APPENDIX B:
TERRESTRIAL ECOLOGY BASELINE REPORT
March 2014
JEJEVO/ISABEL B PROJECT
REPORT
Terrestrial Ecology Baseline
Report
Report Number.
137633001-4002-R-Rev0-2400
JEJEVO/ISABEL B PROJECT
TERRESTRIAL ECOLOGY BASELINE REPORT
Executive Summary
A baseline terrestrial ecology assessment is required to establish existing conditions and facilitate an
appropriate assessment of the potential effects on the terrestrial ecology and biodiversity of the area.
Information collected during the baseline will form the basis upon which an appropriate assessment of the
Project’s potential effects will be undertaken.
Solomon Islands is considered one of the world’s hot spots for biodiversity and endemicity. Hawkins and
Barron (1991) suggest that this is a result of the Archipelago’s complex geological history.
The terrestrial ecology baseline survey completed was designed to meet the following international
standards:

International Finance Corporation (IFC)

Japanese Bank for International Co-operation (JBIC)

Solomon Islands Legislation

Relevant international mining guidelines
The aim of the study is to characterise the existing baseline status of terrestrial fauna and flora populations,
habitats, vegetation communities, and ecosystem processes and ecosystem functions in the Project area.
The overall objective was to gather information on species richness, distribution, habitat associations and,
where feasible, relative abundance, so that potential effects from the Project may be assessed, managed
and monitored. The baseline survey also identifies species of concern potentially, or actually, using the area
and used this information to determine ecological values, presence of critical habitat and species of interest.
Fauna and flora field survey locations were identified within the three main potential vegetation types and
habitats, namely:

lowland forest (including low diversity ultramafic/ultrabasic and hill forest)

freshwater swamp/riverine forest

coastal strand vegetation (mangrove)
The desktop information and literature review identified that the majority of scientific assessment within
Solomon Islands has focused on larger more visible groups, that is, the plants, birds, mammals, amphibians
and reptiles.
The survey effort focused on the major groups of:

dicots and monocots (including cryptic species)

birds

amphibians

reptiles

mammals
Results of the field survey identified three vegetation types in the Local Study Area (LSA):

lowland forests
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
freshwater swamp/riverine forests

coastal strand vegetation (mangroves)
These vegetation types are considered to generally align with previous vegetation types of Solomon Islands
proposed by Whitmore (1966).
In terms of species diversity, lowland forests contained the largest average number of trees (70.44), highest
species richness (18.7) per transect, and was the second most diverse after the freshwater swamp/riverine
forests.
The understory vegetation covered 47.67% of the lowland forest ground, and contained the highest species
2
richness of all habitats with 7.44 species per m .
For freshwater swamps/riverine forests species richness (S) was determined at 17 trees species per
transect. There were less than half the number of trees per transect (29.25) compared to the lowland forests
(70.44) and diversity indices were slightly higher than lowland forests.
The understory vegetation was the densest of all habitats and covered 74.6% of the freshwater
2
swamp/riverine forests ground. On average, the understory contains 5.8 species per m .
Coastal strand vegetation (mangroves) contained a similar average of trees per transect (38) to the
freshwater swamps/riverine forests, but with eight species per transect. With a Shannon Index of 1.48 and a
Simpson Index of 0.72, the coastal strand vegetation (mangroves) are the least diverse habitats of the three.
The coastal strand vegetation (mangroves) forest understory contained the lowest vegetation cover with
2
21.6%, and the lowest species richness with an average of 4.33 species per m .
The two fauna surveys (dry and wet season) targeted selected terrestrial fauna groups (invertebrates,
amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals.
The most suitable for data for analysis from the field surveys was for the birds. Bird data were collected from
lowland forests and coastal strand vegetation (mangroves). From these, species richness, evenness and
diversity indices were calculated.
Thirty-five bird species were observed in lowland forests and 15 in coastal strand vegetation (mangroves).
The number of bird observations ranged between 17 and 46 in the lowland forests and 45 in the coastal
strand vegetation (mangroves). On average, species richness was similar in both habitats, with an average
of 14.25 in lowland forests and 15 bird species in coastal strand vegetation (mangroves) per site.
Fourteen species of amphibians, 19 species of reptiles and six species of bats were recorded in the lowland
forests and coastal strand vegetation (mangroves) in the LSA. Unlike the bird data amphibians, reptiles and
bats data were more limited, and consequently, there are insufficient data points to calculate diversity indices
other than species richness.
The results indicate that the survey area contains high biodiversity (specifically within the lowland forest). A
number of IUCN-listed species were identified in the LSA with a total of 16 SoC identified during the survey
within the RSA.
The results of the flora and fauna survey confirm the current literature of significant diversity and endemicity
in Solomon Islands and that further studies are likely to identify new species. The field survey has potentially
identified two new species.
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Table of Contents
1.0
2.0
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................................ 1
1.1
Study Objectives ........................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2
Legislative Framework .................................................................................................................................. 3
1.3
Study Areas .................................................................................................................................................. 5
1.3.1
Regional Study Area ............................................................................................................................... 5
1.3.2
Local Study Area ..................................................................................................................................... 7
METHODS ................................................................................................................................................................. 7
2.1
Historical Data .............................................................................................................................................. 7
2.2
Species of Concern ...................................................................................................................................... 7
2.3
Field Investigation ......................................................................................................................................... 8
2.3.1
Survey Design ......................................................................................................................................... 8
2.3.2
Field Survey Overview .......................................................................................................................... 12
2.3.3
Fauna Surveys ...................................................................................................................................... 13
2.3.4
Flora surveys ........................................................................................................................................ 18
2.3.5
Survey Limitations ................................................................................................................................. 21
2.4
3.0
Data Analysis .............................................................................................................................................. 22
2.4.1
Vegetation and Habitat Types ............................................................................................................... 22
2.4.2
Biodiversity Sampling Intensity ............................................................................................................. 22
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ................................................................................................................................ 23
3.1
Literature Review ........................................................................................................................................ 23
3.1.1
Regional context ................................................................................................................................... 23
3.1.2
Local context ......................................................................................................................................... 25
3.1.3
Previous Ecological Studies .................................................................................................................. 26
3.2
Fauna ......................................................................................................................................................... 29
3.2.1
Birds ...................................................................................................................................................... 29
3.2.2
Amphibians, Reptiles and Bats ............................................................................................................. 30
3.3
Flora ........................................................................................................................................................... 30
3.3.1
Vegetation Types .................................................................................................................................. 30
3.3.2
Tree Species Richness, Diversity and Structure ................................................................................... 36
3.3.3
Habitat Diversity and Structure ............................................................................................................. 37
3.4
Species of Concern .................................................................................................................................... 38
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3.5
Assessment of Biodiversity Importance ...................................................................................................... 45
4.0
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS .......................................................................................................................... 45
5.0
REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................................................... 47
6.0
GLOSSARY ............................................................................................................................................................. 50
7.0
ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................................................................................... 51
TABLES
Table 1: Survey Methods Summary .................................................................................................................................. 13
Table 2: Fauna Survey Dry Season (6 August 2013 to 24 August 2013) .......................................................................... 14
Table 3: Fauna Survey Wet Season (6 August 2013 to 31 August 2013) ......................................................................... 14
Table 4: Total Number of Survey Hours by Group and Survey Method ............................................................................ 15
Table 5: Flora Survey Location Descriptions ..................................................................................................................... 20
Table 6: East Melanesian Islands Vital Signs.................................................................................................................... 24
Table 7: Vegetation Cover Santa Isabel Island ................................................................................................................. 26
Table 8: Vegetation Types of Solomon Islands ................................................................................................................. 28
Table 9: Bird Diversity Indices Calculated in the Local Study Area ................................................................................... 29
Table 10: Observed and Expected Animal Species in the Local Study Area .................................................................... 29
Table 11: Reptile, Amphibian and Bat Species Richness in the Local Study Area............................................................ 30
Table 12: Multi-Dimensional Scaling Results and Whitmore Comparison ......................................................................... 32
Table 13: Observed and Expected Tree Species in the Local Study Area ........................................................................ 36
Table 14: Averages of Tree Species Diversity Indices ...................................................................................................... 36
Table 15: Forest Structure in the Local Study Area........................................................................................................... 37
Table 16: Important Species Location ............................................................................................................................... 44
FIGURES
Figure 1: Solomon Islands Overview ................................................................................................................................. 2
Figure 2: Terrestrial Ecology Local Study Area and Survey Locations .............................................................................. 6
Figure 3: Vegetation Classification and Survey Locations ............................................................................................... 10
Figure 4: Vegetation Survey Locations ............................................................................................................................ 19
Figure 5: Isabel Province – Logging Licenses Summary (December 2005) .................................................................... 25
Figure 6: Tree Species Non-Metric Multi-Dimensional Scaling Ordination Exploratory Analysis LSA ............................. 31
Figure 7: Cluster Analysis................................................................................................................................................ 33
Figure 8: Trees Species Multi-Dimensional Scaling Ordination ....................................................................................... 34
Figure 9: Trees Species Accumulation Curve ................................................................................................................. 35
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PHOTOGRAPHS
Photograph 1: Drift Fence JESL03.................................................................................................................................... 17
Photograph 2: Liparis Sp. Nov? ....................................................................................................................................... 39
Photograph 3: Accipiter imitator (Imitator Goshawk) Captured JESL05 12/08/2013 Mist Net 4 ........................................ 40
Photograph 4: Monarcha barbatus (Black and White Monarch, Solomon’s Monarch) ...................................................... 41
Photograph 5: Rhipidura cockerelli (Cockerell's Fantail) ................................................................................................... 41
Photograph 6: Zoothera heinei (Russet-Tailed Thrush) .................................................................................................... 42
Photograph 7: Papustyla SP/Papustyla pulcherrima ......................................................................................................... 42
Photograph 8: Palmatorappia solomonis (Treasure Island Tree Frog).............................................................................. 43
Photograph 9: Cyrtodactylus salomonensis ...................................................................................................................... 44
APPENDICES
Attachment I
Survey Species Identified
Attachment II
Species Accumulation Curves
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1.0
INTRODUCTION
SMM Solomon Ltd. (SMM Solomon) is developing the Solomon Islands Nickel Project (SINP) on five
tenements on two islands in Solomon Islands. The islands and tenements are:

