Cilt 1, Sayı 1, 2013 / Vol. 1, Issue 1, 2013
A Comparative Study of The Common Characteristics of National
Heroes in Folk Tales: Köroğlu, Kalevipoeg and Daedalus
Erkan YÜCE*, Aslı Özlem TARAKÇIOĞLU**
Abstract
Folk tales, as the products of literary oral tradition, display many common
characteristics in their form, content and themes. However, at the same time, they have a
local or national touch in them which differs them from the others. Thus, national heroes
in folk tales represent the cultural diversities which constitute a perfect unity in which
similarities as well as differences among morals, values, value judgments, images and
traditions are presented. So, this study aims to compare the common characteristics of
three national folk tale heroes, Köroğlu (Turkey), Kalevipoeg (Estonia) and Daedalus
(Greece), although they are from completely different geographies, cultures and
traditions.
Key words: folk tale, folk tale tradition, national heroes.
Halk Hikâyelerindeki Ulusal Kahramanların Ortak Özelliklerinin Karşılaştırmalı
Bir Çalışması: Köroğlu, Kalevipoeg ve Daedalus
Özet
Edebiyatta sözlü geleneğin bir ürünü olan Halk Hikâyeleri, şekil, içerik ve tema
açısından pekçok benzerlik göstermektedir. Ancak bu hikâyelerde aynı zamanda belli
bölgelere ait hikâyeleri diğerlerinden ayıran yerel farklılıklar da vardır. Halk
hikâyelerinde rastladığımız ulusal kahramanlar bir yandan kendi kültürlerine has
özellikleri sergilerken, diğer yandan da evrensel değerlerin, değer yargılarının ve
kuralların birer temsilcisi olarak çıkarlar karşımıza. Bu çalışma da, bu çerçevede üç ayrı
coğrafya, kültür ve gelenekten gelen üç farklı ulusal halk hikâyesi kahramanının
(Köroğlu/ Türkiye, Kalevipoeg/Estonya ve Daedalus/Yunanistan) ortak özelliklerini
karşılaştırmayı amaçlamaktadır.
Anahtar Kelimeler: halk hikayesi, halk hikayesi geleneği, ulusal kahramanlar.
* Graduate student, Gazi University, Education Faculty, Division of English Language Teaching,
e-mail: erkanyuce03@gmail.com
** Assist. Prof. Gazi University, Education Faculty, Division of English Language Teaching
e-mail: aslioz@gazi.edu.tr
60 | Erkan YÜCE, Aslı Özlem TARAKÇIOĞLU
1. Introduction
Culture is the collection and the accumulation of the common human
experience and literature is one of the major means to pass down the elements of
cultures from one generation to the other. Among the literary genres, folk tales, the
most representative examples of narrative prose found in the oral tradition, have a
privileged state since they transmit the components of cultures conveying traditions,
customs, beliefs and ways of life of common people with a moral or message in the
background. Folk tales perfectly characterize the mutual and universal but at the
same time diverging experiences of human beings situated in different social,
cultural, political, geographical and anthropological areas and eras; that is, folk tales
are one of the major elements of national/regional cultural heritages as well as being
a prominent part of the mutual cultural heritage of humanity. On the one hand, they
display individual experiences by showing ideal manners and attitudes in a specific
society; on the other hand, they convey universal messages affirmed and suggested
in any and every society aiming to unite humanity under universally accepted
norms of truth, peace, democracy, equality and beauty.
The basic element in a folk tale is the hero or the heroine and the tales about
national heroes have many mutual qualifications in almost all cultures. His/her
personality is of great importance because the way he/she acts and reacts gives a
clear insight into the very essence and particular traits of the culture he/she belongs
to as well as mirroring crucial collective values such as honesty, tolerance, justice,
mercy, helpfulness and love of animals (Antti, 1961). The other basic components
such as traditions, beliefs, food culture or setting in a folk tale may vary greatly;
however although they are formed by a variety of cultural, geographical and
religious background characteristics, national heroes are the most typical and similar
features in folk tales (Propp, 1968). So, this study includes three “national hero” tales
from three “different cultures” from “different parts” of Europe; Köroğlu, the Brave
Bard from Turkey, Daedalus and Icarus from Greece and Kalevipoeg and the Hedgehog
from Estonia.
The article is organized as follows; the first section is a brief review of
literature about the definition, origins and history of folk tales. The second section
compares the three national folk tale heroes. The final section is the conclusion.
