''A-bit-better-than-the-jungle- morality,'' 58 Absolute gains, risk
advertisement
Index ‘‘A-bit-better-than-the-junglemorality,’’ 58 Absolute gains, risk aversion and, 65 Acción Ecológica, 164–165 Acemoglu, Daron, 90, 116, 120, 193– 194, 235 Action Aid, 165, 305 n109 Activist networks, in international environmental relations, 5 Actor preferences, 7, 31 ‘‘Acts of God,’’ 106, 110 Adaptation aid as palliative, 227 funding and aid, 23, 44, 66, 97, 212, 217, 301 n50 Kyoto fund, 185 programs of action (NAPAs), 18 Additionality principle, 300 n32 Adger, Neil, 94, 113–114 Advertising and sales economies, 177 ‘‘Affected by disasters.’’ See People ‘‘affected by disasters,’’ numbers of Afghanistan, 141, 146, 148, 301 n43 Africa. See also specific nations droughts, 72 GNP per capita, 264 n132 high-risk coastlines, 119 monocultures in, 118–119 Africa Group of Nations, 145 Agarwal, Anil, 18, 284 n36 Agency vs. structure, in international relations, 7 Agendas, lack of, 18 Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights. See TRIPS (Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights) Agricultural exports, 171, 234–235 Agricultural practices history of, 118–119 Honduras, 84 subsistence agriculture, 94 as weakening soil, 118 Agricultural subsidies, 217 Agricultural Workers and Marginal Farmers Union, 133 Air quality, 118, 303 n70 Air temperatures, 83 Air travel, 290 n132 Albania, 80, 148 Albin, Cecilia, 142, 271 n200 Albright, Madeline, 4 Aldy, Joseph E., 290 n121 Alexander, D. E., 110 Algeria, 148 Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS). See also Island states; names of specific nations need for early climate action and, 59 problem-solving rhetoric and, 17 American Samoa, 79, 148 Amsden, Alice H., 266 n145 Angola, 148 Annex I countries, 140, 141. See also Non-Annex I emissions Ansari, Ziuk Rahman, 223 366 Index Anthropocene era, 71 Antigua, 79, 80, 148 AOSIS (Alliance of Small Island States), 17, 59. See also Island states; names of specific nations Arden-Clarke, C., 287 n82 Argentina climate-related fatalities, homeless and affected populations, 78 per capita emissions rates, 148 as supporting per capita approach to emissions, 241 Washington Consensus and, 265 n135 Armenia, 148, 171 Arrighi, G., 175 Asian countries. See also names of specific nations financial crisis, 39–40 results of Washington Consensus, 50–51 Aslam, Malik Amin, 140 Athanasiou, Tom, 231 Australia climate-related fatalities, homeless, and affected populations, 74–75, 76, 78 emissions rates in, 141 opposition to Kyoto, 60 Tuvalu’s petition to, 95 Austria, 149, 273 n8 Authoritarianism, 112, 114, 234 Automobile industries, 236 Average income (Gini coefficient), 114, 126, 245 Axelrod, Robert, 60 Azerbaijan, 148 Baer, Paul, 231 Bahamas, 148 Baker, James, 50 Bangladesh climate-related fatalities, homeless and affected populations, 73–76, 77, 79, 80 deforestation and overgrazing, 118 flooding, 72 high-risk coastlines, 119 per capita emissions rates, 141, 146, 148 Typhoon Brendan, 72, 96 Barbados, 79, 80, 148 Barbuda, 148 Bardhan, P., 262 n88 Bargaining costs, 64–65 Bargaining power in international environmental relations, 5 negotiation structures and, 16–17 in noncooperation, 48 as not leading to workable solutions, 181 of poor and developing nations, 152, 229 Barkham, Patrick, 92, 277 n100 Barrett, Scott, 65, 219, 220 Bartsch, U., 151 Baseline years for reductions, 138, 139 Batista, Paulo Noguerira, 37 Baumert, Kevin A., 143, 176, 269 n179 Behavior critical elements in treaty ratification, 187, 207–210 gaps in study of, 295 n49 modeling treaty ratification behavior, 197–200 negotiation and ratification behavior theories, 188–191, 194–197 trust and reciprocity, 42, 57–58 Belarus, 148 Belgium, 228 Beliefs. See also Worldviews causal beliefs, 6, 29–30, 32, 34, 62 ex ante evaluations of, 43–44 principled beliefs, 6, 59, 195–196, 197, 271 n200 shared beliefs, 222 types of, 34 Belize, 79, 148 Benedick, Richard, 57 Benin, 79, 148 Bentham’s utilitarian theory of justice, 143 Berlin Mandate, 3 Bermuda, 149 Index Besley, Timothy, 303 n68 Bhopal, India, 241 Bhutan, 148 Biermann, Frank, 221 Bigio, Anthony, 94 Bilateral investment treaty template (BIT), 266 n145 Bilateral reprisals, 13, 266 n146 Bilateral trade and investment agreements restrictive, 13, 50, 230 results of, 14 Biodiversity loss of, 109 measurements of, 118 negotiations over, 47 Biophysical conceptualizations of risk, 106 Birdsall, Nancy, 13, 238, 302 n59 Blaikie, Piers, 68 Blair, Tony, 9 Blame. See Responsibility for climate change Blanchard, O., 282 n17, 285 n55, 286 n64 Bloody Taylorism, 170 Bohle, H. G., 105 Bolin, Bert, 303 n79 Bolivia, 149, 265 n135 Bonn COP-6 meeting. See COP-6 Boreal climates. See Cold climate nations Bosnia-Herzegovinia, 148 Botswana delegating trade policies, 236 flooding, 87 flouting of Washington Consensus, 51 per capita emissions rates, 148 population affected by climate disasters, 80 textile exports, 250 Brain-drain phenomena, 256 n89 Braudel, Fernand, 192 Brazil on backsliding of US in emissions, 225 bargaining power of, 152 367 climate-related homelessness, 77 drug pricing and, 240 exports, 166–167 import carbon load, 177 Kyoto exemptions and, 11 natural capital of, 200 per capita emissions rates, 141, 149 populations affected by climate disasters, 78 support for historical responsibility approach, 139, 146 total emissions rates, 141 Washington Consensus and, 265 n135 Bretton Woods regime, 48–49, 263 n96 Bribery or corruption, 89, 112, 117, 234 Britain. See United Kingdom British Virgin Islands, 148 Brown, Gordon, 241, 305 n110 Brown, Janet, 37, 38 ‘‘Brown’’ aid and investments, 217, 232 ‘‘Brown’’ environmental issues (local issues), 6, 31 Brundtland Commission, 223 Buenos Aires. See COP-10 Bulgaria, 148 Bunker, Stephen, 166–167, 287 n97 Burden-sharing agreements, 283 n17 Burgess, Robin, 303 n68 Burkina Faso, 148 Burundi, 146, 148 Busch, M. L., 54 Bush, George H. W., 3, 46–47 Bush, George W. GEF funding and, 227–228 support for carbon intensity approach, 142 withdrawal from Kyoto, 4, 142–143 Byrd-Hagel Resolution, 3, 4 Callaghy, Thomas, 302 n59 Caloric intake, 32 Cambodia, 146, 148 Camdessus, Michel, 268 n163 Cameroon, 148 Canada, 44, 141, 212, 228 368 Index Cancun WTO Ministerial Conference, 2003, 17, 265 n144 Cape Verde, 148 Capital markets, 39, 51, 56 Caps on development, 143 on emissions, 218, 283 n31 Carbon debt, 139. See also Ecological Debt. Carbon Dioxide Information and Analysis Center (CDIAC), 284 n42 Carbon emissions. See Emissions Carbon intensity correlation with emissions, 158 emissions per unit of GDP, 154, 155 factors in, 159–160 improvements in, 183 paths of development and, 173–180 poor nations and, 283 n32 sectoral analysis and, 170 statistical variables in, 243 wealth and, 163 Carbon intensity approach to responsibility designating responsibility, 138, 142– 144 hybrid solutions, 151 Carbon leakage, 176 Carbon permits and trading in contraction and convergence, 284 n36 emissions entrepreneurs, 60 marginal effects of, 24 mechanisms, 145, 238 negotiation structures, 16 per capita approach to emissions and, 139, 145 Cardoso, Carlos, 276 n65 Cardoso, Fernando Henrique, 259 n36 Cartagena Protocol, 294 n37 Catastrophes. See Climate-related disasters; Disasters Causal beliefs absence of shared understanding and, 29 based on observation, 29–30 climate injustice and, 6 defined, 34 inequality and, 32 in poor and developing nations, 62 Cayman, 149 CDC (United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development), 17 CDIAC (Carbon Dioxide Information and Analysis Center), 284 n42 Center for International Climate and Environmental Research, 152 Center for Sustainable Development of the Americas, 255 n71 Central African Republic, 148 Central America. See also specific nations carbon trading, 270 n184 deforestation, 278 n15 disasters in last century, 106 Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED) killed and homeless definitions, 273 n9 obtaining disaster-related data, 69 proxy data use, 273 n7 underreported data, 127 Venezuelan fatalities calculations, 73 Centre for Science and the Environment, 165, 284 n36, 305 n109 Chad climate-related fatalities, homeless, and affected populations, 74, 77, 79 drought, 72 per capita emissions rates, 146, 148 Chang, H. J., 267 n153, 302 n58 Change, 239–242 Chase-Dunn, Christopher, 192 Chasek, Pamela, 16 Chicago heat waves, 99 Chile economic development, 288 n100 exports and losses, 168 per capita emissions rates, 148 support for per capita approach, 241 China average pollution per capita, 4 Index bargaining power of, 152 climate-related fatalities, homeless and affected populations, 73–76, 77, 78, 80 dollar standard and, 55 emissions rates, 140–141 flooding, 72, 96 high-risk coastlines, 119 impact of offshoring, 183 income categorization, 171 Kyoto exemptions and, 11, 59 manufacturing efficiency, 290 n121 marginalization at COP-6, 17, 47 in ozone negotiations, 46 per capita emissions rates, 146, 148 per capita GDP, 171 reducing emissions in, 11 support for ecological debt perspective, 165 support for per capita approach to emissions, 139, 144–146, 284 n36 Washington Consensus and, 51, 265 n135 world income data, 254 n57 Cholera, 86 Christian Aid, 165, 305 n109 Christie, Frances, 91, 92 Cicero, 41 Cities. See Urbanization Civil society correlation with suffering, 123, 126– 127, 128 correlation with treaty ratification, 198–199, 201, 202, 205, 206, 208, 209 measuring, 121–123 Clark, William C., 105 ‘‘Classquakes,’’ 106 Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), 145, 175, 238, 298 n3 Cleaning up greenhouse gases. See Mitigation of climate change Climate change climate-related disasters, 9 costs of stabilizing, 9–14, 36–37, 219 369 extreme weather and, 274 n13 financial and representational issues in, 47 impasse in negotiations, 218–222 policy changes needed, 180–189 as rooted in injustice and inequality, 97, 216 as ‘‘ruse,’’ 36 urgency of, 9, 218 Climate Change Knowledge Network, 255 n71 Climate funds, 44 Climate injustice approaches to, 150 behavior of states and, 6 carbon intensity and, 143 compensatory justice, 46–47, 196, 219, 221, 222 COP-8 protests and, 133 emissions and, 138, 150 grandfathering and, 140–142 hybrid justice, 150–153, 220 ‘‘insider-outsider’’ networks and, 241 measuring, 154 North-South politics and, 3, 6 particularistic notions of justice, 213– 214, 220–221 ‘‘problem structure’’ of climate change and, 7 rich nations’ views of, 4–5 solutions for, 24 Southern nations’ view of, 2, 4–5, 6, 38, 46, 133, 231 types of justice, 140–141 unequal costs of climate change, 9– 14 universal norms of justice, 221 worldviews and, 29 Climate of mistrust. See Trust issues Climate-related disasters defined, 68–72 effects on nations, 71–81 as force of change, 241–242 Hurricane Katrina, 98–101 Hurricane Mitch in Honduras, 83– 87 370 Index Climate-related disasters (cont.) modeling vulnerability to, 109–110 Mozambique cyclones, 87–92 past research and conceptualizations, 106–109 poverty and, 81–83 risk index, 105 statistical findings, 123–130 statistical variables in, 243 Tuvalu evacuation, 92–95 Clinton, William J., 3, 4 CO2 emissions. See also Emissions CDIAC data, 284 n42 CO2 /GDP measurements (see Carbon