Choiseul Island (Choiseul tenement)

Santa Isabel Island (Jejevo, Isabel B, D and E tenements).
Environmental and Social Impact Assessments (ESIA) were completed and approved by the Solomon
Islands government for the Choiseul, and Isabel D and E tenements in 2012. SMM Solomon is now
submitting an ESIA and supporting documents for the Jejevo/Isabel B (the Project).
The Project includes:

mining area

mine haul road

ore stockpile

jetty

accommodation camp

mine administration buildings

transhipment mooring
SMM Solomon will mine two ore types for the Project, limonite and saprolite. The limonite and saprolite will
be mined and stockpiled separately, then limonite will be transported to elsewhere and saprolite will be
shipped to Japan for further processing. The Project will have a production of about 0.685 Mt per year of ore
and will operate for about 14 years.
1.1
Study Objectives
Solomon Islands (Figure 1) is considered one of the world’s hot spots for biodiversity and endemicity.
Hawkins and Barron (1991) suggest that this is a result of the Archipelago’s complex geological history.
The archipelago, and surrounding area (i.e., Bismarck and Admiralty Islands, and Vanuatu), is one of the
most geographically complex regions on Earth, with a diverse range of islands of varying age and
development. The Isolation and adaptive radiation, caused by its geological history, have led to very high
levels of endemism, both within the whole region and on single islands (Conservation International 2013).
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154°E
156°E
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4°S
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ELEVATION
750m
Bougainville
LEGEND
City / Town
Choiseul
Regional Division Boundary
CENTRAL AND
EASTERN
SOLOMON ISLANDS
Vella Lavella
Kolombangara
6°S
0
WESTERN
SOLOMON
ISLANDS
Jejevo Tenement
Isabel B Tenement
SSR Boundary
Isabel
8°S
NORTHERN
SOLOMON
ISLANDS
Arawa
8°S
Information contained on this drawing is the copyright of Golder Associates Pty. Ltd. Unauthorised use or reproduction of this plan either wholly or in part without written permission infringes copyright. © Golder Associates Pty. Ltd.
6°S
Buka
Solomon
Islands
New
Georgia
Province Name (Isabel)
Place Name (Honiara)
Regional Division (Northern Solomon Islands)
Malaita
SOUTH EASTERN
SOLOMON ISLANDS
Honiara
10°S
10°S
Guadalcanal
San
Cristobel
NOTES
Division boundaries based off of Walter and Sheppard 2009.
COPYRIGHT
1. Tenement boundaries supplied by Client.
2. Base data copyright © Solomon Islands Government, Ministry of
Land.
3. Base Map Sources: Esri, DeLorme, NAVTEQ, TomTom, Intermap,
iPC, USGS, FAO, NPS, NRCAN, GeoBase, IGN, Kadaster NL,
Ordnance Survey, Esri Japan, METI, Esri China (Hong Kong), and
the GIS User Community
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JEJEVO/ISABEL B PROJECT
TERRESTRIAL ECOLOGY BASELINE REPORT
Solomon Islands includes about 1,600 islands, encompassing a land area of nearly 100,000 km², and has
been recognised as:

A Centre of Plant Diversity (Convention on Biological Diversity) (PHCG 2008).

East Melanesian Island Chain biodiversity hotspot (Conservation International 2013).

Solomon Group Endemic Bird Area (EBA) (BirdLife International 2013).
The Solomon Islands’ Rainforest Eco-region is recognised in the highest category of Globally Outstanding
for biodiversity, with BirdLife International (2013) identifying the area as containing more restricted bird life
than any other region. The ecological importance of the area is discussed further in Section 3.1.
Given this, the terrestrial ecology study is designed to meet the following international standards:

International Finance Corporation (IFC)

Japanese Bank for International Co-operation (JBIC)

Solomon Islands Legislation

Relevant international mining guidelines
These are discussed below.
The aim of the study is to characterise the existing baseline status of terrestrial fauna and flora populations,
habitats, vegetation communities, and ecosystem processes and ecosystem functions within the Project
Area prior to project development.
The overall objective was to gather information on species richness, distribution, habitat associations and,
where feasible, relative abundance, so that potential effects from the Project may be assessed, managed
and monitored. The baseline survey also identifies species of concern potentially, or actually, using the area
and used this information to determine ecological values, presence of critical habitat and species of interest.
1.2
Legislative Framework
Five key bodies of work provide the legislative framework for establishing baseline conditions and conducting
ESIAs in the Solomon Islands:

IFC Performance Standards and associated Guidance Notes (IFC 2012)
 IFC Performance Standard 1
 IFC Performance Standard 6

Solomon Islands Environment Act (1998)

Other Solomon Islands Legislation

JBIC

International standards and guidelines
The EHS Guidelines identify the performance levels and measures that are generally considered to be
achievable in new facilities by existing technologies at reasonable cost. The hazards and risks established
for each project are made based on an environmental assessment of the project in the project’s area of
influence. For IFC such an assessment is carried out consistent with Performance Standard 1: Assessment
and Management of Environmental and Social Risks and Impacts.
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IFC Performance Standards and Guidance Notes
The IFC Performance Standards (PS) provide standards that a proponent is to meet for their project
throughout the life of an investment by the IFC. The Performance Standards establish the requirement to
identify and evaluate risks and impacts during a project, with establishment of baseline or ambient conditions
being a necessary prerequisite. The Guidance Notes are used to provide guidance with interpreting the
Performance Standards with reference to a specific site or project.
IFC Performance Standard 1
The objective of Performance Standard 1 (Assessment and Management of Environmental and Social Risks
and Impacts) is to identify and evaluate environmental and social risks and impacts of the project and adopt
a mitigation hierarchy to anticipate and avoid, minimise or compensate/offset impacts to workers, affected
communities and the environment. There are requirements to identify environmental and social risks and
impacts in the context of the project area, and when unavoidable, identify mitigation and performance
measures and establish corresponding actions to ensure the project operates in compliance with applicable
laws and regulations as well as meeting the requirements of PS 1 through 8.
IFC Performance Standard 6
The objective of Performance Standard 6 (Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable Natural Resource
Management of Living Natural Resources) is to protect and conserve biodiversity, maintain the benefits from
ecosystem services, and promote the sustainable management of living natural resources through the
adoption of practices that integrate conservation needs and development priorities. A requirement of PS6 is
to assess species and habitat (i.e., modified, natural or critical habitat), consider direct and indirect projectrelated impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem services, and identify any significant residual impacts. When
avoidance of impacts is not possible, measures to minimise impacts and restore biodiversity and ecosystem
services should be implemented. Biodiversity offsets may be considered only after appropriate avoidance,
minimisation and restoration measures have been applied.
In summary, PS6 has specified requirements pertinent to the risks associated with biodiversity and
sustainable development of living natural resources including (but not limited to):

new practice of adaptive management planning

design and implementation of biodiversity offsets

minimise impacts on modified habitats

mitigation for conversions of natural habitat

consistency with existing legal requirements, management plans and regulatory framework

prevention of spread of alien species

identify hierarchy of ecosystem services

sustainable management to international standards
Solomon Islands Environment Act (1998)
The Solomon Islands Environment Act 1998 (the Act), requires that any proposed development have regard
as far as practicable to the effect such development would have on the environment, including completion of
an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). The Act requires EIAs to:

describe the environment likely to be affected by the prescribed development

describe and assess any safeguards intended to be adopted for the protection of the environment

state any intended monitoring and reporting of the impact of the prescribed development
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Other Solomon Islands Legislation
Other Solomon Islands legislation that is relevant to terrestrial ecology includes:

National Environmental Management Strategy (NEMS 1993)

Environmental Regulations (2008)

Protected Areas Act (draft) (2012)

Wildlife Protection and Management Act (1998)

Provincial Government Act (1997)

River Waters Act (1964)

Fisheries Act (1998)

Environment Health Act (1980)

National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (2009)

