
systematized mnemonics” which eventually extended to
took place possibly before cave art (16).
systemic phoneticism. With phonetics, which Fischer thought of
From “Writing” on Britannica
17
as an extension of the tablet’s mnemonics adequacy, sound
assumed priority and incomplete writing became complete
writing (30-31).
Through these writing systems, and the eventual extensions
to systemic phoneticism, Fischer shows how incomplete writing
became complete writing overtime through various writing
systems.
18
Chapter 7
Patricia Crain
“Reading Childlishy: A
Codicology of the
Modern Self”
In the Patricia Crain’s chapter “Reading Childlishly: A
personal for these children, becoming an integral part of their
Codicology of the Modern Self” of Comparative Textual Media:
childhood, and children would often show their love and
Transforming the Humanities in the Postprint Era, the book is
appreciation for their books by writing ownership verses on the
officially introduced into the lives of children in England during the
book’s boundaries, adding to the personal aspect (160-161). The
Victorian era. Crain shows how the book became an integral part
generations of children who grew up with such books view books
of a child’s by providing them with values and a sense of self.
as helping children “become ‘personal,’ ‘connected and
Children’s books were
introduced with the intent of
instilling values and views in
the children who read them.
Victorian England children’s
books had been introduced
during the industrial revolution,
which is seen, along with other
values, in some of the
messages exchanged through
these books. Such attempts at
this in books are shown
through stories like the
Victorian children’s book from bl.uk
modernized Jack and the Bean-
Stalk where Jack is sent to a world of books where he learns the
value of books and about the labor system and capitalism, which
emotional’” (169). These children, later becoming parents, then
impose their views of books onto their children, fearing that digital
texts cannot provide the “concept of childhood” as is “stored and
preserved for us in the codex form” (169,174). In this we see that
books, having been used as influencers of values, beliefs, and
politics by one
generation, are
favored in that
same mode by
that generation
over the new
modes used by
future generations,
fearing that the
new mode lacks
what the last had.
Image of a young girl reading a book in “Modern Life
Means Children Miss Out on Pleasures of Reading a Good
Book” from The Guardian
is understandable since this was during the industrial revolution
(156-157). Books made a transition to commodities and gifts,
and the instilled passion in parents for the values of physical
becoming the personal property of generations of children, who
books and the need for books in childhood development, we see
learned their values from these books. These books became very
how the physical form of books and their interactions with
Through books like the modernized Jack and the Bean-Stalk
20
children evolved into the perception that owning, reading, and
learning from a physical book provides a crucial sense of self for
children.
21
Chapter 8
William Johnson
“The Bookroll as Media”
continua of the
Greeks’ text,
along with the
lack of
punctuation, were
copied by the
Romans. Although
this seems like an
Example of scriptio continua from “The History of Paratextual Organization” on Purple Motes
obvious mistake to modern people, Rome adopt Greek-like text
and the “look and feel” bookroll because Greece was seen as its
cultural model (106-107). Reading and understanding a bookroll
From Nathan Andoval’s wordpress post “Literacy in Historical (and
Biblical) Context: Goody and Watt”
between different
literary styles, and as
In William Johnson’s chapter “The Bookroll as Media” of
Comparative Textual Media: Transforming the Humanities of the
Postprint Era, Johnson elaborates on the scroll, or bookroll, of
ancient Greece and Rome. In these societies, the difficulty of the
bookroll and the reading communities they create is elaborated
on and reveal a sense exclusivity that played a major role in social
hierarchy and the general society of ancient Greece and Rome.
required reader to be able to comprehend and distinguish
Looking at the ancient Greece and Rome era, Johnson
such needed
education to do so. In
ancient Greece and
Rome, such a higher
education would only
have been available to
the “elite” of the era,
and would have been
inaccessible by others
Artwork of women reading a scroll from Fine Art
America
establishes the difficulty of reading a bookroll, as well as the odd
of lower status (108-109). Since the elite were the only group able
occurrence that Rome absorbed the bookroll after conquering the
to comprehend bookrolls, and these texts were typically the
Greeks, despite the bookroll’s disadvantages. The scriptio
center of interaction among educated social groups, creating
23
reading communities of elites (120). Reading was a sort of
lifestyle for the elite, where leisure hours were spent reading, or
listening to a reading through a lector (111). As the elite were the
main audience of texts, they acted as “cultural gatekeepers” by
“asserting control over literature and language” and therefore
fashioned society as they saw fit. In this, the bookroll links to
“matters like politics, ideology, status, and power” (120). Through
these examples, it is understandable why the contributor of the
chapter, William Johnson, describes the bookroll as an “elite
product, designed to signal a high-status, educated, cultured”
person (108). The bookroll, adopted by the Romans for its cultural
reference to Greece, gave meaning and power to the people who
had the ability to comprehend it in ancient Greece and Rome.