intensity) correlation with national income, 283 n23 invisibility of, 162 measurements, 154, 155 remaining in atmosphere, 146 types of emissions in data, 282 n11 Coal industries, 236 Coastal populations and coastlines coastal cities, 120 correlation with suffering, 123, 125, 129, 131 erosion, 109 as predictors of climate disaster losses, 104 risk and, 118–120, 119 statistical variables, 244–245 Co-financing mitigation costs, 212 Cold climate nations correlation with emissions, 160, 163, 181 special national circumstances, 136– 137 statistical variables, 156, 247 Cold War, 32, 231 Cold waves, 71, 109 Collaboration. See Cooperation Collier, Paul, 13 Colombia, 149, 265 n135 Colonialism and postcolonial nations common experience of, 260 n47 correlation with suffering, 127–130, 131–132 credibility and, 216 environmental colonialism, 37–38 Honduran history, 83–87 index of export diversification and, 198 international systems viewed through, 31 Louisiana as, 101 Mozambique’s history, 88–91 as normatively unjustifiable, 197 rural areas and, 116 settler colonies vs. extractive colonies, 116 state credibility and, 192–193 treaty ratification and, 208 Tuvalu’s past, 93–94 vulnerability and, 95, 96, 104, 105, 108, 112 weakness of, 30 Commitments credibility of, 189 defined, 292 nn15–16 democratic regimes and, 293 nn34– 35 resistance to, 60 signaling factors for, 189–191 Commodity chain approach, 289 n115, 290 n134 ‘‘Common but differentiated’’ responsibility, 3, 300 n32 Comoros, 79, 148 Compensatory justice, 46–47, 196, 219, 221, 222 Complexity of climate change, 7 Conflict management theory, 235 Congleton, Roger, 295 n59 Congo, 141, 148 Constructivism on external environmentalist pressures, 199 future agreements and, 221 in international relations, 7 on negotiation and ratification behavior, 194–195 Consumption. See Dematerialization; Overconsumption Index Contraction and convergence model, 138, 139, 145–146, 151–152, 241, 284 n36 Contracts, state enforcement of, 41 Convention Center, New Orleans, 99– 100 Cook Islands, 149 Cooperation. See also Noncooperation building trust with costly signals, 224–228 factors in, 207–210, 271 n206 games, 60–61 monitoring and enforcement, 63–64 Pareto frontier in, 63 post-Kyoto agreements, 59–66 ratification of treaties, 186–187, 188–191, 194–197 representation and, 303 n79 shallow and deep cooperation, 269 n178 Young on, 272 n207 Coordination externalities in market forces, 237, 238 COP-6 (Sixth Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC and Kyoto Protocol), The Hague forced commitments, 17 mistrust, 47 negotiations structure, 16–17 number of delegates at, 15 social equity vs. environmental protection, 3 special funds created, 225 COP-7 (Seventh Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC and Kyoto Protocol), Marrakech, 225 COP-8 (Eighth Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC and Kyoto Protocol), New Delhi carbon intensity negotiations, 144 demands for concessions, 229 OPEC nations’ demands for compensation, 181 protests and declarations, 133–135 United States fight against per capita approach, 221 371 COP-9 (Ninth Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC and Kyoto Protocol), Milan carbon intensity negotiations, 144 diversification issues, 236 diversification language, 179 United States fight against per capita approach, 221 COP-10 (Tenth Conference of the Parties of the UNFCCC and Kyoto Protocol), Buenos Aires number of delegates, 15 social equity vs. environmental protection, 3 strife in the LDC Contact Group meeting, 211–213 trading emissions, 238 Coral bleaching, 95 Core nations defined, 35–36 ecological debt and, 166, 167 OECD nations, 171 shift of production to periphery, 170 in structuralist view, 32 Corporate Watch, 165, 305 n109 Corporations. See Multinational corporations Corruption, 89, 112, 117, 234 Costa Rica, 149, 270 n184, 289 n111 Costly signals building trust with, 224–228 in Cold War, 231 defined, 43, 261 n81 rationalist theories on, 196 Costs of bargaining, 65 co-financing mitigation costs, 212 of compliance, 18–19, 53 of data collection and monitoring, 18–19 of defection in Montreal Protocol, 292 n16 difference between dollars and lives, 44 of litigation, 54 372 Index Costs (cont.) of national adaptation programs of action (NAPA), 212 of negotiation, 15 of noncompliance, 189 of stabilizing climate change, 9–14, 36–37, 219, 220, 238 of sustainable development, 3 Cote D’Ivoire, 141, 148 Credibility acquiring, 191–194 colonialism and, 216 credible commitments, 292 n15, 292 n16 ratification and, 189, 207, 208 reputation, 261 n69 Credit, 116 CRED-OFDA. See Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED); United States Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance (OFDA) Croatia, 148 CSE (Centre for Science and the Environment), 165, 284 n36, 305 n109 Cuba, 148, 280 n44 Cumulative emissions (historical responsibility) factors in, 154, 159–160 findings, 155, 158 paths of development and, 173–180 sectoral analysis, 170 statistical variables, 243 United States, 180 Customs valuations, 53 Cyclones Bangladesh, 73 Mozambique, 87–92 numbers included in data, 71 Tonga, 277 n99 Tuvalu, 94–95 Cyprus, 149 Dalton, Russell, 189 Data collection and monitoring. See Monitoring data Debt burden, 49–50, 170, 171, 241 Decarbonization targets, 151 Declining environmental terms of trade, 30, 234. See also Offshoring of emissions ‘‘Deep historical approaches,’’ 192 ‘‘Deep integration’’ agenda, 39, 260 n53 Deficits, 54, 55 Deforestation Bangladesh, 118 Central America, 106, 278 n15 Honduras, 85, 275 n42, 278 n15 hurricane damage and, 67–68 Tuvalu, 94 Delegates to negotiations average numbers of, 15 as ‘‘buried by paper,’’ 17 travel subsidies for, 211 types of skills represented by, 15–16 Delhi Declaration, 134 Dematerialization absolute, 288 n108 debunking of, 168–169 postindustrial nations, 173, 177 Democracy correlation with emissions, 159, 161– 162 correlation with suffering, 123 as factor in willingness to ratify agreements, 190, 209, 210 famine and, 107 in high emission countries, 157–158 implementing commitments and, 293 n34, 293 n35 Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (North Korea), 77, 149 Dengue fever, 86, 277 n104 Denmark, 44, 149, 228 Dependency perspective, 35, 36 Deplege, Joanna, 283 n31 Deregulation of investment, 50 Desertification, 47 DeSombre, Elizabeth, 195, 222 De Soto, Hernando, 280 n56 Dessai, S., 236 Developing countries. See Poor and developing nations Index ‘‘Development contract,’’ 48–49, 61 ‘‘Development ladder,’’ 38, 40, 46, 302 n58 Diarrhea, 86 Dietz, Thomas, 107, 201, 209 ‘‘Diffuse’’ economies, 279 n34 Diffuse reciprocity, 33, 42–43, 57–58, 261 n78 Disaster relief, 68, 97, 132 Disasters. See also Climate-related disasters defined, 110, 274 n11 fatalities in, 68–69, 103 as force of change, 241–242 homelessness caused by, 68–69 information about, 120 lists of, 9 non-climate-related, 70–71 outcomes, 67–68 televised images of, 91–92 types of, 109–110 weakened environments and, 118 Disease, 86, 92, 277 m104, 279 n37, 303 n71 Displaced persons. See Homelessness Dispute resolution mechanism (DSM), 53, 54, 265 n139 Diversified economies assistance in developing, 210 balance of power in states and, 235 emissions and, 174, 177–178 Export Diversification Index, 198 manufacturing, 173, 174 nations classified as, 172–173 in North-South agreements, 232–239 OPEC countries’ need for, 179 policy changes in development, 217– 218 Division of labor. See Global division of labor Djibouti, 79, 80, 148 ‘‘Do-as-I-say-not-as-I-do’’ policies, 230 Dobriansky, Paula, 144 Dollar, David, 254 n57 Dollar policies, 49, 54–56, 264 n126, 267 n159. See also Wall Street 373 Domestic economic sectors, 151 Domestic elites, 235–236 Domestic policies correlation with suffering, 129 GATS and, 53 Dominica, 149 Dominican Republic, 67, 148 Double majority voting rule, 222, 225 Droughts 1984’s East African drought, 72 as climate-related, 68, 109 fatalities, homelessness, and affected populations, 74–75, 76 incidents included in data, 71 Drug patents, 240, 267 n152 Drug pricing, 240 DSM (dispute resolution mechanism), 53, 54, 265 n139 Dunning, Thad, 235 Durkheim, Emile, 41 Dust storms, 71, 109 Earthquakes 1976 Guatemala quake, 106–107 1985 Mexico City quake, 106–107 2004 Iran quake, 107 ‘‘classquakes,’’ 106 as not climate-related, 109 Earth Summit 1992 Rio Bargain, 214, 225 Easterly, William, 255 n62 EcoEquity, 165, 284 n36, 305 n109 Ecological debt perspective. See also Carbon debt; Climate injustice; Ecologically unequal exchange; Offshoring of emissions defined, 164–165 dematerialization and, 288 n108 G-77 position on, 149 ‘‘insider-outsider’’ networks and, 241 material flows in, 167–169 paying back debt, 305 n110 postindustrialist nations and, 177 Southern nations and, 184 support for, 21 world systems theory and, 165–166 374 Index Ecologically unequal exchange. See also Climate injustice; Ecological debt perspective; Offshoring of emissions defined, 164 observability of, 184 periphery nations and, 166–167 postindustrialist nations and, 177 world systems theory and, 165–166 Economic Commission for Latin America, 35 Economic development Bretton Woods regime, 48–49, 263 n96 carbon intensity proposals and, 143 changes needed in policies, 180–189 in climate crisis, 4, 213 climate funds, 44 correlation with emissions, 169–173 ‘‘development ladder,’’ 38, 40, 302 n58 false divide between environment and economics, 182 fear of restrictions on, 45 focusing on ‘‘today’s problems,’’ 229 fossil fuels and, 155–156 gains from climate change mitigation, 60 inequality and, 31 international financial institutions’ impact on, 13–14 linkage to environment, 26 new development orthodoxy of last century, 302 n57 non-cooperation and, 25–30 in North-South agreements, 232–239 ‘‘rights’’ to, 25–30 rises in emissions and, 218–219 shrinking of development space, 229–230 thwarting of upward mobility, 13 TRIMS, TRIPS, and GATS Grand Bargain, 52–54, 56 Washington Consensus, 50–52 Economics. See also Wall Street Asian financial crisis, 39–40 asymmetric globalization, 11 capital intensity and economies of scale, 289 n111 compliance and, 18–19 correlation with emissions, 159, 160, 162, 163 ‘‘diffuse’’ economies, 279 n34 dollar policies, 49, 54–56, 264 n126, 267 n159 fairness and, 65 informal economies, 117 Keynesianism, 303 n64 leading-sector approaches, 288 n110 monoeconomics, 302 n57 ‘‘point source’’ economies, 279 n34 sectoral analysis, 151–152, 169– 173 securitization of financial flows, 268 n160 sustainable development and, 3 thermodynamic law and, 287 n97 unequal costs of climate change, 9– 14 weakness tied to vulnerability, 96 The Economist, 9 Economist Intelligence Unit, 84, 275 n45 Ecosystem Well-being Index (EWI) export base and, 200, 201–204, 206 findings, 127 indicators in, 118 statistical variables, 246 vulnerability and, 210 Ecotourism, 177 Ecuador, 148, 270 n184 Effectiveness and efficiency in emissions proposals, 151 government effectiveness, 246–247 measuring, 155, 297 n95 Egoists in bargaining, 226 Egypt, 148 Egziabher, Tewold Berhan Gebre, 57 Eisenmenger, N., 288 n108 EIU (Economist Intelligence Unit), 84, 275 n45 ELAC (Economic Commission for Latin America), 35 Elderly fatalities from Katrina, 99 