Isabel Province Conservation Area Ordinance (1993)
 Isabel Province Draft Resource Management and Environmental Protection Ordinance (2005)
1.3
Study Areas
An important step for the ESIA process is to define the terrestrial ecology Local Study Area (LSA) and
Regional Study Area (RSA) for the Project. These study areas are important for the determination of the
effects that the development of the Project may have on the terrestrial ecology. Each of these areas is
defined below. The Project Area includes land that is subject to direct disturbance from the Project and
associated infrastructure. The LSA is the area existing outside the boundaries of the Project Area, where
there is a reasonable potential for immediate environmental effects due to Project activities. The RSA is an
area where wide-ranging indirect and cumulative effects from the Project and other disturbances can be
assessed. The Study Area is the sum of the areas included in the Project Area, LSA and RSA.
1.3.1
Regional Study Area
The RSA was established to record baseline conditions within the broad regional area surrounding the
Project. Specifically, the RSA was established as a data collection zone to provide a regional context for the
information collected in the LSA and to facilitate the assessment of potential project effects within the region.
The RSA is an area where wide-ranging indirect effects can be assessed.
For the purposes of this assessment, the RSA extends from the mountain range directly to the north of site,
2
as far as Jejevo village to the west and Jajao to the south (approximately 200 km ) (Figure 2), as indirect
ecological pressures could potentially affect these surrounding area.
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515,000
520,000
525,000
530,000
SOLOMON ISLANDS NICKEL PROJECT
SMM SOLOMON LTD
U
ID
S
9,105,000
JESL08
Terrestrial
Ecology
Camp 02
JESL07
JESL09
JESL14
JESL02
E
SIV
O
Terrestrial Ecology Sampling Location
Terrestrial Ecology Reference Point
Camp
JESL19
Village
JESL19
KO
JESL05
Jejevo Tenement
Isabel B Tenement
JESL18
SSR Boundary
Freshwater Swamp / Lowland Forest
N
Lowland Forest
Boat Access
Nuha River
A
UH
1. Tenement boundaries supplied by Client.
2. Base data copyright © Solomon Islands Government, Ministry of
Land.
3. Key Inset Bathymetry copyright © National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 2009.
4. Key Inset Terrain copyright © Consultative Group on
International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), 2013.
KO L
0
I
IGHON
OS
515,000
520,000
500
PROJECT:
DATE:
DRAWN:
CHECKED:
REVIEWED:
Dadale
Logging
Camp
Pauo Point
525,000
530,000
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Kolosighoni
1,000
1,500
1:50,000
2,000
2,500
Metres
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HEPLE
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SCALE (at A3)
ELEVATION
JESL21
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NOTES
J IHRO
700m
Mangrove
Local Study Area
9,100,000
SIVOKO
Waterbody
JESL17
JESL12
JESL18
JESL Camp
01 boat
access
Nuha
Camp
Watercourse Named
Watercourse Unnamed
JESL06
JESL13
Logging Road
Trail
JESL16
JESL11
Terrestrial
Ecology
Camp 01
HU
GH
U
LEGEND
JESL15
JESL20
JESL20
A
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Buala
Kolomola
JESL03
JESL10
9,100,000
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9,105,000
JESL01
Jejevo
01 Camp
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1.3.2
Local Study Area
The LSA was established to assess the potential effects of the Project on terrestrial ecology at the local
scale (Figure 2). The LSA therefore consists of the spatial extent for which all potential direct project effects
are predicted to occur. The LSA includes the local surrounding area and for the purpose of this assessment
has been delineated by the Hughukapote River to the west through to the Heple River in the east. The
northern LSA boundary is defined by the central ridge line to the north of the Jejevo tenement. This main
ridgeline slopes steeply to river valleys both north and south. Watercourses dissect the ridgeline through the
centre. Further east, the landscape is less steep, characterised by open valleys with extensive deposits of
quaternary colluvium and alluvium
2.0
2.1
METHODS
Historical Data
Existing available scientific knowledge of Solomon Islands was sourced and reviewed to ensure sufficient
background knowledge was available to meet the study objectives. Information was sourced from various
locations including:

research journals

publications

web searches

government papers

database searches
Additionally previous investigations undertaken on Santa Isabel Island and other surrounding islands were
reviewed. A summary of the findings of the historical date review is presented in Section 3.1.
2.2
Species of Concern
The majority of scientific assessment within Solomon Islands has focused on larger more visible groups, that
is, the plants, birds, mammals, amphibians and reptiles (Hammond 1992). A species of concern (SoC) is a
plant or animal species that requires special conservation consideration based on the characteristics outlined
below. To identify a SoC a range of information is required including, but not limited to, the species range,
population and habitat.
An important best practice in the ESIA process is to identify potential SoC for a project. A SoC is a plant or
animal species that requires special conservation consideration based on certain characteristics. Criteria
used for defining SoC for this Project are as follows:

threatened and restricted-range/endemic species (SoC 1)

statutory species (national/international legislation, IUCN) (SoC 2)

species of economic and/or cultural importance (SoC 3)

species that play a critical ecological role (SoC 4)

invasive or potentially invasive plant species (SoC 5)

unvalidated status (SoC 6):
 Taxonomically uncertain species – represented by specimens whose taxonomic identity is unclear
and cannot be assigned a name with certainty and/or may be new to science.
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 Unidentified species – due to the inadequacy of the collected material, the species identity is
uncertain, which may require further evaluation by specialists.
 Data deficient species – as defined by the Data Deficit category by IUCN (2012) represents species
where available information is not sufficient for a proper assessment of conservation status.
Species on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species are categorised according to the following criteria
(IUCN 2012):

Extinct (EX) – when there is no reasonable doubt that the last individual has died; exhaustive surveys in
known and/or expected habitat, at appropriate times (diurnal, seasonal, annual), throughout its historic
range have failed to record an individual. Surveys should be over a time frame appropriate to the
taxon’s cycle and life form.

Extinct in the Wild (EW) – when a species it is known only to survive in cultivation, in captivity or as a
naturalised population (or populations) well outside the past range.

Critically Endangered (CR) – species that are considered to face an extremely high risk of extinction in
the wild.



Endangered (EN) – species that are considered to face a very high risk of extinction in the wild.
Vulnerable (VU) – species that are considered to face a high risk of extinction in the wild.
Near Threatened (NT) – species that do not currently qualify for ‘critically endangered’, ‘endangered’ or
‘vulnerable’ status, but are close to qualifying for or are likely to qualify for a threatened category in the
near future.

Least Concern (LC) – widespread and abundant species that have been evaluated and do not qualify
for any of the above categories.

Data Deficient (DD) – taxa are suspected to belong to some of the previously mentioned categories, but
there is insufficient information available to confirm an assessment.
The IUCN data were used in the SoC classification.
2.3
Field Investigation
2.3.1
Survey Design
Scoping
A four-day scoping survey was undertaken between 4 and 6 April 2013. The scoping study involved a
preliminary, high-level assessment of the terrestrial ecology present in the vicinity of the Project, for the
purpose of developing a targeted approach to the baseline field surveys. Field-based observations were
made to ground-truth observations made from satellite imagery and to develop a more refined understanding
of each of the habitats. The scoping study was also used to identify access and logistical aspects for the
formal field surveys. It was identified that access to the lower areas of the LSA difficult, however, potentially
viable via boat access along the Nuha river.
The following observations were made during the scoping survey:

The Dadale Logging Camp area has experienced logging along the southeastern boundary of the LSA.

The LSA has undergone limited previous logging disturbance, with the main disturbance the current
mine exploration activities.

The site contains steep areas with limited access to the centre section of the LSA with few to no
helicopter landing areas available, minimal to no low draft boast access and limited walking trails.
March 2014
Report No. 137633001-4002-R-Rev0-2400
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JEJEVO/ISABEL B PROJECT
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
Aerial surveying of the LSA indicated limited vegetation changes through the majority of the centre of
the LSA; however, slope is potentially the largest driving factor for vegetation change besides water
availability and saline influence in the ocean influenced areas.
Process
An initial broad-scale approach was used to determine the vegetation communities occurring in the RSA.
GIS-generated data were compiled of available:

satellite imagery (USDA, USGS, AEX, GeoEye, Getmapping, Aerogrid, IGN, IGP)

topography (CGIAR 2013)

waterways mapping (CGIAR 2013)
The vegetation classification and survey locations was initially developed to identify potential fauna and flora
field survey locations within the three main potential vegetation types and habitats based on Whitmore
(1966), namely (Figure 3):

lowland forest (including low diversity ultramafic/ultrabasic and hill forest)

freshwater swamp/riverine

coastal strand (mangrove)
Whitmore identified 5 major vegetation types within Solomon Islands of which only the above three were
identified as potentially occurring in the RSA. Mapping was extended to the surrounding area. Suitable
conditions for montane and seasonal dry forest and grasslands was not identified in the RSA. Whitmore
(1966) also identified a number of components (sub vegetation types) for each of the identified vegetation
types. The broad scale of the initial mapping undertaken was not at a scale to suitably define the various
components.
Six separate preliminary fauna and flora survey sites were identified base on:

the major vegetation communities

proposed infrastructure

access

background information gained from the desktop assessment
Three sites were identified in the LSA, one site on Sivoko Lake within mangroves with access to freshwater
swamp/lowland vegetation and one further inland to assess the central lowland forest areas.
Additional flora survey locations where based on the information above and field experience from the dry
season fauna survey.
March 2014
Report No. 137633001-4002-R-Rev0-2400
9
525,000
530,000
±
VO
9,105,000
JE
JE
520,000
JESL01
_
^
JESL03
KO
E
Nuha
Camp
)
"
HA
Buala
NU
Kolomola
JESL06
_
^
9,100,000
GH
UK
A
_
^
HU
9,100,000
_
^
JESL05
S IV OKO
J IHRO
LEGEND
_
^
)
"
"
)
NI
"
)
"
)
)
Poloasi "
Jejevo Tenement
Isabel B Tenement
SSR Boundary
Local Study Area
Nasinagao
"
)
"
)
Regional Study Area
NOTES
Jajao
Logging
Camp
Madagha
HA
DAG
MA
"
)
"
)
Madagha Upper
"
)
Lowland Vegetation
Ultramafic
Contiguous Hinterland
Coastal
515,000
Limestone Coastal
520,000
File Location: R:\01 Client\Sumitomo\137633001\Programs\ArcMap\Ecology\Terrestrial Ecology\Rev0\137633001-020-F-Rev0-7200-Vegetation Classification and Proposed Survey Locations.mxd
525,000
530,000
350 700
1,400
SCALE (at A3)
2,100
1:70,000
2,800
3,500
Metres
DATUM WGS 84, PROJECTION UTM Zone 57 South
"
)
Gora
"
)
Disturbed
0
RA
GO
Gugugluro
High Altitude
1. Base Data supplied by Client.
2. Base Map Sources: Esri, DeLorme, NAVTEQ, TomTom, Intermap,
increment P Corp., GEBCO, USGS, FAO, NPS, NRCAN, GeoBase,
IGN, Kadaster NL, Ordnance Survey, Esri Japan, METI, Esri China
(Hong Kong), swisstopo, and the GIS User Community
3. Key Inset Map Bathymetry copyright © National Oceanic and
Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA), 2009.
4. Key Inset Map Terrain copyright © Consultative Group on
International Agricultural
Research (CGIAR), 2013.
5. Vegetation classification created by Golder New Zealand.
Jajao
Base 1
"
)
"
)
Jajao Village
Vegetation Classification
Village
Logging Road
9,095,000
9,095,000
Tamaro
"
)
Hurepelo
Camp
Watercourse Named
Watercourse Unnamed
Waterbody
HEPL
E
Pauo Point
Kolosighone
Survey Location
Trail
9,090,000
Dadale
Logging
Camp
HO
OSIG
GA
JUHO
N GARI
KO L
9,090,000
Information contained on this drawing is the copyright of Golder Associates Pty. Ltd. Unauthorised use or reproduction of this plan either wholly or in part without written permission infringes copyright. © Golder Associates Pty. Ltd.
VEGETATION
CLASSIFICATION AND
SURVEY LOCATIONS
JESL04
T
PO
A
OL
SMM SOLOMON LTD
JESL02
_^
^
_
SIV
O
"
)
SOLOMON ISLANDS NICKEL PROJECT
9,105,000
515,000
PROJECT:
DATE:
DRAWN:
CHECKED:
REVIEWED:
137633001-020-F-Rev0-7200
24 FEB 2014
SL
DJ
IGG
FIGURE 3
JEJEVO/ISABEL B PROJECT
TERRESTRIAL ECOLOGY BASELINE REPORT
Design
The primary levels of organisation typically considered in a terrestrial biodiversity assessment include
species, ecosystems and landscapes (Noss 1990). Biodiversity characterisation of a region requires
complementary analyses across these levels, including an examination of the relationships among the
biodiversity components at each level.
In light of the above, the survey methods chosen were undertaken to gain an understanding of:

species richness and diversity

commonness versus rarity

relative distributions and area of occupancy
Therefore, having a standardised method for all surveys is required.
The survey methods used were designed to ensure that the identified vertebrate and invertebrate groups
were adequately sampled. The groups (plants, mammals, reptiles, amphibians and birds) that need to be
sampled have been chosen because their taxonomy is reasonably well known and they can be rapidly
sampled using the survey methods described below.
As outlined in Section 1.1 there is a potential for new species to be discovered, especially invertebrates, due
to the level of biodiversity and endemicity in Solomon Islands. In undertaking the survey design for the
baseline survey this created three main issues:

high levels of biodiversity requiring substantial effort to identify adequately and represent the
populations

limited available literature to identify a number of species beyond Class (specifically classes of
invertebrates)

sample identification for a number of species would be required by experts not available in the field and
require samples to be forwarded to suitable institutions
To account for this, a survey program was designed based on a broad survey of species (a majority of major
taxa) and use of current knowledge of flora, amphibians and mammals of the area.
The survey team included Myknee Sirikolo (Director Solomon Island Herbarium) to undertake the vegetation
and habitat surveys. Myknee is the pre-eminent source of flora knowledge in Solomon Islands.
Patrick Pikacha is the leading expert in amphibians in the south Pacific having undertaken his PhD research
in Solomon Islands. Patrick is from Honiara and has completed studies in Solomon Islands, Western
Province and Papa New Guinea. He is the author of two amphibian books and co-author of a number of
research papers based on amphibians and mammals of Solomon Islands. Patricks extensive knowledge of
amphibians of the Solomon Islands was used to ensure suitable amphibian surveys were undertaken.
Tyrone Lavery has recently submitted his PhD on bat species research in Solomon Islands and has spent
the last three years undertaking bat monitoring programs and research activates throughout Solomon
Islands.
The survey effort focused on the major groups of:

dicots and monocots (including cryptic species)

birds

amphibians

reptiles
March 2014
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JEJEVO/ISABEL B PROJECT
TERRESTRIAL ECOLOGY BASELINE REPORT

mammals
It is recognised that other taxa were not targeted and sampled. In particular, no survey of Bryophytes and
Pteridophytes was considered.
Additionally, the survey focused on the dominant vegetation types (i.e., lowland forest) in the LSA and RSA
and concentrated efforts on areas of greatest potential effect (i.e., direct Project effects).
The current baseline study shall form part of a larger overall investigation, impact assessment and
management plan. Results of this current report shall provide background information to improve survey
design and target vegetation types and habitats for identified SoC, and provide information for improved
targeted effort.
Additionally, collections of invertebrates were undertaken during the current survey. These are currently in
suitable sample storage with suitably-qualified personal to undertake identification being sought. The results
of these collections shall form part of the future studies and, be considered when undertaking impact
assessments and management plans.
2.3.2
Field Survey Overview
The terrestrial ecology field surveys involved collection of qualitative and quantitative data of habitat, and
flora and fauna species present within the LSA and RSA.
Surveys in six fauna and flora survey sites and an additional 12 flora sites in the LSA were completed during
four field campaigns. An additional four flora sites were completed in the RSA area of Jajao and Nuha
(Figure 2)
Baseline data were collected during dry season (August to September 2013) and wet season
(November to December 2013) as follows:

dry season fauna survey – 6 August to 24 August 2013

dry season flora survey – 14 September to 26 September 2013

wet season fauna survey – 4 November to 15 November 2013

wet season flora survey – 25 November to 8 December 2013
Survey effort varied amongst taxa, with the majority of effort being focused on the main research groups of
Solomon Islands (vegetation, birds, amphibians, reptiles and mammals).
Baseline data analysis focused on these groups specifically within the lowland forest areas. Supporting
species samples and resulting data on other less well known taxonomic groups (insects, molluscs) is
intended to provide additional depth to the ecosystems descriptions following identification and provide
information for future assessments of the area.
Six fauna survey sites (JESL01, JESL02, JESL03, JESL05, JESL06 and JESL07) and 27 flora transect
across 21 survey locations were selected and sampled to undertake detailed surveys of vegetation,
vertebrate fauna and invertebrate survey (Figure 3).
Internationally-accepted standard survey methods, applicable to various habitat types and conditions were
used for this study. Additionally advice was sort from the field team who have knowledge and experience in
survey design of Solomon Islands terrestrial ecology.
The survey methods were designed to:

define the various vegetation communities within the area

identify flora and fauna species present in the LSA
March 2014
Report No. 137633001-4002-R-Rev0-2400
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JEJEVO/ISABEL B PROJECT
TERRESTRIAL ECOLOGY BASELINE REPORT

determine potential vertebrate and invertebrate species using habitat in the LSA
Survey techniques generally followed survey methods outlined by Heyer et al. (1994), Sutherland (1996),
Heaney et al. (1999) and Southwood and Henderson (2000).
2.3.3
Fauna Surveys
Terrestrial vertebrates (mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles) and invertebrates (insects, spiders, butterfly
and molluscs) were sampled from six sites in the dry and wet seasons. A summary of the survey methods
used at each site is provided in Table 1 . These sites were identified during the initial field survey scoping
and design (Section 2.3.1).
Table 1: Survey Methods Summary
Taxa
Mammals
Birds
Amphibians
Reptiles
Insects
Dragonflies and damselflies
Butterfly
Ants
Spiders
Survey Methods