A Comparative Study of the Common Characteristics of National Heroes in Folk Tales...| 61
2. Review of Literature
First, it seems essential to define the key concepts; what a folk tale is, its
origins and historical background.
a. Definition of Folk Tales
It is difficult to put clear cut definitions of oral, folk and literary tales however
the most evident characteristic of the folktale is its being a part of oral tradition.
Basically, a folk tale is a tale or a legend originating and traditional among a people
or folk, especially forming part of the oral tradition of the common people. They are
the shared borrowings of humanity adopted to the local circumstances and they are
used as one of the major means of passing on people’s experience and knowledge
about nature, people’s traditions and beliefs from a generation to the following ones
(Lüthi, 1982; O’Sullivan,2005: Uther,2004 ).
They come from all directions; the East, the west, the North and the South and
they keep moving further getting enriched through generations and along
geographies. They generally reach from one geography to the other by means of
intertextuality, adaptation, translation and imitation.
Most of the time, they are described as the early pillars of social morality,
religious commands as well as being stepping stones for cultural contact and
transmission. They highly interfere with the cultural life of all societies because they
include many elements from prehistoric times as well as culturally specific time and
space of that particular group. They engage the listener/reader affectively while at
the same time requiring cognitive attention (Lüthi, 1982; O’Sullivan, 2005: Uther,
2004).
Being an important means of communication, folktales play a central in
establishing social and cultural unity; they represent common and shared values
along with native cultural heritages. At the same time, they cross borders and
convey universal themes and messages in order to unite humanity under universally
accepted norms and ideals.
62 | Erkan YÜCE, Aslı Özlem TARAKÇIOĞLU
b. The Origin and the History of Folk Tales
It is possible to find a variety of theories about the origins of folk tales, still,
the best classification seems to have been done recently by Jack Zipes. In his book
Why Fairy Tales Stick (2006), Jack Zipes points two main theories related to the
origins for folk tales. The first one is Monogenesis, which tends to the idea that folk
tales derive from one particular source such as myths. Theodor Benfey (1809−1881),
along with the Brothers Grimms, supports this theory. Furthermore, Benfey claims
the origin of the genre to be the ancient India. According to him, folk tales, then,
expand to Persia, and then to the Arabic−speaking world. The second theory is
Polygenesis, developed by Joseph Bedier (1864−1938), the French folklorist.
According to his theory, the folk tales blossom independently in different places and
they are formed, reformed, cultivated and enriched by storytellers. This theory takes
its ground from the assumption that humans go through similar processes and
experiences throughout the world and it is natural that they respond to the
environment and events in similar ways by using the different variations of the same
motif(s) depending on the geography, history, society, and religion which mold the
culture they belong to.
The history of folk tales is a subject of a whole anthology, yet, just to give in a
nutshell, the written history of the folk tales can be traced back to the publishment of
The Pleasant Night (Le Piacevoli Notti), the collection of folk tales by an Italian writer,
Gian Francesco Straparola (1480−1558), in Venice in 1508. Indeed, Giovanni
Boccaccion’s Decameron (1348−53), or The Arabian Nights, also known as The Thousand
and One Nights (9th century) or Don Juan Manuel Count Lucanor (El conde Lucanor,
1335) are the framework for the tales during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.
Giambattista Basile (1575−1632) publishes The Tale of Tales, or Entertainment for Little
Ones (La cunto deli cunti overo lo trattenemiento de peccerille, 1634−6) also known as
Pentamerone of which structure follows Panchatantra (Five Books), the famous Indian
collection of fables (approx. 11th century). However, folktales turn into a focus for
academic interest only since the beginning of the 19th century.
3. National Heroes in Folk Tales
It is very common that folk tales about national heroes and heroines (though
they are rather rare) can be found in every culture. The major characters, structure of
A Comparative Study of the Common Characteristics of National Heroes in Folk Tales...| 63
their tales and the hero−related themes have many mutual qualifications in almost
all folk tales, which also lays a ground for comparatively more recent versions of
heroic stories. In Bruno Bettleheim’s words, “Through the characters on the page,
children are able to live out their worst fears and their fondest wishes. Valuable life
lessons are conveyed through the stories which children readily absorb in a
non−threatening and even enjoyable context” (1976, p. 12).