Index Elites domestic elites, 235–236 export elites, 193, 210 in extractive states, 114 nonparticipation and, 199 polluting elites, 235, 296 n78 property rights and, 117 varying emissions of, 284 n43 El Salvador, 83, 107, 149 Elster, Jon, 273 n220 ‘‘El Tigre sin Selva’’ (Tiger without a Jungle), 288 n100 Embedded liberalism, 49, 263 n122 Emergency Disasters Database (EMDAT), 69, 70, 126 Emergency response systems, 280 n51 Emissions. See also Carbon intensity; Cumulative emissions; Per capita emissions; Total emissions assigning responsibility, 137 caps on, 283 n31 carbon intensity approach for responsibility, 138, 142–144 correlation with national income, 283 n23 decarbonization paths in agreements, 232–239 displacement and offshoring of, 137 emissions entrepreneurs, 60 grandfathering approach for responsibility, 138–142 historical responsibility (polluter pays), 139, 146–150 hybrid proposals for responsibility, 137, 150–153, 182 inequities in reductions, 11 inventories of, 18 ‘‘leaking,’’ 176, 290 n121 multiple regression analysis, 137 national rates of, 10, 140–142 other sources of, 304 n81 paths of development and, 169–173, 173–180 per capita approach for responsibility, 144–146 per capita national rates, 146, 148– 149 375 policy changes needed, 180–189 polluting elites, 137–138 reasons for high emissions, 153–163 reluctance to commit to reductions, 135 rises in, 218 survival and luxury emissions, 137, 288 n99 time remaining in atmosphere, 146 trading credits (see Carbon permits and trading) types included in data, 282 n11 variations within countries, 284 n43 Emissions entrepreneurs, 60 Emissions leakage, 176, 290 n121 Emotion, 62, 65–66, 273 n220 ENDA-Tiers Monde, 255 n71 Energy-intensive industry, 151 Enforcing agreements. See also Selfenforcing agreements in civil society, 117, 246 costs of, 58, 64, 196 fairness principles in, 63–64 lack of power in Kyoto, 22, 215 in Louisiana, 100 problems in, 207 stages of cooperation, 64 states as agents, 41 Engermann, Stanley L., 307 n12 Entitlement theories of justice, 140 Entrepreneurs, 49, 60, 236, 237–238 Environmental activism. See also Environmental protection civil society and, 123 correlation with emissions, 159, 161– 162 as factor in willingness to ratify agreements, 190 in high emission countries, 157–158 impact on participation, 205 index of, 201 joining with labor unions, 236 norm of environmentalism, 194 Environmental aid. See Financial assistance and aid Environmental assistance. See Financial assistance and aid 376 Index Environmental damage assigning responsibility, 137 correlation with ratification behavior, 201–204, 205 correlation with suffering, 123, 127, 128 displacement and offshoring of emissions, 137 Ecosystem Well-being Index (EWI), 118, 127, 200, 201–204, 206, 210, 246 hybrid proposals and, 137 lingering times for emissions in atmosphere, 146 multiple regression analysis, 137 past damages, 118–120 Environmental imperialism. See Climate injustice Environmentalism, norm of, 194 Environmental Kuznets Curve hypothesis, 182–183 Environmental load displacement. See Offshoring of emissions Environmentally unequal exchange. See Ecologically unequal exchange Environmental protection. See also Environmental activism false divide between environment and economics, 182 linkage to economic development, 26 reconciling with social justice, 2–5 ‘‘Environmental space,’’ 217 Environmental Treaty Ratification Index (TREFAC), 201, 202, 204, 205–206, 209, 243–244 Environmental variability, risk and, 106 Epidemics, 70, 109 Epistemic communities, 5 Equality. See Inequality and equality Equatorial Guinea, 148 Eritrea, 148 Estrada-Oyuela, Raúl, 64, 145–146 Ethiopia 1984 drought, 72 climate-related fatalities, homelessness, and affected populations, 74, 77, 78, 80 emissions rates, 141, 146, 148 European Commission delegates, 15 European Union ‘‘Green Group’’ negotiations, 133– 135 import and export imbalances, 168 per capita approach to emissions, 144, 241 triptych proposal, 151 willingness to address emissions, 270 n187 Ex ante evaluations of beliefs and expectations, 43–44 Ex ante performance-based funding, 228 Exchange rates, 54–55 Exogenous shocks and crises in climate injustice, 5 as driving change, 241–242 export price volatility, 13–14 in Honduran economy, 84 insulating against, 217, 232 risk and vulnerability and, 274 n10 Tuvalu’s vulnerability to, 93–94 Expectations in climate injustice, 6 ex ante evaluations of, 43–44 nonconvergence of, 58 preference heterogeneity and, 262 n87 structuralist worldviews and, 32 vulnerability and, 64–65 Expertise in negotiations, 16 Export Diversification Index, 113, 198, 246 Export elites, 193, 210 Exports. See also Narrow export bases carbon-intensive exports, 181 correlation with emissions, 159, 161, 162, 163, 169, 173–180, 181 correlation with ratification behavior, 201, 205, 206 correlation with suffering, 127–130, 131 diversified exporters, 172–173, 174, 177–178 ecologically unequal trade, 164 Export Diversification Index, 113, 198, 246 Index as factor in willingness to ratify treaties, 210 fuel exporters, 174, 178–180 in high emissions countries, 156 in Honduran economy, 83–87 low-value, vulnerability and, 105 manufacturers, 173–175 material flows analysis, 168 nonfuel primary products, 171, 174, 175–176 pollution levels and, 171–172 as predictor of vulnerability, 112– 113 price research, 165 price volatility of, 13, 30, 108 service economies, 172, 174, 176– 177 state credibility and, 192–194 in Tuvalu, 93 waste as, 168 Ex-Soviet republics, 140, 289 n119 Externalities, asymmetry of, 7 External shocks. See Exogenous shocks and crises Extraction of raw materials. See Extractive states; Natural resources; Primary products Extractive states characteristics of, 112–113, 193 civil society in, 122–123 coastal cities, 120 defined, 112 elites in, 114 emissions and, 174, 234–235 import and export power, 175–176 Mozambique as, 88–91 press freedom and, 121 punishment of, 14 resource booms, 193 rural areas of, 116 treaty ratification and, 208 vulnerability of, 86–87, 104 Ezzati, Majid, 303 n70 Fabrications about Hurricane Katrina, 99–100 Factor services, 172 Facussé, Carlos Flores, 86 377 Fairness configurational understandings of, 137 creating cooperation, 59–66 designating responsibility and, 136 ‘‘fairness matters,’’ 60–61 focal points, 220, 221 future agreements and, 220 grandfathering and, 142 hybrid proposals and, 150–153, 182 long-term interests and, 61 Najam on, 300 n32 in North-South relations, 6, 222– 224 participation in accords and, 200 rich and poor nations’ understanding of, 27 structuralist worldview and, 33 as subject of fierce debate, 221 in treaty ratification behavior, 195– 196 Famine, 70, 107, 121 FAO (Food and Agricultural Organization), 85–86, 118 Fatalities CRED-OFA definition, 273 n9 in developing countries, 10 differences in reports, 72–73 hurricane disasters, 67 Hurricane Katrina, 98 Hurricane Mitch, 86 hydrometeorological events and, 9 Mozambique cyclones, 87 national statistics by population, 77 national wealth and, 131 natural disasters, 10, 103 path models for predicting, 111 poverty’s role in, 81–83 smoothing data procedures, 71 statistical findings, 123–130 statistical predictors of, 104 twenty-year figures for, 71–81 wealth and death rates, 279 n37 ‘‘Favor bank,’’ 42 FDI (foreign direct investment), 267 n149 Fehr, Ernst, 65 Fiji, 80, 148 378 Index Financial assistance and aid bargaining for, 46 in beginnings of negotiations, 45 co-financing mitigation costs, 212 contingencies in, 296 n72 cooperation and, 219, 272 n206 COP-6 and 7 funds, 225 COP-10 demands, 212–213 correlation with ratification behavior, 201, 203, 206 creating change with, 239–240 debates over, 6 disaster relief, 68, 97, 132 ‘‘Green’’ aid, 217, 252 n8 long-term predictable aid, 232 mitigation use, 226–227 in new policy steps, 217 participation in accords and, 200, 204 power of, 216 role of, 196 statistical variables, 244 televised images of disasters, 91–92 unkept promises on, 213, 223–224 withholding, 228 Financial services economies, 176– 177 Finland, 44, 142 Fires, 70 Fiscal policies, trust and, 54–56 Fishing industries, 118 Flexible speculation, 170 Floods annual risks for, 94 China, 96 as climate-related, 68, 109 climate-related fatalities, homelessness, and affected populations, 72–76 data included in studies, 71 deforestation and, 118 Honduras, 85 Mozambique, 87–92, 214 Venezuela, 96, 107 Focal points, 63, 220, 221 Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), 85–86, 118 Foreign assistance or aid. See Financial assistance and aid Foreign direct investment (FDI), 267 n149 Forest fires, 70 Fossil fuels. See also Fuel exporters correlation with emissions, 159, 161 economic development and, 155– 156 economy of exporters, 172 in high emissions countries, 156 France emissions rates, 141 on GEF funding, 228 heat waves, 73, 274 n23 per capita approach to emissions, 144, 241 per capita emissions rates, 148 Frank, David John, 192, 259 n36, 296 n81 Freedom House Index, 121 Freedom of speech, association, and the vote, 190 Freedom of the press. See Media and freedom of the press Free riders, 63, 64 Free University, 255 n71 French Guiana, 148 French Polynesia, 148 Friends of the Earth, 134, 165, 305 n109 Fuel exporters. See also Organization of Petroleum-Exporting Countries correlation with emissions, 174, 178– 180 fairness and, 136 GDP and, 172 influence on G-77 sustainable development position, 134 need for diversification, 179 negotiating with managers, 236 oil economies, 100, 234–235 in statistical variables, 247 G-77 countries climate issues of, 18 at COP-6, 47 Index ecological debt perspective, 149, 165 ‘‘insider-outsider’’ networks and, 241 per capita approach to emissions, 144 rhetoric, 17 sustainable development and, 133– 134 walkout, 2003 Cancun Ministerial Conference, 17 Gabon, 148 Gachter, Simon, 65 Galbraith, James K., 254 n57 Gambia, 148 Game theory Achilles heel of, 271 n199 cooperation and, 60–61, 63, 272 n206 prisoner’s dilemma, 262 n83 Gandhi, Maneka, 46 GATS (General Agreement on Trade in Services), 38–39, 53, 266 n145 GDP. See Gross Domestic Product (GDP) GEF. See Global Environmental Facility (GEF) General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS), 38–39, 53, 266 n145 ‘‘Geography matters’’ approach, 156, 160, 163 Geophysical disasters, 70 Georgia, 149, 171 Germany climate funds, 44 emissions rates, 141, 149, 271 n196 floods, 273 n8 on GEF funding, 228 reduction in emissions, 153 Ghana, 148 Gibralter, 149 Gibson, Clark, 240 Giljum, S., 166, 168, 288 n108 Gini coefficient, 114, 126, 245 Global Commons Institute, 145, 284 n36 Global consciousness, 9–10 Global division of labor environmental reform and, 36 379 impact on vulnerability, 95 nations’ position in, 38 Global Environmental Facility (GEF) adaptation funding, 301 n50 compensatory justice principles, 225 donor dominance, 47 double majority voting rule, 222 mandate, 253 n29 performance basis, 301 n52 reform of, 227 United States and, 212 Globalization asymmetric, 11 correlation with emissions, 161 environmental soundness and, 157 offshoring emissions and, 234–235 post-World War II economics, 170 unequal costs of climate change and, 9–14 Global Urban Indicators database, 90– 91 Global vs. local