mist nets
Elliott traps/snap traps
spotlight surveys
incidental scats and tracks
mist nets
spotlight surveys
dawn chorus surveys
funnel traps
walked line transects
spotlight surveys
funnel traps
sticky traps
spotlight surveys
active searches
funnel traps
malaise trap
pitfall traps
sticky traps
transects
transects
butterfly trap
pitfalls
hand collected
Six sites (JESL01, JESL02, JESL03, JESL05, JESL06 and JESL07) were surveyed using a number of
survey methods. JESL04 was identified in the survey design phase, however, this site was inaccessible
during the field trip.
The survey methods used at each site and total number of days are outlined in Table 2 and Table 3. The
total survey effort at each location for taxonomic group and vegetation association is presented in Table 4.
March 2014
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Table 2: Fauna Survey Dry Season (6 August 2013 to 24 August 2013)
Location
Duration
Number
of Mist
Nets
Canopy
Net
Number
of Elliot
Traps
Drift
Fence
Snap
Traps
Bird
Observation
Survey
Spotlighting
[h]
[h]
JESL01
19/08/2013–
22/08/2013
4
0
20
1
0
4
4
JESL02
16/08/2013–
21/08/2013
4
1
20
1
0
4
4
JESL03
15/08/2013–
19/08/2013
4
1
20
1
0
4
4
JESL05
JESL06
JESL07
8/08/2013–
4
1
0
0
20
4
14/08/2013
8/08/2013–
2
0
0
0
20
4
14/08/2013
Not Sampled (Opportunistic sampling undertaken during wet season only)
4
4
Table 3: Fauna Survey Wet Season (6 August 2013 to 31 August 2013)
Location
JESL01
Duration
Number
of Mist
Nets
Canopy
Net
Number
of Elliot
Traps
Drift
Fence
Snap
Traps
Bird
Observation
Survey [h]
Spotlighting
[h]
6/11/2013 –
9/11/2013
4
0
20
1
0
4
4
1
0
4
4
1
0
4
4
1
0
4
4
JESL05
13/11/13 –
4
1
20
15/11/2013
13/11/13 –
4
1
20
15/11/2013
Not sampled due to access restrictions
JESL06
Not sampled due to access restrictions
JESL07
6/11/2013 –
9/11/2013
JESL02
JESL03
4
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Table 4: Total Number of Survey Hours by Group and Survey Method
SITE
JESL01
JESL02
Birds
Bats
Reptiles
Mammals
Butterflies
JESL07
JESL06
Mangroves
Number of Hours
Survey Method
Mist net
JESL05
Lowland Forest
Vegetation Association
Taxonomic
Group
JESL03
192
192
192
96
96
48
Surveying
8
8
8
4
4
4
Spotlighting
8
8
8
4
4
4
Mist net
192
192
192
96
96
48
Spot lighting
8
8
8
4
4
4
EM3
2
2
2
0
2
0
Drift fence
144
144
144
0
72
0
Sticky traps
144
144
144
72
72
72
Active Searches
2
2
2
1
1
1
Spotlighting
8
8
8
4
4
4
2,880
2,880
2,880
1,440
1,440
1,440
Spotlighting
8
8
8
4
4
4
Transects
4
4
4
2
2
2
48
0
48
0
48
0
120
0
0
0
120
0
2
2
2
1
1
1
Elliot’s/Snap traps
Butterfly Trap
Ants
Pitfalls
Dragonflies
and
Damselflies
Netting transects
Spiders
Sticky traps
144
144
144
72
72
72
Quadrats
160
160
160
80
80
80
Gastropods
Quadrat searches
160
160
160
80
80
80
Amphibians
Transects
2
2
2
1
1
1
160
160
160
80
80
80
8
8
8
4
4
4
Quadrats
Spotlighting
The effort varied at the various locations due to access restrictions and equipment supply. This affected the
survey effort at JESL05 and JESL06 and restricted access to a freshwater swamp location. The crew was
unable to survey JESL05 and JESL06 in the wet season. JESL07 was surveyed as an opportunistic site
when access to JESL05 and JESL06 was not possible during the wet season survey period. Future surveys
will focus on mangrove and freshwater swamp habitats.
Dragonflies and Damselflies
Meandering transects of 500 m using insect nets were undertaken. Two transects were completed at each
fauna survey site, separated by a day. Transects were undertaken along ecotones and obvious areas where
dragonflies/damselflies are active. All captured individuals were collected and are currently in storage.
Specimens were euthanised and preserved in 70% ethanol.
Butterflies
Meandering transects of 500 m were completed using butterfly nets. Two transects were completed at each
survey site, separated by a day or two. Generally, survey occurred along ecotones and obvious areas where
butterflies were active.
A single butterfly trap was set up at fauna survey locations for two days and baited with banana or papaya.
March 2014
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Samples were euthanised by placing them in envelopes and then into a jar containing ethyl acetate for 30
minutes. The specimens were stored in the envelopes for identification. These samples are currently in
storage awaiting identification.
Insects
A malaise trap was set up at each fauna survey location for two nights; a UV light was used to attract
insects. The malaise trap is designed to encourage insects to fly into a bottle containing a solution of 70%
ethanol and 30% glycerol which euthanises the individuals. The sample jars where removed at the
completion of survey, labelled and sealed for post capture identification.
Ants
Ants were collected in a 15 m by 15 m grid of 25 test tubes approximately 3 m apart pushed directly into the
ground until the top of the test tube was even with the ground level. Each test tube was half filled with a
mixture of 70% ethanol and 30% glycerol. A small lid (leaf) was placed over the top to minimise rain entry.
The grid of test tubes was left in place for five days. At the end of the survey period all tubes were collected
capped and labelled with additional 70% ethanol and 30% glycerol mix added if required.
Bird Transect Surveys
Bird surveys were completed each morning and evening for approximately one hour at dawn and dusk.
Surveys generally followed the Bird Transect Census Method (Sutherland 1996). Bird species and numbers
were recorded along the fauna survey transects at each site for a one hour period. All species of birds
identified by sight and call were recorded.
Incidental observations of birds throughout the course of the surveys were also undertaken.
Mist nets
Mist nets were placed on ropes in the canopy, and within the understorey on poles, and used to sample both
bats and birds. They were opened for approximately four hours from dusk to sample bats and four hours for
birds at dawn and dusk. Checking of the mist nets and recording of the species occurred every two hours
while open. All species caught were recorded with additional information of sex, age and breeding recorded
if identifiable from the species. Photographs of all individuals were taken.
Frog transects
Walked line transects were completed to sample amphibians. Observers walked the designated transect at
each survey locations identifying frogs by visual encounter and by call recognition. Transects were typically
100 m in length, with a minimum of one transect per site undertaken for a period of one hour. Additional
transects were undertaken in locations containing special features (e.g., waterbodies, wetlands). Clean latex
gloves were used to handle amphibians.
Fauna Quadrat Searches
Quadrat searches of 20 m by 20 m quadrats were completed at each survey location for a period of
20 minutes by four people between 6:00 and 10:00 pm Snails, spiders, lizards, and frogs were collected.
Daytime searches involved searching suitable microhabitats including under bark, leaf litter and logs for one
hour with two people at each site. Specimens were euthanised and preserved in 70% ethanol.
March 2014
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Spotlighting
Spotlight transects were completed generally in conjunction with mist net checking, and were completed
along the designated transect traps through each survey location. All nocturnal mammals, birds, amphibians
and reptiles observed were recorded. A 300 Lumin torch (Led Lenser P17) was used for a general period of
one hour per spotlighting transect.
Drift fences and Funnel Traps
At JESL01, JESL02, JESL03 and JESL07 a single drift fence (30 m in length) (Photograph 1) was
constructed with:

two funnel traps placed at each end

four Elliott traps

six sticky traps

four snap traps
Photograph 1: Drift Fence JESL03
The drift fence was left in place for the duration of the survey at each site (minimum three nights) (Table 4).
The fences and associated traps were checked each morning and opportunistically throughout the survey
period to identify captured fauna. All species captured were appropriately recorded and photographed. In
the event the species could not be field identified the species was appropriately euthanised and stored in
accordance with the species group method outlined above.
Elliott traps
At JESL01, JESL02, JESL03 and JESL07 Elliott traps were placed at ground level and elevated positions
generally along the survey location transect. Each trap was baited with a mixture of rolled oats, peanut
butter, honey and coconut.
Elliott traps were checked each morning and were in place for the duration of the trapping period of each
site. In general, approximately 60 trapping nights (Table 4) were achieved at JESL01, JESL02, JESL03 and
JESL07 during each survey round.
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Sticky Traps
Sticky traps were used in conjunction with the drift fences and along the general survey transect for each site
to assist in identification of small reptiles. These were generally placed in areas where light penetrates the
canopy and reaches the forest floor and checked daily each morning and evening and were in place for three
days and three nights at each location during each survey.
Active reptile searches
Active searches for reptiles were completed opportunistically throughout the survey period by overturning
logs and structural components, such as loose bark. Additionally, standard timed-efforts of one hour per site
were completed. The majority of reptiles were spotted at night during spotlighting or captured on sticky
boards. Active searches were found to be ineffective in identifying species.
Cave roost searches
No caves were identified in the LSA.
Bat Survey
Bat surveys were undertaken during evening spotlighting with recoding of bat calls using an EM3 for
approximately two hours each night. Transects followed the survey location transect along existing walking
tracks. A minimum of one hour of bat survey per site was completed.
Local Information
Information on the local flora and fauna was also obtained from the locals within the area.
2.3.4
Flora Surveys
Flora surveys were conducted in the LSA and RSA (Figure 2). The surveys focussed on the vegetation
types that were identified as potentially occurring within the LSA and RSA. Twenty-one flora survey
locations (JESL01 to JESL21) were assessed using 27 transects and 71 quadrats (Figure 4).
March 2014
Report No. 137633001-4002-R-Rev0-2400
18
515,000
520,000
525,000
530,000
SOLOMON ISLANDS NICKEL PROJECT
SMM SOLOMON LTD
ID
S
U
Transect 05
Transect 20
Transect 04
Transect 02
Transect 24
Transect 03
9,105,000
Transect 21
9,105,000
VEGETATION
SURVEY LOCATIONS
Transect 19
Buala
Kolomola
Transect 01
LEGEND
Transect 07
Transect 12
Camp
Village
Transect 11
Transect 25
HU
GH
U
E
T
PO
KA
Logging Road
Trail
Transect 22
Watercourse Named
Watercourse Unnamed
Waterbody
Transect 23
Transect 15
Freshwater Swamp / Lowland Forest
Transect 10
Transect 17
SIVOKO
SSR Boundary
Lowland Forest
Mangrove
HA
NU
1. Tenement boundaries supplied by Client.
2. Base data copyright © Solomon Islands Government, Ministry of
Land.
3. Key Inset Bathymetry copyright © National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 2009.
4. Key Inset Terrain copyright © Consultative Group on
International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), 2013.
0
HONI
SIG
KO L O
PROJECT:
DATE:
DRAWN:
CHECKED:
REVIEWED:
Dadale
Logging
Camp
HEPLE
Pauo Point
File Location: R:\01 Client\Sumitomo\137633001\Programs\ArcMap\Ecology\Terrestrial Ecology\Rev0\137633001-010-F-Rev0-7200-Vegetation Survey Locations.mxd
500
1,000
1,500
1:50,000
2,000
2,500
Metres
DATUM WGS 84, PROJECTION UTM Zone 57 South
700m
520,000
250
SCALE (at A3)
ELEVATION
515,000
Regional Study Area
NOTES
J IHRO
0
Local Study Area
9,100,000
Nuha
Camp
Isabel B Tenement
Transect 09
A
Transect 13
Jejevo Tenement
Transect 08
Transect 14
Transect 16
OL
Vegetation Transect (100m)
Transect 06
SIV
O KO
Transect 26
9,100,000
Information contained on this drawing is the copyright of Golder Associates Pty. Ltd. Unauthorised use or reproduction of this plan either wholly or in part without written permission infringes copyright. © Golder Associates Pty. Ltd.
Transect 18
525,000
530,000
137633001-010-F-Rev0-7200
21 FEB 2014
SL
DJ
IGG
FIGURE 4
JEJEVO/ISABEL B PROJECT
TERRESTRIAL ECOLOGY BASELINE REPORT
All species within the transect corridor were identified in the field, or a voucher specimen was recovered for
post identification by Myknee Sirikolo (Director Solomon Islands Herbarium).
A minimum of one transect survey corridor (100 m long by 6 m wide) was undertaken at each of the 21 flora
survey locations, with the number of each tree species, diameter at breast height (DBH) for all individuals
greater than 10 cm DBH and height of each tree recorded.
The DBH, height, location on transect and species was recorded for all specimens with a DBH greater than
10 cm within the transect survey corridor to allow for determination of vegetation density and height
(Canfield 1941). Additionally, a 1 m by 1 m quadrat (Barker 2001).was used at each location to determine
groundcover and herb species present.
Samping locations, transects locations, quadrats and general vegetation description are presented in
Table 5.
Vegetation surveys focused on vegetation classification (dry season; September 2013) and resurveying
cryptic species (wet season; December 2013).
Table 5: Flora Survey Location Descriptions
Survey
Location
Transect
Number
(canopy
survey)
Quadrats
Easting
Northing
Elevation
[m]
519826
9104040
340
519691
9104050
365
520264
9104075
300
Ultramafic
vegetation/Lowland Forest
520413
9103993
285
Ultramafic
vegetation/Lowland Forest
20
520181
9104019
315
Ultramafic
vegetation/Lowland Forest
01
519351
9104084
230
520772
9103950
250
(ground cover
survey)
05
JESL01
21
Q16 – Q20
02
JESL02
JESL03
19
18
JESL04
100 m Transect Start
Q06 - Q15
Q01 – Q05
General Description
Ultramafic
vegetation/Lowland Forest
Ultramafic
vegetation/Lowland Forest
Ultramafic
vegetation/Lowland Forest
Ultramafic
vegetation/Lowland Forest
Not sampled due to access restrictions
JESL05
14
Q60 – Q67
520820
9101112
55
Lowland Forest
JESL06
16
Q69 – Q71
520624
9101142
20
Mangrove/Lowland saline
swamp
519351
9104084
330
Ultramafic
vegetation/Lowland Forest
519032
9104200
520308
9104238
265
518692
9103752
195
JESL07
04
Q31 – Q44
24
—
Ultramafic
vegetation/Lowland Forest
JESL08
03
JESL09
12
JESL10
11
—
518621
9103556
100
JESL11
15
—
520719
9101297
24
—
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Report No. 137633001-4002-R-Rev0-2400
20
Ultramafic
vegetation/Lowland Forest
Ultramafic
vegetation/Lowland Forest
Lowland Forest
Lowland saline Swamp
JEJEVO/ISABEL B PROJECT
TERRESTRIAL ECOLOGY BASELINE REPORT
Table 5: Flora Survey Location Descriptions (continued)
Survey
Location
JESL12
Transect
Number
(canopy
survey)
17
Quadrats
100 m Transect Start
(ground cover
survey)
Easting
Northing
Elevation
[m]
—
521836
9101018
30
General Description
Lowland Freshwater
Swamp
JESL13
13
—
518744
9100096
5
JESL14
07
—
521393
9103723
163
JESL15
06
—
521367
9103393
90
Lowland Forest
JESL16
08
—
528944
9101831
65
Lowland Freshwater
Swamp
JESL17
10
—
529058
9101380
175
JESL18
09
—
529030
9101169
190
520471
9102290
33
520599
9102175
45
519474
9102965
165
Freshwater
swamp/Riparian Forest
519007
9102995
105
Lowland Forest
9096671
20
22
JESL 19
JESL 20
23
25
Q21 – Q30
Q45 – Q54
26
JESL 21
27
Q56 – Q59
521206
— Indicates quadrat sampling not undertaken at specific location
2.3.5
Mangrove
Ultramafic
vegetation/Lowland Forest
Ultramafic
vegetation/Lowland Forest
Ultramafic
vegetation/Lowland Forest
Freshwater
swamp/Riparian Forest
Freshwater
swamp/Riparian Forest
Coastal
Survey Limitations
A number of restrictions reduced the ability to undertake comprehensive surveys for this study. A summary
of these restrictions is outlined below. Adequate survey time and effort was undertaken to allow for a
suitable survey for the current purposes; however, a number of restrictions reduced the survey intensities
and consistency across the various vegetation types and habitats. This has resulted in limited information
being collected for some aspects of the biodiversity. Nonetheless, future ongoing and more intensive
surveys will be conducted as part of the management and monitoring programme and other works in the
future.
Logistical equipment delivery
While all efforts were made to ensure adequate survey equipment was in place for the fauna survey, delays
(three weeks) in receiving the equipment at site was encountered due to customs restrictions.
All survey equipment arrival was delayed for the dry season fauna survey beginning on 6 August 2013.
Therefore, survey locations at JESL05 and JESL06 were sampled using equipment purchased in Honiara
immediately prior to mobilisation to site. The result of this was a reduced effort, with no drift fences, Elliot
traps, harp traps or EM3 (Sonar Bat Detector) available to sample these locations during the dry season.
Additional effort was placed on spot light surveying. Sticky traps and snap traps were used at JESL05 and
JESL06. All equipment arrived prior to mobilisation to JESL01, JESL02 and JESL03 for the dry season
survey. All equipment was left on site and available for the wet season fauna survey.
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Access restrictions
Access restrictions (e.g., absence of helipads, steep terrain and limited low draft boat access) to lowland
swamp forests and mangroves resulted in additional effort being undertaken in the Jejevo tenement area,
where suitable access trails, helipads and water are located.
Due to the access restrictions in lowland swampforests and mangroves (limited existing tracks) the two sites
were required to be close together (JESL05 and JESL06) to allow for sampling methodology to be followed.
Local labour issues
The wet season fauna survey was further restricted in time and access by local labour (i.e., union worker
negotiations) because access to the site was restricted for three nights. Additionally, following the union
worker negotiations, JESL05 and JESL06 were identified as being not suitable to sample due to health and
safety extraction risks (JESL05 and JESL06 required local labour assistance for emergency extraction).
A decision was made not to allow the survey team into areas that required local assistance in the event of
emergency evacuation.
Available Species Data
Minimal data are available for the identification of arthropods in the Solomon Islands. Holloway (1999)
estimated that the Solomon Islands have 14,511 described insect species and 46,015 total insect species,
indicating the difficulty in undertaking field identification of insects within the Solomon Islands.
All arthropod samples are currently in storage awaiting identification at a suitable institution. A number have
been identified to class or order with numbers of each recorded however further assessment is required.
Identifying suitable skilled professionals to undertake the identification of these samples is currently in
process.
Existing Information in the RSA
The initial desktop assessment and development of the vegetation classification and survey locations
mapping identified a number of habitats and vegetation types. The design of the fauna survey allowed for
suitable survey within the lowland forest, however, suitable survey time in freshwater habitats and mangrove
habitats was not achieved. Additional survey, specifically in the coastal, mangrove and freshwater
ecosystems will be undertaken as part of future work.
2.4
2.4.1
Data Analysis
Vegetation and Habitat Types
Vegetation transects were completed across the LSA and the RSA (Section 2.3.4). The data was assessed
using an exploratory multivariate ordination analysis (Clarke and Gorley 2006), to identify potential canopy
species distribution patterns and habitats. Among the different existing robust models, a non-metric multidimensional scaling ordination (MDS) was used.
An MDS establishes how transects relate to each other (similarities) in terms of the parameters recorded (in
this case canopy species diversity). The outcomes provide an indication of the similarity between the survey
sites.
Following the MDS assessment, to confirm that the pattern of association between transects of each habitat
was consistent, a cluster analysis was run.
A cluster analysis is a multivariate analysis that shows how dissimilar groups of transects are in relation to
each other (Clarke and Gorley 2006). The same data was used for the MDS as the Cluster analysis.
Following the results of the cluster analysis a second MDS was run on the new data classifications to confirm
the analysis.
2.4.2
Biodiversity Sampling Intensity
A species accumulation curve (Colwell 2009) was calculated for canopy vegetation species identified in:
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
the combined vegetation types in the RSA