These tales may well have some drastic changes due to the geographical,
religious, social and cultural differences in which the folk tale has been formed.
However, when the folk tale heroes and heroines of various geographies and
cultures are studied, it is inevitable to find out many parallels between the personal
traits and experiences of them, although national and regional traits in
character/characterization are highly shaped by geographical conditions, cultural
differences and formations, which this study aims to exemplify through the tales of
three national heroes of various geographies; Köroğlu (Turkey), Daedalus (Greece)
and Kalevipoeg (Estonia).
Before making a detailed comparison among the heroes, it seems necessary to
give a brief summary of their tales and characteristics. Köroglu is a great Turkish
national hero (as well as being a trickster) who throws himself into struggles and
succeeds in the end; he frequently makes use of clever disguises to achieve his goal;
he rebels against the Bey of Bolu, the cruel oppressor and takes the revenge of his
father and the other tortured people. Although he is basically a robber, and even
sometimes coarse in his manners, Köroglu is, however, soon transformed into the
avenger hero of the oppressed people against the tyrannical ruler of the region in a
similar story that of Robin Hood, an outlaw fighting for social justice. Kalevipoeg is
the youngest son of a malicious giant known with the name of Kalev, Kalevine,
Kalevipoiss, Kalevine Posikine and Kalevin Poika in ancient Estonian folklore. Kalev
fights against other giants as well as enemies of the nation. Kalevipoeg is born after
his father dies and he is more intelligent and stronger than his brothers. He is
responsible for shaping surface structures on landscape and bodies of water and
building towns. He uses stones and planks to destroy the enemies of the nation.
Finally, Daedalus is a legendary Athenian architect and inventor, who builds the
labyrinth for Minos on Crete. Daedalus is in fact a descendant of Athens, but he kills
his nephew, who is a more skilled artist, out of jealousy and takes refuge in Crete.
There, he works for King Minos. He designs the famous labyrinth where the
64 | Erkan YÜCE, Aslı Özlem TARAKÇIOĞLU
Minotaur is kept, but when Minos does not keep his promise to release him, he
fashions wings for himself and his son, Icarus, to flee the island, which ends in the
death of Icarus.
Basically, in folk tales, the hero motifs, though they are considered to be the
national ones, take their basis from the demigod cult in almost every culture. So it is
not a coincidence that most of the time, even though they are completely a part of
the physical human world, national heroes and heroines are equipped with some
godlike or superhuman qualities. Moreover, their adventures may well have
mythological significance. Kalevipoeg, indeed, is a giant and, due to his physical
appearance, he is the most fictional hero among the others covered in this study. He
is a demi−god and bestowed with the ability to sculpt geographical formations of the
world. Furthermore, he can re−form natural elements as he does when he “grabbed a
handful of fir needles and threw them at the naked creature” to create a hedgehog
out of a rat. His story is a reference to the mythic stories related to the creation of the
world and the elements and creatures within. Although Köroğlu is supposed to be a
historical figure and even a real personality− especially when compared to
Kalevipoeg and Daedalus− he is still armed with supernatural support. Like his
counterparts in this study, he also displays courage, wit and national character
strengthened by mystical interference. He has the Kırat with which “no living horse
will ever be able to match …… in terms of its beauty and power” after staying in a
dark cave. Additionaly, upon drinking the “silver foam” of the magical spring,
Köroğlu turns into an “invincible warrior” who can challenge the authority as well
as the other outlaws. Daedalus, in the same way is almost a superhuman with his
“very good mind and magic hands” and his personal and professional qualifications
as “an inventor, a good technician, a sculptor, an architect, and also a builder.”
Actually, he is a perfect representation of the desire of man to fly and of the fear of
eternal failure.
When the mythic representations and demigod cult in the depiction of heroic
figures are considered, it is not surprising to find the counterparts of these figures in
the neighboring regions and cultures. Kalevipoeg’s deeds and adventures have
many parallels and similarities with Kalevala, the Finnish epic. The same figure can
also be found in the epics of other Scandinavian countries. Similarly, it is possible to
find the story of Köroğlu with almost an identical story under the names of Koroğlu
A Comparative Study of the Common Characteristics of National Heroes in Folk Tales...| 65
Dastanı in Azerbaijan, Görogly Dessany in Turkmenistan, and Ko‘ro‘g‘li Dostoni in
Uzbekistan.