environmental concerns, 6, 31 Global warming. See Climate change Go-it-alone power, 52, 56 Gold standard, 49, 54–56 Goldstein, Judith, 34 Government economies, 177 Government effectiveness, 246– 247 Gowan, Peter, 268 n160 Graham, Edward, 231 ‘‘Grand Bargain,’’ 52–54, 56 Grand Central Station experiment, 299 n14 Grandfathering in hybrid proposals, 151 in Kyoto Protocol, 138–142 ‘‘Grand theory,’’ 258 n11 Great Depression, 14, 35 Greece, 73, 74, 149 Green, Michael, 235 ‘‘Green’’ aid, 217, 252 n8 ‘‘Green’’ environmental issues, 31 ‘‘Green Group,’’ 133–134 Greenhouse gases. See CO2 emissions; Emissions 380 Index ‘‘Greenhouse skeptics and greenhouse entrepreneurs,’’ 60 Greenpeace, 165, 305 n109 ‘‘Green Room’’ meetings, 17, 47 Greenspan, Alan, 268 n160 ‘‘Green technology,’’ 270 n187 Grenada, 148, 149 Gross Domestic Product (GDP) correlation with emissions, 147, 153, 159, 160, 162 correlation with manufacturing, 171 correlation with suffering, 123, 124, 128 economic divide and, 12–13 exogenous shocks and, 14 Honduran disaster losses, 86 measuring emissions by, 143 as misleading indicator, 165 narrow export base and, 130 natural disaster losses and, 103 statistical variables, 247 Tuvalu, 93 vulnerability measurements and, 81– 83, 110–115 wealth and, 110–115, 131 Groundwater infiltration, 95 Group of 77. See G-77 countries Grubb, Michael, 144, 145, 301 n45 Gruber, Lloyd, 52 Guadeloupe, 148 Guam, 79 Guatemala 1976 earthquake, 106–107 Hurricane Mitch, 83 per capita emissions rates, 148 U.S. interference with, 96 Guinea, 148 Guinea Bissau, 148 Gupta, Joyeeta, 17, 18, 44, 48 Guyana, 148 Guzman, Andrew, 261 n69, 266 n145 Haas, Peter M., 257 n9, 295 n49 The Hague. See COP-6 (Sixth Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC and Kyoto Protocol), The Hague Hailstorms, 71, 109 Haiti fatalities from climate disasters, 79 Hurricane Ivan, 103 Hurricane Jeanne, 67–68, 96 per capita emissions rates, 148 soil weakening, 118 Hanlon, Joseph, 91, 92 Hardin, Garrett, 60 Hardin, Russell, 261 n67 ‘‘Hard’’ law, 58 Hausmann, Ricardo, 237 Health issues, 86, 92, 277 n104, 279 n37, 303 n71 Heat waves Chicago, 99 as climate-related, 68, 109 climate-related fatalities, homelessness, and affected populations, 74–75, 76 data in studies, 71 France, 99, 274 n23 responses to, 73 Hedge funds, 268 n161 Heil, M. T., 157, 161 Heinrich Böll Foundation, 165, 305 n109 Henkin, Louis, 271 n201 Herrera, Guillermo Castro, 122 Hikino, Takashi, 266 n145 Hirschman, Albert, 302 n57 Historical responsibility approach (polluter pays). See also Cumulative emissions compared to per capita emissions, 154, 155 defined, 139, 146–150 HIV/AIDS drugs, 240 Holland. See Netherlands Homelessness after Mozambique cyclones, 87 CRED-OFA definition, 273 n9 findings, 123–130 in Honduras after Hurricane Mitch, 86 national statistics by population, 77– 78 national wealth and, 131 Index participation in accords and, 200, 202 poverty’s role in, 81–83 smoothing data procedures, 71 statistical predictors of, 104, 111 in Tuvalu, 95 twenty-year figures for, 71–81, 80 windstorm and flood casualties, 73– 76 Honduras climate-related fatalities, homelessness, and affected populations, 74, 77, 78 deforestation, 278 n15 disasters and economy, 85–86 emissions rates, 141, 148 gross domestic product, 275 n45 Hurricane Mitch, 72, 83–87, 214 rescues in, 96–97 soil weakening, 118 Hong Kong, 56, 148 Houghton, John, 9 Housing structures, 90–91, 116 Human Development Index, 84 Human rights revolution, 241 Hungary, 148 Hurrell, Andrew, 186 Hurricanes as climate-related, 109 Cuba’s response to, 280 n44 deforestation and, 275 n42 fatalities from, 72 Hurricane Ivan in Haiti, 103 Hurricane Jeanne in Haiti, 96 Hurricane Mitch in Honduras, 83– 87, 214 Hurricane Katrina, 98–101, 241– 242 Mozambique cyclones, 87–92 outcomes, 67–68 sample data, 71 Hybrid proposals assigning responsibility for emissions, 137, 182 moving towards, 150–153, 182 Müller on, 271 n205 sufficient fairness of, 299 n20 381 Hydrometeorological disasters, 9, 68. See also Climate-related disasters; Disasters Iceland, 44, 149 Ideas in worldviews, 34 Ideational theories on fairness, 197 on treaties and ratification behavior, 195–196 IEP (international environmental politics), 186–187, 194–197, 296 n67 IFI. See International financial institutions (IFI) IFRC (International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies), 72, 92, 103 IISD (International Institute for Sustainable Development), 255 n71 Imbs, Jean, 178 IMF. See International Monetary Fund Imports. See also Exports ecological debt perspective, 168 EU import and export imbalances, 168 extractive states’ import and export power, 175–176 import carbon loads, 177 role of, 304 n82 Incentives colonists and, 116 creating, 6 to free riding, 60, 63 Montreal Protocol, 43 for negative behavior, 213–214 for poor nations, 175, 186, 192, 197 realigning, 136, 138, 226 role of, 61, 196 studying, 65 types of, 64 vulnerability and, 97, 189, 197 wealth and, 126 Income correlation with emissions, 147, 153, 154, 163 correlation with suffering, 123, 125, 131 382 Index Income (cont.) death rates, 279 n37 export base and, 130, 170, 171 Gini coefficient, 114, 126, 245 inequities in, 11, 113 measuring wealth, 280 n45 as predictors of climate disaster losses, 104 richest people in the world, 254 n60 trust issues and, 262 n88 vulnerability and, 110–115, 279 n37 Incorporation into world economy. See Insertion in economy India average pollution per capita, 4 bargaining power of, 152 climate-related fatalities, homelessness, and affected populations, 74–75, 76, 77, 78, 80 COP-8 push for sustainable development, 133–134 dollar standard and, 55 emissions rates, 141, 146, 149 famine, 107 flooding, 72 flouting of Washington Consensus, 51 heat waves, 73 impact of offshoring, 183 institutionalized suspicion, 262 n88 Kyoto exemptions and, 11 ozone negotiations, 46 per capita approach to emissions, 139, 144–146 reducing emissions in, 11 world income data, 254 n57 Individuals, importance of, 240 Indonesia, 77, 149, 152, 235 Indoor air pollution, 303 n70 Industrialization correlation with emissions, 159, 162 as development path, 181 industrial hazards, 109 views of, 175 Inequality and equality addressing, 59–66 causal chain in, 32–33 climate change as rooted in, 97, 216 correlation with suffering, 123, 125– 126, 129 in emissions proposals, 151 equality of opportunity, 301 n41 equal rights to atmosphere, 220 explanations for, 30–33 in extractive states, 193 factors in, 8–9 in international environmental relations, 5, 8–9 measuring carbon responsibility, 155 in monetary and fiscal policies, 51 in negotiating team size and skill, 14– 19 in North-South climate crisis, 213 reluctance to commit to reductions and, 135 understanding ‘‘fair’’ solutions and, 27 wealth and vulnerability, 110–115 Infant mortality, 32 Informal civic structures, 115–117 Informal economic systems, 130, 280 n56 Information available to population, 113, 120– 123 in democratic societies, 190 information externalities in market forces, 237 NGOs and, 122 quality of, 7 role of institutions in, 188 Innovation rents, 304 n97 Insertion in the global economy colonialism and, 22, 108, 131, 166, 214 correlation with suffering, 131 credibility and, 216 emissions and, 137–138, 169–173 environmental damage and, 157 moving up or down in hierarchy, 229, 258 n18 Index narrow export base and, 169, 206, 250 paths of development and, 198, 215 treaty ratification and, 208, 209 vulnerability and, 104 ‘‘Insider-outsider’’ networks, 240– 241 Institutionalism. See also Realism cooperation theories, 188–189 institutions, defined, 271 n202 in international relations, 7 international treaties and, 42, 187, 191, 196 new institutionalism, 189 trust issues and, 45 Institutionalized suspicion, 262 n88 Institutions, 271 n202 Institutions for the Earth: Sources of Effective International Environmental Protection, 26 Insurance, 116, 273 n8, 280 n56 Intellectual property agreements. See also TRIPS (The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights) advantages for Northern countries, 38–39 changes in, 240 disadvantages for poor nations, 51 TRIMS, 38–39, 52–54, 266 n145 Interest rates, 49–50, 90 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) first report, 283 n19 flooding predictions, 94 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, 181 knowledge imbalance in Working Groups, 18, 256 n89 on reductions needed, 299 n9 sea level predictions, 92 Special Report on Emissions Scenarios (SRES), 24, 149, 233, 257 n99 Intermediate-range Nuclear Forces treaty, 301 n43 International councils for science (ICSUs), 194 383 International Development Research Centre, 118 International environmental politics (IEP), 186–187, 194–197, 296 n67 International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, 72, 92, 103 International financial institutions (IFIs) development and, 13 foreign experts and, 256 n94 leverage with, 264 n131 results of policies, 14 International Institute for Environment and Development, 118, 165, 305 n109 International Institute for Sustainable Development, 255 n71 International Monetary Fund 1990s capital markets and, 56 Asian financial crisis and, 39–40 debt relief policy changes, 241 development contract charter, 48–49 necessary changes in policies, 217 neoclassical thinking, 237 onerous requirements of, 213 Washington Consensus conditions, 50 International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) membership, 247 Intertropical convergence zone, 87 Intracountry emissions, 284 n43 IPCC. See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Iran 2004 earthquake, 107 affected populations from climate disasters, 78 emissions rates, 141, 148 fatalities from climate disasters, 77 Iraq, 141, 148 Ireland, 178 Irumba, Nathan, 39 Island states emissions rates, 177 excluded from data, 290 n119 384 Index Island states (cont.) fairness and, 136 flooding and, 94 high-risk coastlines, 119 ‘‘ants living on leaves on a pond’’ metaphor, 37 survival and, 282 n14 sustainable development position, 134 tourism economies, 177 Tuvalu, 92–95 vulnerability of, 269 n183 Issue linkage, 43, 64, 262 nn84–85, 272 n206 Italy, 141, 149 IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources) membership, 247 Jackson, Robert, 197 Jamaica, 148 Japan, 141, 146, 149 Johannesburg summit, 3, 47, 57, 224 Joint Implementation mechanism, 145, 175 Jomo, K. S., 304 n90 Jordan, 148 Jorgenson, Andrew K., 303 n70 Jubilee Research, 165, 305 n109 Judiciary systems, 117 Justice. See also Climate injustice difficulty of applying, 282 n15 negotiation of, 221 utilitarian theory of, 143 Kahneman, Daniel, 272 n218 Kalof, Linda, 201, 209 Kammen, Daniel M., 303 n70 Kandlikar, Miland, 18 Kaufmann, Daniel, 89, 157–158, 199, 296 n80, 297 n95 Kaufmann, Joanne, 222 Kaunda, Kenneth, 240 Kazakhstan, 149 Keefer, Philip, 44 Kenya, 78, 141, 148 Keohane, Robert on beliefs, 34, 259 n22 on costly signals, 261 n82 on egoists, 226 on reciprocity, 261 n78 on shallow and deep cooperation, 269 n178 Kete, Nancy, 269 n179 Keynesianism, 303 n64 Khan, Mushtaq, 304 n90 ‘‘Kicking away the development ladder,’’ 38, 40, 46, 302 n58 ‘‘Killed from climate disasters.’’ See Fatalities Kingsbury, B., 186 Kiribati, 80, 94, 148 Kissinger, Henry, 40 Klinenberg, Eric, 73 Knack, Stephen, 44 Knowledge, imbalance of, 18 Koremenos, Barbara, 207, 272 n215 Kraay, Art, 254 n57 Krasner, Steven, 35, 51, 259 n33 Krueger, Anne, 237 Kuwait, 141, 172 Kuznets curve hypothesis, 156, 182– 183 Kydd, Andrew, 224–225, 230, 261 n81, 301 n43 Kyoto Protocol. See also Post-Kyoto agreements climate funds and, 44 double majority voting rule, 222 exemptions in, 11, 37 grandfathering in, 138, 139–142 inadequacy of, 219 national reporting in, 18–19 Neumayer’s study data, 294 n37 pricing on emissions and, 185–186 ratification statistical data, 244 Russian ratification, 59 Russia’s ratification of, 5 social equity vs. environmental protection in, 3 statistical patterns of ratification, 200–207 Index unfair exemptions in, 11 U.S. withdrawal from, 142–143 Kyrgyzstan, 148 Labor unions, 236 ‘‘Lack of capacity,’’ 26 Lafer, Celso, 265 n139 Lampreia, Luiz Felipe, 4 Land areas correlation with emissions, 159, 160, 162 in statistical variables, 247 Land distribution history of in Mozambique, 90 Latin American land grants, 122–123 ownership, 276 n71 reform in Honduras, 84 Landslides, 107, 109 La Niña, 91 Laos, 76, 77, 79, 148 Lappé, Francis Moore, 118 ‘‘Large-N’’ cross-national strategy, 22–23 Late development. See Least developed countries Latin America coastlines, 119 development and economies, 35–36 emergency response systems, 280 n51 land grants in, 122–123 Washington Consensus and, 265 n135 Latvia, 148 Laupepa, Paani, 277 n100 Laws. See Regulations Lawyers, as delegates, 15–16 LDCs. See Least developed countries ‘‘Leaders and laggards,’’ 60 Least developed countries dependency themes, 35 LDC Contact Group, 211–213 negotiation costs and, 15 sustainable economic development goals, 48–56 Least Developed Countries Fund, 212, 298 n1, 301 n50 385 Lebanon, 148 Legal capacity, 54 Legal systems, 121 Legitimacy theory, 221 Lele, Sharachandram, 300 n39 Leptospirosis, 86 Less developed countries. See Least developed countries Liberalization of markets, 50–51 Liberia, 148 Libertarian theories of justice, 140 Libya, 141 Licensing, 53 Life expectancy rates, 32 Lipson, Charles, 22, 189 Liquidity of currency, 54–56 Literacy, 32, 88 Lithuania, 148 Litigation, costs of, 54 Loans access to in Mozambique, 90 results of, 14 syndication, 264 n125 Local environmental concerns, 6, 31 Long Term Capital Management Fund, 268 n160 Looting, 99 Louisiana, 98–101 Low, Patrick, 289 n115 Lumbering and timber, 118, 236 Luxury emissions, 137, 288 n99 Macau, 148 Macedonia, 148 Machado, G., 177 Machel, Samora, 90 Madagascar, 78, 148 Malaria, 86, 277 n104 Malawi, 78, 80, 148 Malaysia, 51, 148 Maldives, 79, 94, 149 Mali, 146, 148 Malta, 149 Managerial approach to environment, 191 Manley, Michael, 260 n47 386 Index Manufacturing carbon intensity of, 233 correlation with emissions, 156, 159, 161, 162, 173–175 correlation with income, 171 negotiating with managers and owners, 236 statistical variables, 247 Market forces coastal cities and, 120 energy needs and, 120 renewables revolution and, 237 undervalued prices in (see Price volatility) Marrakech, 3 Marshall Islands, 79 ‘‘Martian experiment’’ on Washington Consensus, 264 n135 Martinez-Alier, Joan, 164, 168 Martinique, 148 Marxist theories international law, 271 n201 justice, 140 Material self-interest. See Self interest Materials flow in ecological debt, 167–169 Mauritania, 80, 149 Mauritius, 51, 148, 236, 250 McCain-Lieberman Climate Stewardship Act, 140McIntosh, David M., 11 McLaughlin, Paul, 107 Mearsheimer, John, 41 Media and freedom of the press correlation with suffering, 126, 128, 131 in democratic societies, 190 export base and, 130 famine and, 107 correlation with indicators of vulnerability, 104, 120–123 measuring, 121 in Mozambique, 89, 276 n65 non-coverage of rural areas, 126 statistical variables, 245 televised images of disasters, 91–92 Medina, Carlos, 275 n42 Melancon, Tucker, 100 Membership in conservation organizations. See Environmental activism Methane, 146, 303 n70 Mexico 1985 earthquake, 106–107 diversification, 173 emissions rates, 141, 148 fatalities and homelessness from climate disasters, 77 Kyoto exemptions and, 11 Washington Consensus and, 265 n135 Meyer, Aubrey, 284 n36 Meyer, John W., 208 Micronesia, 79 Middle classes, 235, 255 n62 Midrange theory, 258 n11 Milan negotiations. See COP-9 Milanovic, Branko, 12 Millennium Challenge Account, 228 Mining industries, 118, 234–235 ‘‘Missing middle,’’ 12 Mistrust. See Trust issues Mitigation of climate change adverse effects of, 134 climate funds, 44 co-financing mitigation costs, 212 costs of, 220 economic development gains from, 60 financial aid and, 226–227 inequities in emissions reductions, 11 in negotiations, 7 responsibility and, 138 Mkapa, Benjamin, 266 n144 Modeling ratification behavior, 197– 200 Modeling vulnerability environmental damage and coastal populations, 118–120 methods of, 109–110 press freedom and civil society, 120– 123 Index urbanization and informality, 115– 117 wealth and inequality, 110–115 Mohamad, Mahathir, 37–38 Moldova, 149 Monetary policies. See also Economics; Wall Street dollar policies, 49, 54–56, 264 n126, 267 n159 money supply in 1980s, 49–50 trust and, 54–56 Mongolia, 80, 148 Monitoring data costs of, 18–19 difficulty of, 31 fairness principles in, 63–64 role of institutions, 188 Monitoring rents, 304 n97 Monocultures, 118–119 Monoeconomics, 302 n57 Monopoly rents, 304 n97 Montreal Protocol compensatory justice, 46–47, 219 defection costs, 292 n16 double majority voting rule, 222 incentives in, 262 n84 long-term interests of poor nations, 61 Neumeyer’s study data, 294 n37 Noncooperative postures at negotiations, 43 self-enforcing agreements, 270 n191 success of, 225 Montserrat, 149 Moore, Mike, 16 Moral issues, 240 Moralistic trust, vs. strategic trust, 45 Morocco, 149 Mozambique climate-related fatalities, homelessness, and affected populations, 74, 77, 78, 80 colonial infrastructure and, 276 n56– 59 flooding, 214 387 per capita emissions rates, 148 rescues in, 96–97 Müller, Benito, 64, 151, 220, 271 n205, 299 n20 Multilateral Ozone Fund, 225 Multilateral trade and investment agreements predictability in, 265 n139 restrictive, 13 results of, 14 as unfavorable to poor nations, 51 Multinational corporations changes in views towards, 260 n54 effects on poor nations, 96 in Honduras, 84 investments, 55 TRIMS and, 52 Multiple regression in cross-national indicators, 7 examining emission responsibility, 137 measuring responsibility for emissions, 155–163 testing causal explanations, 30 Multisector convergence approach to emissions, 151–152 Muradian, Roldan, 168 Mutual funds, 268 n161 Myanmar, 148 Nairobi Conference on the Human Environment, 2 Najam, Adil on emotions, 65–66 on fairness, 300 n32 on lose-lose propositions, 302 n55 on perceptions of ‘‘real’’ issues, 36 on results of distrust, 47 on the South, 12–13 Namibia, 148 NAPA (national adaptation programs of action), 18, 212 Narain, Sunita, 18, 284 n36 Narrow export bases correlation with ratification behavior, 201, 205, 206 388 Index Narrow export bases (cont.) correlation with suffering, 127–130, 131 disadvantages of, 20–21 importance of, 249–250 inequality and, 306 n11 participation in treaties and, 199, 210 price volatility and, 106 state credibility and, 192–194 vulnerability and, 214 Nath, Kamal, 25 National adaptation programs of action (NAPA), 18, 212 National circumstances cold locations, 136–137 consideration of, 163 correlation with emissions, 153–163, 159 grandfathering and, 139–140 National Fishworkers’ Forum, 133 National Institute of Health and Medical Research, 73 National reporting in UNFCCC and Kyoto, 18–19 Nation-states. See States Naturalist conceptualizations of risk, 106 Natural resources correlation with ratification behavior, 201, 202 in developing world, 286 n65 importance of, 132, 209–210 natural capital variables, 247 participation in accords and, 200 paths of development and, 234 resource booms, 193 rich nation consumption, 286 n82 Nature’s wrath, 101, 103, 110 Negative-sum behavior, 6, 33, 58 Negotiated justice, 137 Negotiations acquiring credibility, 191–194 analyzing, 19–24 beginnings of environmental negotiations, 45–46 breakdown of (see Noncooperation) breaking impasses, 218–222 changes needed in, 23–24 egoists in, 226 fairness in, 62–66, 222–224 finance and representation issues in, 47 formal rules for agreement and disagreement, 256 n80 holistic nature of issues in, 44 inequities in, 14–19 negotiated justice, 137 rationalist theories of, 27–29 rhetoric in, 17–18 rights to development and, 25–30 shallowness of agreements, 31 strategic restraint in, 228–230 sustainable economic development goals and, 48–56 training in, 255 n71 travel subsidies for delegates, 211 trust issues and, 44–45 worldviews and, 33–40, 230–232 Neoliberalism, 32, 39, 46 Neo-Marxists, 271 n201 Nepal, 77, 148 Netherlands climate funds, 44 per capita emissions rates, 149 vulnerability of, 270 n187 Netherlands Energy Research Foundation, 152 Neumayer, Eric on democratic regimes, 190, 294 n36 on geography, 156 on natural capital, 286 n65 on obstruction, 152 problems with methodology, 294 n37 ‘‘New Approach on Global Climate Change,’’ 142 New Caledonia, 149 New Delhi COP-8. See COP-8 New Economies Foundation, 165, 305 n109 New institutionalism credibility, 293 n18 measuring government effectiveness, 297 n95 ratification, 207 Index regime types, 190 unit-level explanations, 189 New International Economic Order (NIEO), 32, 46 New Orleans, Hurricane Katrina and, 98–101 ‘‘New thinking’’ approach, 230–232 New Zealand, 44, 95, 149 Nicaragua fatalities from climate disasters, 77, 79 Hurricane Mitch, 83 per capita emissions rates, 148 soil weakening, 118 NIEO (New International Economic Order), 32, 46 Niger, 141, 148 Nigeria, 77, 148 Nile delta, 119 La Niña, 91 Niue, 95, 149 Nixon, Richard M., 49, 264 n126 ‘‘No harm’’ principles in emissions, 142 Non-Annex I emissions, 136, 140, 141, 219 Noncooperation bargaining power of, 152 costs of noncompliance, 189 creating fairness and cooperation, 59–66 direct and indirect causal pathways, 28 notions of justice and, 150 root causes of, 239 theories about, 25–30 trust and, 40–47 worldviews and, 33–40 Nonfactor services, 172 Nonfuel primary product exporters, 171, 174, 175–176 Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) at COP-8, 133 correlation with ratification behavior, 201, 205, 206 correlation with suffering, 126–127, 128 389 creating change with, 240 debt relief policy changes, 241 disaster reports, 131 export base and, 130 impacts on vulnerability, 122 inclusion in data, 296 n81 in international environmental relations, 5 state participation in treaties and, 190, 199, 209 statistical variables, 246 Norms emotions and, 273 n220 norm of environmentalism, 194 in North-South relations, 6 North, Douglass, 237, 271 n202 Northern countries ecological debt, 288 n108 effects of disasters on, 71–81 mental models of South and, 38 overconsumption, 36 perception of as callous and opportunistic, 39, 62 North Korea (DPRK), 77, 149 North-South politics breaking impasse in, 218–222 building shared worldviews, 230–232 causal chain in inequality, 32–33 changes needed in, 23–24 costly signals, 224–228 decarbonization paths in, 232–239 fairness principles