As Johnson explains the difficulty of the bookroll, the
exclusiveness of its usability lead to the only people able to
comprehend bookrolls being the people higher on the social
hierarchy, meaning these elites were able to use bookrolls and
power to influence society. As this was the case, the bookroll
came to signify a powerful individual associated with education,
wealth, and distinguished culture.
24
Chapter 9
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27
Actor Network Theory (ANT
An approach to social theory and research that treats objects as part of a social network
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Actors
Entities in a network that perform unique actions and are irreplaceable by another actor
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Apple Macintosh
Apple’s 1984 MAC was a groundbreaking computer system that implemented the graphical
interface innovations of Xerox PARC’s unsuccessful Alto system
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Architecture of the computer
The functionality, organization, and implementation of computer systems
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Autonomous
Acting independently or having freedom to do so
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Chapter 5 - Ong - Writing Rescrutures Consciousness
Bookroll
A roll of papyrus, or several pieces combined end-to-end, that was read horizontally with
columns of text moving from left to right
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Codex
Text on sheets of paper, or similar, bound together in a book form
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Chapter 7 - Crain - Reading Childlishy
Commonality problem
The tendency for the functions of a chip to become more specialized as the density of the
chip increases
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Chapter 3 - Ceruzzi - Chapter 5
Complete writing
Writing system that meets three criteria; (1) purpose is communication, (2) consists of
artificial graphic marks on a durable or electronic surface, (3) uses marks that relate
conventionally to articulate speech or electronic programming in such a way that
communication is achieved.
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Chapter 6 - Fischer - A History of Writing Chapter 1
Conscious thought
Being aware of and responding to one’s own ideas or opinions
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Convergence
The combining of techniques, devices, and machines
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Chapter 1 - Computing: A Concise History
Cultural gatekeepers
People near the top of social hierarchy that had power to influence the culture of their
society
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Chapter 8 - Johnson - Bookroll
Digital paradigm
Coding information, computation, and control in using a system of ones and zeros (binary)
to control machinery, provide instructions to devices, and transmit information
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Chapter 1 - Computing: A Concise History
Discourse
Written or spoken communication or debate
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ENIAC
Calculating machine to produce firing tables during World War II
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Human-machine interface
The interaction between humans and digital devices, also known as the user interface (UI)
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Lector
A slave or freedman trained from boyhood to read text
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Logography
Form of writing using graphic symbols that are spoken aloud
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Microprocessor
Component of the integrated circuit (IC)
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Chapter 3 - Ceruzzi - Chapter 5
Mnemonics
Systems for improving and assisting memory
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Networks
A system of translations between actors
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Chapter 4 - Latour - On Using ANT for Studying Information Systems
Ownership verses
Formulaic poems relating to the book and/or the book’s owner
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Chapter 7 - Crain - Reading Childlishy
Passive intermediaries
Entities that take orders passed down to them, performing no action of their own and so
making no difference, which should be ignored
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Pictography
Form of writing using representational, pictorial drawings
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Predetermination
Determining an event in advance
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Chapter 2 - Kline - What is Technology
Preformulation
Devising a formula in advance
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Chapter 2 - Kline - What is Technology
Prima facie
Accepted as correct until proved otherwise
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Chapter 5 - Ong - Writing Rescrutures Consciousness
Reading communities
Communities of people high in the social hierarchy that would interact over text
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Chapter 8 - Johnson - Bookroll
Scribal culture
Writings by a group of people called scribes who wrote as a profession
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Chapter 5 - Ong - Writing Rescrutures Consciousness
Scriptio continua
The uninterrupted flow of letters
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Chapter 8 - Johnson - Bookroll
Solid-state electronics
The circuits or devices built entries from solid materials and in which electronics are
confined within the materials, examples of which include transistors, microprocessor chips,
and RAM
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Chapter 1 - Computing: A Concise History
Symbiosis
A mutually beneficial relationship between two different organisms living in close physical
association
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Chapter 2 - Kline - What is Technology
Systemic phoneticism
Systematically coordinating sounds and symbols to create sings of a writing system
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Chapter 6 - Fischer - A History of Writing Chapter 1
Technological determinism
Reductionist theory that presumes technology drives the development of a society’s social
structure and cultural values
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Chapter 3 - Ceruzzi - Chapter 5