These national heroes are also the stereotypes of patriarchal culture and from
C.G. Jung’s point of view they are presented in all folktales as hero archetypes. They
represent the values of a manly and heroic society in which only the strongest
survive. So, heroism is mainly the basic characteristic of the male hero. That’s why
female characters as main figures are rare in folk tales. If the main hero is a female,
this heroine motif is generally represented as the girl in disguise such as Jean d’Arc,
Mulan, Vasilisa, The Maiden Tsar, The Girl as a Soldier; Fanta−Ghiro the beautiful.
Beautiful Vida from Slovenia, for example, is a female folk tale character; still her life
represents the values of a patriarchal world in which women are supposed to play
certain roles. Even her song is an appreciation and praise about the patriarchal
system and most versions of her story end unhappily.
Still, female figures are not completely excluded from the lives of folk tale
national heroes; rather, the female figures take a symbolic role in this unyielding
world of these tough men. The women in the lives of these heroes are generally
portrayed as devoted mothers or wives; Kalevipoeg starts his adventure in search of
his kidnapped mother and through his journey, her rescues three maidens from the
hell and the Satan. He also has a devoted lover who kills herself for his love. Köroğlu
has wives; all are devoted to and deeply in love with him while Daedalus has
Nafcratis, his wife, symbolically a slave, not only to the system of Minos but also by
the demands of patriarchal system. Both Köroğlu and Daedalus have sons by these
women− it is not a coincidence that their children are also male to maintain the
heroic code in the patriarchal system. It is notable that both women are almost
completely kept out of the stream of incidents in the tales after giving birth to the
sons; that is, after completing their functions. Their existence in the lives of the
national folk tale heroes confirms the domestification of females as mother with
children, nursemaid or a devoted wife.
It is rather common that the national folk hero figure is frequently presented
in a series of folk tales− and mostly with different adventures but with similar
messages. Principally, the folk hero is a universal symbol of the eternal struggle
between the evil and the good in which the evil is eternally doomed to be defeated.
So, the hero generally begins as an average person and is then transformed into an
extraordinary person by a significant and mostly a national event such as social
66 | Erkan YÜCE, Aslı Özlem TARAKÇIOĞLU
injustice, or in response to natural or social disasters. In a more general term,
national heroes are usually the defenders of common people and their heroism and
idealism get more and more clarified with the image of the antagonists (anti−heroes)
created as an anti−thesis to their existences. Even, Kalevipoeg, the giant serves for
the good of his people, though some of his actions can be described as “violent” or
“brutal”. His fight against “evil forest spirit” clearly points the ground on which he
stands. Furthermore, he generously rewards the rat that helps him as a reflection of
his “soft heart” under his “frightening physical appearance”. Köroğlu, the Brave
Bard, in the same way, is an emblem of the struggle against oppression and
oppressors depicted in the personality of the Bey of Bolu. Actually, all the people of
the region suffer from the unjust, cruel and despotic practices of the Bey, yet, it is
only Köroğlu who dares to rebel against the Bey –of course, supported by some
supernatural interference. He becomes the voice of his people, with both his actions
and his “saz”. Although he is indeed an outlaw, he is embraced by his people (and
the reader, of course), since he “robs only the rich, to give to the poor”. Similarly,
Daedalus uses his creativity to get rid of the unjust and mendacious King, Minos. As
a “criminal”, Daedalus is ready to pay for his misdeed, but in the face of dishonesty,
he does not turn into a submissive and muted slave. His resistance is not a direct
rebel like that of Köroğlu, but an indirect rejection of injustice and tyrannical
authority, though it ends tragically. From this point of view, in short, all national
heroes are omnipotent characters who can shape and reshape the histories, values
and value judgments of their people.