each separate vegetation type identified in the RSA
Species accumulation curves were then run separately for birds, amphibians, reptiles and mammals across
the combined vegetation types, within the RSA, and then for the individual vegetation types.
In addition to the sampling intensity analysis, potential species richness per vegetation type was estimated
using the first order Jackknife estimator (Gotelli and Colwell 2011) on PRIMER v6 (Clarke and Gorley 2006).
Species richness, evenness and diversity indices were calculated for the four vegetation types and structural
measurements of the trees in each were taken and averages of the results are presented.
Data from the quadrat sampling (Section 2.3.4) was combined according to vegetation type (lowland forest,
freshwater swamps, riverine forests, coastal stand vegetation (mangroves) with average vegetation
2
groundcover and species richness (number of species per m ) calculated.
3.0
3.1
3.1.1
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Literature Review
Regional Context
Solomon Islands consist of two major, parallel island-chains running north-west to south-east. Santa Isabel
Island is located on the outer (north-eastern line) of islands along with Buka, Bougainville, Choiseul and
Malaita. The inner parallel island chain (south-eastern) consists of the New Georgia Group, Guadalcanal
and Makira, with a number of island groups scattered between.
Solomon Islands has a complex geological history, being formed in a number of tectonic events simplified by
the explanation of the collision of the Pacific Plate and the Australian Plate (Mueller-Dubois 1998).
Due to this tectonic history, most of the islands of the region have never been in contact with New Guinea or
other large land mass. Consequently, their resultant fauna and floras are a mix of recent, long-distance
migrants and indigenous lineages derived from ancient Pacific-Gondwanaland species. This is identified as
the main driver behind the high endemicity of the area (Conservation International 2013).
Although the Solomon Islands archipelago is considered young in geological terms, it has developed a
significant biodiversity relative to its age (Henderson and Hancock 1998; Coleman et al. 1965). For
example, the archipelago is estimated to support about 5,000 plant species (Wagner et al. 1990;
McClatchey et al. 2005). Currently, about 4,500 specie have been identified, including about 370 species of
pteridophytes, 22 species of gymnosperms and 2,821 species of angiosperms, with a number of introduced
species are also present. The Solomon Islands’ Rain Forest Eco-region is recognised in the highest
category of Globally Outstanding for biodiversity, and considered second only to Papua New Guinea in the
South Pacific Region (Olsen and Dinnerstein 1998).
BirdLife International (2013) identified the Solomon Island Group Endemic Bird Area (EBA) as containing
more restricted bird species than any other EBA, with the majority of the species inhabiting lowland and
lower montane forest up to 1,500 m above sea level (asl).
Conservation International (2013) identifies the East Melanesian Islands, which includes Solomon Islands,
as a Biodiversity Hotspot partly due to the number of endemic species, as summarised in Table 6.
Additionally, the region has over 25 threatened tree species, including species of ebony, rosewood, rattan
and some palms. Ebony (Diospyros insularis), for example, is listed as critically endangered by the IntIUCN
(PHCG 2008). The status of many other plant species is still unknown due to the very limited surveys
undertaken to-date.
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Table 6: East Melanesian Islands Vital Signs
Endemic Plant Species
3,000
Endemic Threatened Birds
33
Endemic Threatened Mammals
20
Endemic Threatened Amphibians
5
(a)
6
Extinct Species
Human Population Density [people/km²]
13
Area Protected [km²]
5,677
(b)
Area Protected [km²] in Categories I-IV
0
(a) Recorded extinctions since 1500.
(b) Categories I-IV affords higher levels of protection.
Source: Conservation International 11/12/2013
Approximately 80% of the land tenure is covered by traditional ownership (Pauku and Lapo 2009), with the
remainder having changed to urban environments. This has implications for the biodiversity of Solomon
Islands; a large proportion of the population still rely on the surrounding ecosystems (i.e., terrestrial,
freshwater and marine) for their livelihoods and subsistence (Pauku and Lapo 2009).
This subsistence existence is predominantly based in fishing and small crops, with a majority of resources
(e.g., food, shelter) provided from the surrounding terrestrial ecosystems. Forest uses by the local
communities include: construction timber (Gymnostoma papuana and Xanthostemon melanoxylon); ropes
for house building (Flagelaria indica); decoration and custom clothing (Gleichenia linearis); dying handicrafts
(Melastoma affine); pesticides (Selaginella rechingeri); food (Finschia sp.); medicinal (Gnetum gnemon,
Lycopodium cernuum, Timonius timon, Euodia hortensis); and firewood (Timonius timon). Additionally, cash
crops such as plantations and logging are becoming increasingly important.
As outlined by Pauku (2009), Figure 5 shows completed logging areas on Santa Isabel Island in 2009, with a
total of 18 felling licenses and 16 milling licenses in use in 2008. Logging has continued on the island and is
in currently being undertaken in the Project area. Logging appears to be the main threat to biodiversity on
the island with high percentage of the island currently or previously being logged. Added to this is the
pressure of a growing population and increased pressures of subsistence farming and cash crops all
affecting the biodiversity of not only the Island of Santa Isabel Island but the entire Solomon Islands region.
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Figure 5: Isabel Province – Logging Licenses Summary (December 2005)
3.1.2
Local Context
Santa Isabel Island is a narrow, elongate island, approximately 200 km long and 32 km wide, characterised
by one, primarily west-to-east-trending ridgeline, with Mount Marescot identified as the highest point, at
1,129 m asl (Hawkins and Barron 1991). It has an equatorial monsoonal climate (monsoon period between
January and March); the rainfall in coastal (low elevation) areas ranges between 2,000 mm and 5,000 mm
annually (Climate Baseline Report). Distinct wet and dry seasons are evident in some locations.
However, on the southern side of Santa Isabel Island, there is little seasonal variation in rainfall (Volume 2,
Appendix F).
The island is dominated by lowland forest, which is considered diverse in species and containing high
endemicity. The Solomon Islands rainforest ecoregion (including lowland forest) is considered globally
outstanding by the 1998 global assessment of biodiversity (PHCG 2008). The coastal regions of the island
are dominated by mangroves and fresh water/saline swamps (Pauku 2009).
Santa Isabel Island is diverse in terms of terrestrial fauna and flora. Available information identifies that at
least 211 species of described vertebrate fauna occur on the island. These are composed of 23 amphibians,
38 reptiles, 126 birds and 24 mammals. Of these, three species are endemic to the island; eight are
confirmed threatened species, with an additional six threatened, species potentially occurring on the island
(PHCG 2008).
The islands of Malaita and Santa Isabel are geologically similar, with evidence to suggest that both these
islands have not experienced volcanic activity, and predominantly comprise geologically-old base rock.
Choiseul Island (directly to the north of Santa Isabel Island) and Guadalcanal Island (approximately 165 km
northwest) are geologically-speaking similar and mainly formed by volcanic activity and considered
geologically younger.
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The geological history of the islands would suggest that, potentially, Malaita and Santa Isabel Islands have
been formed for a longer period of time, and, as such, contain further evolved ecology. It is believed that
these two islands only recently rose above sea level (Hawkins and Barron 1991), and that Choiseul Island
and Guadalcanal Island are evolutionarily more advanced.
The geological timeline of the formation of these islands has created diverse terrestrial ecology evolution
within the region.
The geographical proximity of Malaita, Santa Isabel and Choiseul Islands is identified as the main contributor
to similar species diversity and endemism between these three islands (Hawkins and Barron 1991).
Currently, the major effect occurring on terrestrial habitats on Santa Isabel Island is logging. The Solomon
Island Forest Management Project predicts that natural forests will be exhausted by 2015 (Pauku 2009).