in, 222–224 global consciousness and, 9–10 global economics and, 37–38 new methods for analyzing, 19–24 new policies for, 217–218 poor nations (see Poor and developing nations) rich nations (see Rich nations) rights to development and, 25–30 root causes of problems, 29 South’s weaknesses in, 18–19 stalemate on climate policy, 5 strategic restraint in, 228–230 summary of crisis in, 213–218 sustainable economic development issues in, 48–56 390 Index North-South politics (cont.) thwarting of upward mobility, 13 trade agreement conditions and restrictions, 14 trust issues in, 27, 40–47, 224–228 Norway climate funds, 44 COP-10 arguments for financing, 212 diversification, 172, 173 emissions rates, 141 Objective Indicators of Governance dataset, 122 Observability of climate change, 7 O’Driscoll, Gerald P., 117 OECD. See Organization of Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Offshoring of emissions carbon intensity approach and, 144 defined, 137 exporting problems, 183 ‘‘leaking’’ emissions, 290 n121 Offshoring service sectors, 177 Oil economies. See Fuel exporters Olson, Mancur, 60 OLS regression, 104 Oman, 149 OPEC. See Organization of PetroleumExporting Countries Open capital markets, 39, 56 Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) coalescing around global issues, 296 n67 contributions to LDC Fund, 298 n2 emissions of member states, 174 manufacturing in, 171 ‘‘polluter pays’’ principle, 285 n44 service sectors, 177 standoff with OPEC, 179 Organization of Petroleum-Exporting Countries (OPEC) compensation demands, 181 disadvantages of reduced emissions and, 59–60 impact on global economy in 1970s and 1980s, 49–50 request for diversification, 179 rhetoric, 17 specific reciprocity example, 42 Ott, Herman, 229 Overconsumption in beginnings of negotiations, 45 as climate change issue, 36, 37 in erosion of trust, 225 Overgrazing, 118, 119 Oxfam, 165, 305 n109 Ozone layer negotiations, 46, 225, 241 Pakistan climate-related fatalities, homelessness, and affected populations, 73–76, 77, 78, 79 emissions rates, 141, 148 Panama, 148, 238 Papua New Guinea, 79, 148 Paraguay, 148 Pareto principle, 63, 65 Paris Club, 50 Paris heat waves, 99 Patents, 53 Path analysis in climate disaster data, 104 in cross-national indicators, 7 in statistical patterns of treaty ratification, 200–207 Paths of development assistance for, 210 dead ends, 234 defined, 112 emissions and, 137–138, 169–173 less carbon-intensive, 178 in North-South agreements, 232–239 participation in accords and, 198– 199 policy changes and, 180–189, 217– 218 Pension funds, 268 n161 People ‘‘affected by disasters,’’ numbers of defined, 68–69, 274 n9 Honduras hurricanes, 86 Index Mozambique cyclones, 87 numbers reported by press, 131 poverty’s role in, 81–83 smoothing data procedures, 71 statistical findings, 123–130 statistical predictors of, 104, 111 twenty-year figures for, 71–81 windstorm and flood casualties, 73– 76 Per capita emissions correlation with wealth, 153, 154 designating responsibility, 139, 144– 146 factors in, 159–160 findings, 158 in hybrid proposals, 151 income correlation, 147 ‘‘insider-outsider’’ networks and, 241 measuring, 154, 155 multisector agreements and, 284 n37 national rates, 141, 146, 148–149 paths of development and, 173–180 sectoral analysis, 170 statistical variables, 243 supporting groups, 284 n36 United States and, 180, 221 Per capita GDP in hybrid solutions, 152 modeling, 281 n87, 281 n89 poverty’s role in vulnerability, 81–83 service sector and, 178 statistical variables, 247 Perceptions. See Worldviews Periphery nations, 32, 35–36, 166, 170 Peru, 74–75, 149, 265 n135 Pew Center for Global Climate Change, 151 Pharmaceutical industries drug patents, 240, 267 n152 drug pricing, 240 HIV/AIDS drugs, 240 Philippines climate-related fatalities, homelessness, and affected populations, 73–76, 77, 78, 79 per capita emissions rates, 149 391 Physicalist conceptualizations of risk, 106 Plantations, 118, 307 n12 ‘‘Point source’’ economies, 279 n34 Poland, 50, 51, 141, 149 Policies changes needed in, 180–189, 217– 218 debt relief policy changes, 241 delegating trade policies, 236 developing diversified economies with, 217–218 ‘‘do-as-I-say-not-as-I-do’’ policies, 230 dollar policies, 49, 54–56, 264 n126, 267 n159 domestic policies, 53, 129 financial assistance and aid in, 217 fiscal policies, 51, 54–56 inequality and equality in, 51 International financial institutions (IFIs), 14 monetary policies, 49–50, 51, 54–56 new findings for, 217–218 paths of development and, 217–218 policy coalitions in North-South relations, 6 policy space, 229, 302 n59 stalemate on climate policy, 5 tariff escalation policies, 13, 14, 231, 234 trust and, 51, 54–56, 217–218 willingness to implement, 189–191 Policy space, 229, 302 n59 Political institutions in extractive states, 112, 114 fragile, 106 impact on press freedom, 121 Mozambique, 89 postcolonial Honduran system, 85 weakness tied to vulnerability, 96 Political leadership, 5 Political unrest, 30 ‘‘Polluter pays’’ principle, 139, 142, 146–150, 223, 285 n44, 300 n32 Polluting elites, 235, 296 n78 ‘‘Pollution haven’’ hypothesis, 170 392 Index Poor and developing nations carbon intensity and, 283 n32 climate funds for, 44 credibility and, 192 debt and obligations, 13 economic divide, 12–13 effects of disasters on, 71–81 emissions rates, 10, 153–163, 161, 218–219 emotions in decision making, 62 environmental damage in, 118–120 as exploited, 37–38 exports and, 171 fairness and, 61–66, 136 fatalities in natural disasters, 10 fight for financing at COP-10, 211– 213 forfeits under treaties, 61–62 GDP and natural disaster losses, 103 grandfathering and, 140 history of environmental negotiations, 45–46 international financial institutions’ impact on, 13–14 lack of agenda, 18 less developed countries (see Least developed countries) loans and, 264 n131 natural resource consumption, 286 n82 negotiation team size and skill inequities, 14–19 per capita approach to emissions and, 144–146 per capita income, 11 poverty’s role, 81–83 relative vs. absolute gains, 65 reluctance to commit to reductions, 135 responsibility for emissions and, 139 risk aversion in, 196 shortage of technical capacity, 8 structuralist worldviews, 34–35 sustainable economic development, 48–56 ‘‘today’s problems’’ focus, 229 trade and emissions correlation, 161 treaty ratification and, 208–209 understanding of ‘‘fair solutions,’’ 27 vulnerability of, 81–83, 107–108, 110–115 wealth and, 110–115 Population coastal, 119 correlation with emissions, 158, 159, 162, 181 correlation with ratification behavior, 206 density of, 115–117, 161, 162 disaster sampling methods, 71 growth, 45, 218–219 in high emissions countries, 156 at risk for flooding, 94 Porter, Gareth, 37, 38 Portugal, 44, 148 Positive-sum outcomes, 188 Positivist social science, 105, 195–196 Post-colonial nations. See Colonialism and postcolonial nations Post-consumer society. See Dematerialization Post-Fordism, 170 Postindustrial nations. See Dematerialization Post-Kyoto agreements carbon intensity negotiations and, 144 creating cooperation, 59–66 fairness principles in, 222–224 need for discussions, 134 prospects for, 219 Postmaterialist nations and values, 5, 163-164Potable water, 94, 95 Poverty. See also Income climate-related disasters and, 81–83 in global inequality, 8 Guatemalan earthquake and, 106 New Orleans and, 100 as underlying cause of death in disasters, 103 Power, M., 90 Power (generation), 151 Power (political and economic) balance of, in states, 235 Index bargaining (see Bargaining power) of financial assistance and aid, 216 go-it-alone power, 52, 56 import and export power, 175–176 in international environmental relations, 5 lack of, in Kyoto, 22, 215 power-based explanations, 295 n62 purchasing power parity, 112 rich nations and coercion, 199–200 theories on treaties and ratification behavior, 195 voting power, 225, 232 PPP (purchasing power parity), 112, 255 n67 Pragmatic justice approach to negotiations, 97 Prakash, Aseem, 240 Prebisch, Raul, 35, 165 Preference heterogeneity in beginnings of environmental negotiations, 45–46 in climate injustice, 6 disguising preferences, 63 expectations and, 44, 262 n87 mistrust and, 27 Preference score approach to emissions, 151 Prescott-Allen, Robert, 118 Press, freedom of the. See Media and freedom of the press Price signals, 185 Price volatility exports, 183 paths of development and, 234 price distortion, 287 n86 undervaluing prices, 167, 168 Primary products ecological debt and, 165 in Mozambique, 88 nonfuel, 171, 175–176 paths of development and, 234 pollution and, 234 in Tuvalu, 93 volatility of, 84, 168 Principled beliefs Albin on, 271 n200 393 climate injustice and, 6 post-Kyoto agreements and, 59 social constructivist theories, 197 treaties and ratification behavior and, 195–196 Prisoner’s dilemma, 262 n83 Private land, 276 n71 Privatization of state enterprises, 50– 51 Problem-solving statements, vs. rhetoric, 17 ‘‘Problem structure’’ of climate change, 7, 31–32 Project-Level Aid database, 223 Property rights correlation with suffering, 127, 128, 131 export base and, 130 in extractive states, 114 Honduras, 85 land grants, 122–123 modeling, 281 n87 as predictors of climate disaster losses, 104 protection of, 117 statistical variables, 245–246 Proportional equality, 140–142 Protectionism, 14, 57 Puerto Rico, 148 Purchasing power parity (PPP), 112, 255 n67 Putnam, Robert, 193 Quality of life index, 288 n109 Quiroga, Rayen, 288 n100 Racism, 99 Rahman, Atiq, 2, 43, 185–186, 299 n19 Rainstorms, 71, 109 Rajamani, Lavanya, 16 Ratification of accords correlation with emissions, 160, 162 critical elements in, 207–210, 295 n58 fairness in process, 64 index of, 187 394 Index Ratification of accords (cont.) modeling state behavior, 197–200 negotiation and ratification behavior, 188–191, 194–197 numbers of treaties ratified, 158, 261 n73 patterns of, 215–216 signaling factors for states, 189–191 statistical patterns in, 200–207, 292 n7 Rational choice institutionalism cooperation and, 188–189 omissions in, 294 n43 participation in agreements and, 191 ratification behavior and, 187, 196 ‘‘Rational fools,’’ 226 Rationalism allocating equal shares of blame, 135 failure of negotiations and, 27–29 hard and soft rationalist fairness, 226–227 in international relations, 7 predictions for vulnerable countries, 97 as reductionist, 107 trust issues and, 45, 57 Raw materials. See Natural resources; Primary products Reagan, Ronald, 231 Reaganism, 46 Realism. See also Institutionalism coercion and, 199–200 international law and, 271 n201 in international relations, 7 power-based explanations and, 295 n62 treaties and ratification behavior and, 195 Recessions, 49–50 Reciprocity, 41, 42, 62. See also Diffuse reciprocity; Specific reciprocity Red Cross, 72, 92, 103 Reelection, 190 Reforestation, 60 Refugees, climate, 10 Regimes. See States Regression analysis. See Multiple regression Regulations history of, in Mozambique, 89–90 informal civic structures, 115–117 soft and hard law, 58 Reinhardt, E., 54 Relative gains, 65 Religious issues, 240 Religious response to climate change, 277 n100 Renewables revolution, 233 Rents and rent seeking artificially created rents, 304 n90 in extractive