It is even possible to claim that they go through a simple kind of process of
becoming, although it can never be compared that of a tragic hero. Indeed, this
process, unlike in a tragedy, takes place at the very beginning of the tales most
frequently, so it takes them a certain time to get hold of their real missions in life as a
national character. This process is caused by some kind of weakness in their
personality, which gradually fades away –or perhaps is ignored by the
listener/reader, thanks to the idealism and/or heroism in his code of behavior− as the
folk tale hero gets involved in more and more heroic deeds. That is, especially at the
beginning, they all seem to have some flaws in their characters; Kalevipoeg is very
strong physically, yet it is not possible to say that he is very clever and his mental
abilities can match with his physical strength. Even a rat can guide him and it seems
that Kalevipoeg’s physical and instinctual capacity and ability is much far beyond
A Comparative Study of the Common Characteristics of National Heroes in Folk Tales...| 67
his mental ones. Köroğlu is extremely impatient and curious and it costs him a lot;
contrary to his father’s demands and requirements, he cannot wait for forty days for
the grey colt to turn into a magic horse. It is a real pity that on the thirty ninth day,
he peeps through a hole to see what is going inside. In the end, he gets the strongest
and the fastest horse of the world, but instead of a winged one. Correspondingly, he
is defeated by his curiosity and impatience again when his father asks him to bring
the “silver foam” of the spring; he himself tastes it before taking to his father.
Köroğlu turns into an “invincible warrior” at the cost of his father’s eyes. Likewise,
Daedalus’ exile in Crete is absolutely a result of his moral weakness; his jealousy.
Although Daedalus himself is a very talented and able person, he is madly jealous of
his own nephew, Talos since he thinks that Talos is better than him and Talos’ fame
will exceed his name. So, he kills him in rage without thinking of its results. In actual
fact, they could have been created as flawless heroes, it is possible to conceptualize
the main reason beyond these flaws; on the one hand, the listener/reader is
reminded that he is not a god although he is equipped with godly qualifications and
supported by supernatural powers. On the other hand, the folk tale hero is an
incarnation of the godly potential within every human being to do the right thing at
the right time.
Finally, the national heroes in the folk tales, who are almost always called by
their first names such as Kalevipoeg, Daedalus, Icarus, Minos, and Köroğlu, embody
both cultural and religious traits; Kalevipoeg and Daedalus, both through their
personalities and deeds represent the values of a pagan world with gods and
goddesses whereas Köroğlu and his adventures often reflect some Islamic virtues
and traits. In the same way, these heroes also picture some culture specific elements;
Kalevipoeg’s existence is directly related to Estonian geographical characteristics
such as hills, rivers, animal variety and towns along with the beliefs, superstitions
and traditions of the people. Köroğlu is directly related to the geography of his
region, Bolu, especially with the mountains. His personality and deeds al through
his serial of tales, in a close study, may well reveal many details about the way of
life, traditions, beliefs, political system, practices and manners of Turkish people –
particularly of that region at that time. The importance of the cols/horses in the tale,
for example, is a typical Turkish characteristic of the period due to the nature of the
society. The tale of Daedalus is also tightly linked to the Greek culture and
geography. The way of their living, life styles and beliefs of the period are, in the
68 | Erkan YÜCE, Aslı Özlem TARAKÇIOĞLU
same way, reflected in the tale. The principle rules, laws, requirements and the
practices of that particular society and the period are also mirrored through the
experiences and deeds of Daedalus. The naming of the region is even precisely
associated with the story of Daedalus and his son, Icarus; “This island, where
Daedalus buried his son’s dead body, was named Icaria after his name, and the Sea,
where Icarus fell, Icarian Sea.”
4. Conclusion
To conclude, folk tales serve to transmit, stabilize, and conserve the common
beliefs, laws, values and norms of a particular culture while at the same time
challenging, overcoming and subverting them. Within this framework, national folk
tale heroes are the universal elements presented in a unique cultural way supposed
to come from a background of tribal origins.
In general, national folk tale heroes are metaphors for the human quest for
existence and marvels. These heroes project the wishes of real human beings rather
than those of a fictional hero. They encompass the eternal hope for a better life. The
existence of folk tale heroes compensate for the lack of power, wealth and pleasure
that most people experience and severely suffer from. Lack, deprivation, prohibition
and interdiction motivate people to long for signs of fulfillment and emancipation.
These wiss come true in folk tales in the personality of the national folk tale heroes
when those who are naïve or simple are able to succeed because they can recognize
wondrous signs as Kaleviopeg recognizes and follows the voice of the invisible
advisor or Yusuf knows that the ugly colts are born of the magic horse from the
great Sakarya River.
National folk tale heroes cross the borders with their admirable and idealistic
qualifications as universal motifs because they are basically the representatives of
patriarchal dominancy, preservation of rules, taboos, domestic life and public
spheres as well as being the symbols of allegorical figures of courage, bravery,
honesty and justice.
A Comparative Study of the Common Characteristics of National Heroes in Folk Tales...| 69
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