states, 193 innovation-enhancing and innovation-retarding rents, 237 monopoly rents, 304 n97 in Mozambique, 90 participation in treaties and, 199 types of rents, 304 n97 Reporting functions in UNFCCC and Kyoto, 18–19 Republic of Korea. See South Korea (ROK) Reputation, 261 n69 Rescue efforts in disasters, 91–92, 100, 114 Research and development economies, 177 Resource booms, 193 Resource-dependent nations. See Extractive states; Natural resources; Primary products Responsibility for climate change assigning, 135, 137 blame in, 10 carbon intensity approach, 138, 142– 144 changes in current policy negotiations, 180–189, 218–219 cleaning up emissions (see Mitigation of climate change) dematerialization and, 163–164, 169 development pathways and, 169– 173, 173–180 Index displacement and offshoring of emissions, 137 ecological debt, 163–164 environmentally unequal trade, 163– 164 extreme inequality of, 152–153 fairness principles and, 136 grandfathering, 138–142 historical responsibility (polluter pays), 139, 146–150 hybrid proposals, 137, 150–153, 182 measurements, 215 multiple regression analysis, 137 negotiating, 7 per capita approach, 139, 144–146 reasons for high emissions, 153–163 Retaliatory attitudes, 29, 65–66 Reunion, 148 Reuschemeyer, Dietrich, 121–122 Rice, Condoleezza, 142 Richards, Michael, 15 Richest people in the world, 254 n60 Rich nations coercion, 199–200 credibility and, 301 n45 economic divide, 12–13 effects of disasters on, 71–81 emissions rates, 10, 218 as exploiters, 37–38 fairness and, 27, 136 in history of environmental negotiations, 45–46 import carbon load, 177 issue linkage, 262 n84 natural resource consumption, 286 n82 per capita approach to emissions and, 144–146 per capita income, 11 poverty and, 81–83 reasons for high emissions, 153–163 trade and emissions correlation, 161 unmet promises of, 53–54, 209 wealth and vulnerability, 110–115 Ricupero, Rubens, 39 Rioþ5, New York, 1997, 2–3 Rio Earth Summit, 1992 395 differences of perception at, 36–37 environmental colonialism and, 37– 38 mistrust at, 47 rights to development and, 25–26 Rio Bargain, 214, 225 Rio Declaration, 25–26 sustainable development proposed funding, 223–224 United States reaction to UNFCC, 3– 4 unraveling promises, 225 Risk. See Vulnerability of societies Risk aversion absence of shared understanding and, 29 jump-starting entrepreneurs and, 236 in Kyoto Protocol, 185 lack of information and, 237 rationalist theories on, 196 results of, in poor nations, 51–52 vulnerability and, 64–65 Roberts, J. Timmons, 198 Robinson, Joan, 52 Robinson, N. A., 235 Rodrik, Dani on complex investment barriers, 239 on domestic elites, 235–236 on exogenous components of policies, 250 on low-level equilibrium trap, 237 on policy space, 302 n59 on sovereignty, 266 n145 on TRIPS, 13, 267 n152 on view of multinationals, 260 n54 on Washington Consensus, 264 n135 on WTO, 39 Romania, 148 Røpke, I., 287 n86 Rotterdam Convention, 294 n37 Ruggie, John Gerard, 263 n96 Rules, informal vs. formal, 58 Rural areas disaster vulnerability, 115 emergency response systems, 280 n51 export base and, 130 in high emissions countries, 156 396 Index Russia emissions rates, 140–141, 149 heat waves, 73 Kyoto bargaining, 140 Kyoto ratification, 5, 59, 212 results of liberalization and privatization, 50 Rwanda, 148 Sachs, Wolfgang, 270 n196 Sagar, Ambuj, 18 Salient solutions, 5 Samoa, 79, 80, 148 Sanitary and phytosanitary measures, 53 São Tomé and Principe and Principe, 148 Sari, Agus, 43 Saudi Arabia, 134, 141, 179, 181 Schelling, Thomas, 220, 299 n14 Schumpterian rents, 304 n97 Scientific burden of proof, 5 Scientists as delegates, 15–16 ‘‘Scissors effect,’’ 275 n35 Sea levels, 92–95 Sea temperatures, 83, 98 Sectoral analysis of emissions, 169– 173 Securitization of financial flows, 268 n160 Selden, T. M., 157, 161 Self-enforcing agreements difficulties of, 44 game theory and, 61 information and, 270 n195 Montreal Protocol, 270 n191 need for, 41 Self interest equity and, 59–60 ‘‘finishing last,’’ 228 future agreements and, 220–221 in negotiations, 5, 188 social constructivist theories, 197 Self perception, 62, 64–65 Sell, Susan, 222–223, 240 Semiperiphery nations, 32, 36, 166 Sen, Amarya, 107, 121 Senegal, 148 Service sectors correlation with emissions, 156, 159, 161, 162, 172, 174, 176–177, 233– 234 offshoring, 177 statistical variables, 247 Settler colonies, 116 Seychelles, 148 Shafer, D. Michael, 169–170, 171, 288 n110, 289 n111 Shantytowns, 116 ‘‘Shared, but differentiated responsibility’’ principles, 142 Shared beliefs, 222 Sharma, Anju, 18 Shocks. See Exogenous shocks and crises Sidaway, J. D., 90 Sierra Leone, 148, 212 Signals of reassurance. See Costly signals ‘‘Single Undertaking,’’ 52, 265 n144 Situation-specific theory, 258 n11 Slavery, 99 Slovakia, 148 Slovenia, 149 Small-n datasets, 23 Smog, 162 Snidal, Duncan, 258 n9, 294 n39 Social capital, 113 Social constructivist theories, 197 Social entropy, 288 n97 Social justice, 2–5. See also Climate injustice ‘‘Soft’’ law, 58 Soil depletion, 6, 85, 91, 94, 118–119, 244 Sokoloff, Kenneth L., 307 n12 Solomon Islands, 79, 148 Somalia, 77, 78, 79 South Africa, 87, 141, 149 South America. See Latin America Southern Africa Customs Union, 236 Southern nations. See also Poor and developing nations; specific nations caps on emissions and, 283 n31 ecological debt perspective, 164–165 ecologically unequal exchange, 184 Index effects of disasters on, 71–81 financial crises, 55–56 perceptions of North, 38, 61–62 resource harvesting and damage, 119 self-definition, 32 worldviews, 231 South Korea (ROK) affected populations from climate disasters, 78 economic meltdown, 39–40 emissions rates, 141 flouting of Washington Consensus, 51 homelessness from climate disasters, 78 manufacturing in, 289 n111 middle class, 235 per capita emissions rates, 149 reverse engineering, 267 n152 Washington Consensus and, 265 n135 South Summit, Havana, 2000, 149 Sovereignty, 62, 266 n145 Soviet Union, 301 n43. See also ExSoviet republics; Russia ‘‘Spaceship Earth,’’ 10 Spain, 141, 149 Special Climate Change Fund, 301 n50 Special Report on Emissions Scenarios (SRES), 24, 149, 233, 257 n99 Specific reciprocity, 42 Sprinz, Detlef F., 189, 197 Squatter settlements, 117, 120 Sri Lanka climate-related fatalities, homeless, and affected populations, 76, 77, 78, 79 crops in, 289 n111 per capita emissions rates, 148 St. Helena, 148 St. Kitts-Nevis, 148 St. Lucia, 79, 148 St. Pierre and Miq, 149 St. Vincent and Grenada, 149 States acquiring credibility, 191–194 as entrepreneurs, 49 factors in inequality, 8–9 nation-states, defined, 186 397 negotiation and ratification behavior, 188–191, 194–197 participating in accords, 186–188 signaling factors for commitment, 189–191 sovereignty, 62, 266 n145 synthetic approach to cross-national indicators, 7 types of regimes, 190 Statistical variables, 245–246 Stavins, Robert, 176, 268 n169 Steensnaes, Einar, 42 Stein, Arthur, 41–42 ‘‘Sticky’’ principles, 222, 223 Stiglitz, Joseph, 51, 266 n145 Stockholm 1972 Summit on Environment and Development differences of perception at, 36–37 divide between economic and environmental issues, 182 preference heterogeneity and discord at, 45–46 right to development issues, 26 social justice vs. environmental protection issues, 2 Stove technology, 232 Strategic trust, 45, 226 Stresses, 274 n10. See also Exogenous shocks and crises Structural barriers to development, 30–31 Structuralist worldviews ecological debt research, 165 in economics, 36 international systems viewed through, 31, 32–33 in North-South relations, 6, 7, 30 as result of global inequality, 26–27 state credibility and, 192–193 vulnerability and, 107–108 Subramanian, Arvind, 13, 302 n59 Subsidies, 217 Subsistence agriculture, 94 Sudan 1984 drought, 72 climate-related fatalities, homelessness, and affected populations, 74, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80 398 Index Sudan (cont.) emissions rates, 141, 148 famine in, 107 Suffering effects of climate change. See Vulnerability of societies Suharto, Haji Mohammad, 235 Summers, Lawrence, 268 n164, 302 n57 Summit on Environment and Development. See Stockholm 1972 Summit on Environment and Development Suriname, 148 Sustainable development COP-8 negotiations, 133–134 costs of, 3 debates over, 6 development pathways, 138 ecological debt and, 166 as fairness principle, 223 rights to, 134 Rio Earth summit demands, 47 Southern countries’ internalization of, 300 n39 trust environment and negotiations, 48–56 Swart, Rob, 229 Swaziland, 79, 80, 87, 148 Sweden, 44, 141, 142, 148 Switzerland climate funds, 44 emissions rates, 148 flooding, 273 n8 GEF funding and, 228 per capita approach to emissions, 144, 241 Synthetic approach to cross-national indicators, 7 Syria, 148 Taiwan dollar standard and, 55 orchid industry, 239 per capita emissions rates, 149 reverse engineering, 267 n152 Washington Consensus and, 51, 265 n135 Tajikistan, 79, 148 Talake, Koloa, 92 Tanzania, 78, 148 Tariff escalation policies, 13, 14, 231, 234 Tarp, Finn, 88 Taxes accountability and, 193 effects of, in civil society, 122 tax code changes, 50 Taylor, John, 227 Technical capacity in inequality, 8 Technological disasters, 70 Technology transfer bargaining for, 46 BIT grants, 266 n147 climate funds, 44 costs of, 44 encouraging, 53 as good bargaining tool, 24 investing in, 60, 225 nonbinding language, 45 policy space and, 182 reneging on, 3, 53–54, 186 Televised images of disasters, 91–92 Temperature, 218 Temperature rises, 9 Thailand, 78, 148, 235 Thatcherism, 46 Thermodynamic law, economies and, 287 n97 Third-party enforcement of contracts, 41 Thunderstorms, 71, 109 Tidal waves, 71, 109 Timber industries, 118, 236 Time sensitivity of climate change, 7 Togo, 148 Tonga, 79, 80, 149, 277 n99 Tornadoes, 71, 109 Total emissions factors in, 159–160 findings, 141, 158 measuring, 154, 155 paths of development and, 173– 180 sectoral analysis and, 170 Index statistical variables, 243 United States, 180 Tourism economies, 100, 176–177 ‘‘Toyotism,’’ 170 Trade advantages to Northern countries, 38–39 bilateral agreements, 13, 14, 50, 230 correlation with emissions, 159, 161, 162 declining terms of, 30, 234 delegating trade policies, 236 ecologically unequal exchange, 164, 165–167, 177, 184 in high emission countries, 157 importance to poor nations, 175 multilateral agreements, 13, 14, 51, 265 n139 statistical variables, 247 Trading emission credits. See Carbon permits and trading Translations of documents, 256 n82 Transnational corporations. See Multinational corporations Transparency, need for, 188 Transportation economies, 177 Travel subsidies for delegates, 211 Treaties and accords. See also names of specific treaties acquiring credibility, 191–194 changes needed in, 23–24 critical elements for ratification, 207– 210 flaunting of, 38 growth in number of, 42 index of ratification, 187 inequities in negotiations, 14–19 language in, 295 n59 modeling ratification behavior, 197– 200 numbers of environmental agreements signed, 158, 160, 162, 261 n73 participation in, 186–188 ratification patterns, 215–216 self-enforcing, 41, 44, 61, 270 n191, 270 n195 399 signaling factors for states, 189–191 statistical patterns of participation, 200–207 theories on negotiation and ratification, 188–191, 194–197 without viable enforcement, 292 n4 TRIMS (Agreement on Trade-Related Investment Measures), 38–39, 52– 54, 266 n145 TRIPS (Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights) abandoning, 217 advantages to Northern countries, 38–39 defined, 266 n145 inequities of, 13 perspectives on, 231–232 pharmaceutical industries and, 267 n152 real intentions behind, 39 results of, 53–54 Triptych proposal, 151 Tropical storms, 71, 109 Trust issues absence of shared understanding and, 29 breakdown of negotiations and, 26– 27, 62 building shared worldviews, 230– 232 in climate injustice, 6 climate negotiations and, 56–59 conditions for, 42 costly signals and, 224–228, 261 n82 development issues and environment issues, 56–59 growing lack of, 269 n179 Hobbesian view of, 261 n67 income inequality and, 262 n88 as linked to other issues, 44–45 moralistic and strategic trust, 45, 226 necessary policy steps and, 217–218 in noncooperation, 40–47 positive spillovers, 263 n119 rationalist theories on, 196 400 Index Trust issues (cont.) strategic restraint in, 228–230 structuralist worldview and, 33 sustainable development issues and, 48–56 sustaining trust, 57–58 Washington Consensus and, 51 Tunisia, 149 Turkey, 148 Turkmenistan, 149 Tuvalu, 92–95, 214, 277 n100 Twain, Mark, 226 Typhoon Brendan, 72, 96 Typhoons, 71, 72, 96, 109 Uganda, 148 Ukraine, 141, 149 Umbrella Group, 17 Uncertainty, high levels of, 7 UNCTAD. See United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) Underreporting, 126–127 UNDP. See United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) UNEP. See United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) UNFCCC. See United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) UNGASS (United Nations Special Session for Review and Appraisal of Agenda 21), 224 UN-HABITAT (United Nations Human Settlements Program), 90 Unions, 236 United Kingdom climate funds, 44 emissions rates, 141, 149 GEF funding and, 228 historical responsibility emissions approach, 139 ‘‘polluter pays’’ approach, 146 United Nations Charter language, 62 economic vulnerability index, 93 travel subsidies for delegates, 211 United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development (CDC), 17 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, Nairobi, 2 United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) Export Diversification Index, 113, 198, 250, 279 n34 United Nations Convention on Law of the Sea, 145 United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) on disaster-related deaths, 103 income statistics, 11 in ‘‘insider-outsider’’ networks, 240 on island states, 93 Objective Indicators of Governance dataset, 122 United Nations Economic Commission on Latin America, 165 United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Collaborating Centre on Energy and Environment, 255 n71 on scientist representation at negotiations, 256 n90 World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 118 United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 85–86, 118 United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR), 255 n71 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). See also COP-6, COP7, etc. financial aid contingencies, 296 n72 first principles in, 3 national reporting in, 18–19 priorities of developing countries and, 257 n1 translations of documents, 256 n82 United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), 72, 76 United Nations Pan American Health Organization, 72 Index United Nations Special Session for Review and Appraisal of Agenda 21 (UNGASS), 224 United Nations World Food Program, 92 United States American lifestyle as ‘‘not open for negotiation,’’ 3 Asian financial crisis and, 39–40 backsliding on emissions targets, 225 bilateral investment treaty template, 266 n145 carbon intensity approach to emissions, 142 climate-related fatalities, homelessness, and affected populations, 74, 77, 78, 79, 80– 81 debt relief policy changes, 241 debt servicing and OPEC, 49–50 delegates at treaty negotiations, 15 dollar policies, 49, 54–56, 264 n126, 267 n159 emissions rates, 10, 140–141, 180, 299 n10 environmentalists, 236, 305 n104 GEF funding, 227–228 heat waves, 73 historical responsibility emissions approach, 139 HIV/AIDS drugs and, 240 Hurricane Katrina, 98–101, 241– 242 hurricanes, 67–68 LDC fund and, 212 opposition to Kyoto, 3–4, 60, 140, 142–143 opposition to Montreal Protocol, 46– 47 opposition to per capita approach, 221 opposition to right to development, 25–26 per capita emissions rates, 146, 148– 149 per capita pollution rates, 4 401 ‘‘polluter pays’’ approach to emissions, 146 raw material exports, 288 n105 service sector and emissions, 233– 234 standstills in deliberations and, 134 unions, 236 Washington Consensus conditions, 50 wealth and death rates, 279 n37 whaling issues and, 195 United States Agency for International Development (USAID), 67, 73 United States Federal Reserve Board, 268 n160 United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 72 United States Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance (OFDA), 68, 72 United States Treasury, 39–40 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 62 University of Utrecht, 151 Urban air pollution, 232 Urbanization coastal, 119, 120 correlation with emissions, 163, 181 correlation with suffering, 123, 125, 129, 131 emergency response systems and, 280 n51 in high emissions countries, 156 as predictors of climate disaster losses, 104 statistical variables, 245 urban heat-island effect, 73 vulnerability and, 115–117 Uruguay, 149 Uruguay Round trade negotiations, 1994, 52 Uslaner, Eric, 45, 262 n88 Utilitarian theory of justice, 143 Uzbekistan, 148 Vaahtoranta, T., 189, 197 Values, postmaterialist, 5 402 Index Vanuatu climate-related fatalities, homelessness, and affected populations, 79, 80 per capita emissions rates, 148 potential flooding of, 94 Variables in indices, 245–246 Venezuela climate-related fatalities, homelessness, and affected populations, 74, 77 emissions rates, 141, 148 flooding, 72, 96, 107, 273 n8 Vernon, Raymond, 210, 296 n78 Victim mentality, 27, 33, 197 Victor, David, 59, 185 Victor, Jean-Andre, 68 Vietnam climate-related fatalities, homelessness, and affected populations, 76, 77, 78, 79 dollar standard and, 55 flouting of Washington Consensus, 51 per capita emissions rates, 148 Virgin Islands, 79 Voice and accountability indicators correlation with emissions, 159, 161– 162 correlation with ratification behavior, 201, 202, 205, 206 as factor in willingness to ratify agreements, 189, 199, 210 government effectiveness and, 297 n95 index of, 157–158 open government and, 296 n82 statistical variables, 246 Volcanoes, 109 Volcker, Paul, 264 n131 Voting power, 222, 225, 232 Vulnerability of societies assessments of, 18 civic society and, 120–123 coastal populations and, 118–120 correlation with ratification behavior, 203, 205 defined, 68 disparity between nations, 81 economic vulnerability index, 93 elements of, 214–215 environmental damage and, 118–120 as factor in willingness to ratify treaties, 189, 198–199, 210 fatalities, homelessness, and those affected by disasters, 68–72 global nature of, 10 Hurricane Katrina and, 98–101 increases in, 95 inequality in, 110–115 informality and, 115–117 island nations, 269 n183 modeling, 109–123 Mozambique cyclones and, 87–92 in negotiations, 7 poverty and, 81–83 press freedom and, 120–123 research and conceptualizations, 105, 106–109 risk and, 118–120, 120–123 root causes of, 103–106 self perception and risk aversion, 64– 65 social vulnerability, 125–126 statistical findings, 77–78, 123–130 Tuvalu, 92–95 urbanization and, 115–117 wealth and, 110–115 Wacziarg, Romain, 178 Wade, Robert, 18, 58, 230, 255 n67 Wagner, Lynn, 17 Wallerstein, Immanuel, 36, 192 Wall Street 1990s capital markets and, 56 Asian financial crisis and, 39–40 loan syndication, 264 n125 OPEC’s effect on, 49–50 Wallstrom, Margot, 57 Washington Consensus as conditioning for WTO, 266 n145 failure of, 56, 61 history of, 50–52 markets and, 237 Index Rodrik’s ‘‘Martian experiment’’ and, 264 n135 Water quality, 118, 232 Watson, Harlan, 144 Watson, Robert, 64 Watts, M. J., 105 WCED (World Commission on Environment and Development), 223 Wealth correlation with emissions, 153, 154, 159, 162–163 correlation with suffering, 123, 125 export base and, 130 measuring, 280 n45 per capita GDP and, 131 richest people in the world, 254 n60 Weather, 110. See also Climate change West Africa, 118–119 West Sahara, 148 Whaling Convention, 195 White, Harry Dexter, 303 n64 WHO (World Health Organization), 240 Windfall profits, 122, 193, 236 Windstorms, 68, 73–76, 74–75 Winter storms, 71, 109 Wisher, Ben, 106, 120–121, 280 n44 WMO (World Meteorological Organization), 94 Wolfensohn, James, 241, 305 n110 Working Groups (IPCC), 18, 256 n89 World Bank categorization of nations, 170–173 debt relief policy changes, 241 on dematerialization and, 164 development push in 1970s, 179 on disaster-related deaths, 103 Environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis, 182–183 export data, 156–157 fatalities in developing countries, 10 on inequality, 298 n7 in ‘‘insider-outsider’’ networks, 240 neoclassical thinking of, 237 on per capita income globally, 11 training in negotiations, 255 n71 403 Washington Consensus conditions, 50 World Commission on Environment and Development, 223 World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 118 World Conservation Union, 118, 199, 208 World Disasters Report, 94 World Economic Forum, 89, 90 World Health Organization, 240 World Meteorological Organization (WMO), 94 World Resources Institute, 138–139, 269 n170 World Summit on Sustainable Development, Johannesburg, 2002, 3, 47, 57, 224 World-systems theory commodity chain approach, 289 n115, 290 n134 credibility and, 192–193 defined, 36 ecological debt concept and, 165– 166 inequality and resulting behavior, 198 international systems and, 31, 32–33 ratification and, 187, 207 treaties and, 294 n45 World Trade Organization (WTO) Cancun WTO Ministerial Conference, 2003, 17, 265 n144 ‘‘deep integration’’ agenda, 39 dematerialization and, 164 dispute resolution mechanism (DSM), 53, 54 diversification of exports and, 255 n65 economic rationales in, 39 onerous requirements of, 213 state sovereignty and, 266 n145 Worldviews based on observation, 29–30 building shared worldviews, 230– 232 in climate injustice, 6 404 Index Worldviews (cont.) defined, 34, 259 n24 needed changes in policies, 218 in noncooperation, 33–40, 62 World Vision, 165, 305 n109 World War II, 241 World Wildlife Fund, 165, 305 n109 WRI (World Resources Institute), 138–139, 269 n170 WSSD (World Summit on Sustainable Development, Johannesburg, 2002), 3, 47, 57, 224 WTO. See World Trade Organization (WTO) Yeats, Alexander, 289 n115 Yemen, 78, 148 Young, Oran on concessions, 65 on cooperation dilemmas, 272 n207 on fairness, 257 n7, 270 n194 on Whaling Convention, 195 Yugoslavia, 148 Zaire, 141, 146, 148 Zambia, 148, 240, 289 n111 Zenawi, Meles, 72 Zero-sum behavior absence of shared understanding and, 29 in climate injustice, 6 emotion and, 65–66 rationalist theories on, 196 structuralist worldview and, 33 Zimbabwe, 78, 80, 87, 149 Zürn, Michael, 221