The land cover percentage of vegetation types on Santa Isabel Island is outlined in Table 7 (Pauku 2009).
Table 7: Vegetation Cover Santa Isabel Island
Vegetation Type
Montane
Hill
Area
Land Cover
[ha]
[%]
10,164
2.5
325,667
78.7
Lowland
17,812
4.3
Freshwater and Riverine
25,216
6.1
Saline Swamp
17,852
4.3
Grassland and other non-forest areas
8,215
2.0
Unknown
Total
8,685
2.1
413,611
100
Source: Pauku 2009 sourced from Ministry Forestry Environment Conservation 1995
3.1.3
Previous Ecological Studies
A number of terrestrial ecology surveys have been undertaken across Solomon Islands, these include:
Walker (1948), Whitmore (1966, 1969a and 1969b), Wolff (1958), Hansell and Wall (1976), Henderson and
Hancock (1991) and Lewis and Crib (1991). Additionally, Flannery (1995) undertook considerable research
on the mammals in the area. The following outlines a brief summary of the current understanding of the
terrestrial ecology of Solomon Islands and specifically Santa Isabel Island.
Fauna
Birds are the most studied animal group in Solomon Islands. The Whitney South Seas Expedition from 1927
to 1930 resulted in 38 publications on birds of Solomon Islands. Since that time a considerable body of
studies has developed on the birds in different parts of Solomon Islands, most recently summarised in the
1999 publication Birds of the Solomon’s, Vanuatu, and New Caledonia (Doughty, Day and Plant 1999).
However, the ecology of most of the species still remains largely unknown.
Current expedition activity is relatively intense with species discovery continuing to occur as identified by
Pikacha, Morrison and Richards (2008) outlining an increase in amphibians from 17 species in 1993 to 21 in
2008. The Solomon group EBA has the greatest number of Restricted Range (RR) bird species of all the
world’s EBAs (Stattersfield et al. 1998).
Virtually all of the larger islands of the Solomon Islands have their own endemic species and/or subspecies.
For example Makira Island has 13 endemic species, the New Georgia group has 10, Rennell Island has five,
Malaita, Santa Cruz and Guadalcanal Islands each have three, Kolombangara Island has two, and Vella
LBirdlla, Ranongga and Ghizo Islands each have one. Current literature does not identify any species
endemic to Santa Isabel Island, however a number of RR species are identified as being endemic to Santa
Isabel and surrounding islands (Section 3.4).
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Solomon Islands (including Rennell, Bellona and the Santa Cruz Islands) have 94 RR bird species, 16 of
which are classified as threatened. This means that Solomon Islands have more unique RR bird species by
area than any other place on earth.
The most comprehensive data on reptiles is Reptiles of the Solomons (McCoy 2006). It presents a
comprehensive description of each described species’ distribution, description of species, their morphology,
including colours and patterns for identification and note their habitats and lifestyles.
A publication on Mammals of the South-West Pacific and Moluccan Islands (Flannery 1995) provides more
detail on the described mammal species in Solomon Islands, in particular ecology and distribution.
Flannery (1995) was the result of a study on the mammals of Solomon Islands by the Mammal department of
Australian Museum in 1987, in collaboration with the Solomon Islands’ Environment and Conservation
Division. The expedition visited all the major islands of the country. This study resulted in the identification
of five new species, including two new species of monkey faced bats (genus Pteralopex), a better description
of the Blossom Bat (Melonycteris fardoulisi) and two new species of fruit bat (Dobsonia Sp.).
Frogs of the Solomon Islands (Pikacha, Morrison and Richards 2008) is the most current and complete
collection of information on Solomon Islands frogs. Pikacha, Morrison and Richards (2008) reported a total
of 21 frog species for Solomon Islands, representing a clear increase from the 17 last reported in the 1993
by State of Environment report (PHCG 2008).
Eighty percent of Solomon Islands’ frogs belong to the family Ceratobatrachidae, two species from the family
Hylidae and one from Ranidae and one from Bufonidae. Only two species are endemic to Solomon Islands,
notably Discodeles malukuna and Platymantis sp. nov (Pikacha, Morrison and Richards 2008).
Insects and terrestrial invertebrates are particularly unknown and understudied in Solomon Islands
(Miller 1996). However, from estimated numbers of Lepidoptera species in Solomon Islands (Tennent 1998)
and the calculation system of Hammond (1992) estimated that Solomon Islands has 14,511 described insect
species and, potentially, 46,015 total insect species. This calculation implies that less than one-in-three
species of insects from the Solomon Islands has been described (McClatchey et al 2005).
Thirty-one cicada species have been recorded from Solomon Islands. Thirty species are endemic to the
archipelago and most of them are endemics of one island or a group of islands. Heteropsaltria and
Nggeliana are genera recorded as endemic to Solomon Islands (Tennent 1998). At least 130 species of
butterfly occur in Solomon Islands, of which 35 are endemic. Many belong to the group of large bird-wing
butterflies (family Papilionidae) (Dahl 1986).
As outlined by Miller (1996),while collections of terrestrial invertebrates have been undertaken, minimal
taxonomic work has been undertaken on the invertebrate diversity throughout Solomon Islands with a
number of exceptions as outlined above and including, Wolff (1958) in the Rendell island series.
Flora
Overall, the general consensus, as outlined in Solomon Islands State of the Environment 2008 (PHCG
2008), identifies substantial endemicity of flora species in Solomon Islands. This includes 57% of palms and
50% of orchids. Additionally, 75% of the climbing Pandanus species identified to date in Solomon Islands
are considered endemic.
Seven major vegetation types have been described in Solomon Islands by Mueller-Dubois (1998). For
Santa Isabel Island, Whitmore (1966) described six forest communities. A summary of those vegetation
communities are presented in Table 8.
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Table 8: Vegetation Types of Solomon Islands
Vegetation
Type
Components
Major Species
Tall forest dominated
by Rhizophora sp.and
Brugueria sp.
Rhizophora sp.and Brugueria sp dominated Impoea, Spinifex,
Canavalia, Thuarea, Cyperus, Scaevola, Hibiscus, Pandanus,
Tournefortia, Cerbera, Calophyllum, Barringtonia, Terminalian and
Casuarina
Low forest dominated
by Rhizophora
apiculata
Rhizophora apiculata dominated Impoea, Spinifex, Canavalia,
Thuarea, Cyperus, Scaevola, Hibiscus, Pandanus, Tournefortia,
Cerbera, Calophyllum, Barringtonia, Terminalian and Casuarina
Camphosperma
brevipetiolata
dominated
Campnosperma Breviopetiolata, Inocarpusfagiferus, Eugenia
tierneyana, Barringtonia spp., Calophyllum vexans, Pterocarpus
indicus
Closed canopy
Terminalia brassi
dominated
Terminalia brassi, Inocarpus fagiferus, Eugenia
Low open canopied Pandanus
Eugenia tierneyana, Inocarpus fagiferus, Erythrina orientalis and
Pandanus
Mixed swamp forest
Inocarpus fagifer, Syzygium tierneyana, Intsia bijuga, Barrington
racemosa, Callophyllum vexans, Pterocarpus indicus,
Campnosperma brevipetiolata, Terminalia brassi
Lowland beach forest
Ipomoea pescaprae, Canavalia rosea, Virna marina, Wollastonia
biflora, Barringtonia asiatica, Callophyllum inophyllum, Cerbera
manghas, Heritiera littoralis, Intsia bijuga, Terminalia catappa,
Casuarina equisetifolia
Lowland forest - mixed
sp.
Calophyllum kajewski, Callophyllum vitiense, Eleocarpus
sphaericus, Enospermum meddulossum, Gmelina molucana,
Maranthes corymbosa, Parinari solomnensis, Pometia pinnata,
Dillenia salomonensis, Schizomeria serrata, Terminalia
calamansanai
Camphosperma
dominated lowland
forest
Campnosperma Brevipetiolatum
Hill forest
Pometia pinnata, Callophyllum kajewski, Endospermum
medullosum, Gmelina mollucana, Canarium spp., Parinari
salomonensis, Vitex cofassus
Low diversity forests
Ultramafic soils, Casuarina papuana, Dillenia crenata, Gulubia
hombronii, Xanthostemon, Myrtella beccarri, Pandanus
lamprocephalus
Montane
Upper montane
Syzygium (Eugenia) sp, Metrosideros sp., Ardisia sp., Ficus,
Rhododendron, Dacrydium sp, Podocarpus pilgeri
Seasonal dry
forest and
grasslands
Seasonal dry forest
and grasslands
Pometia pinnata, Vitex cofassus, Kleinhovia hospita, Themata sp.,
Imperata cylindrica Pterocarpus indicus, Antiasis toxicaria, Ficus
spp. and Sterculia spp
Coastal strand
vegetation
(mangroves)
Freshwater
swamp/Riverine
forest
Lowland forest
There are only subtle differences in the components (sub-categories) that make up the vegetation
communities as described in these studies.
Coastal strand vegetation occurs along the coastline and is affected by saline waters (ocean and lower
estuarine). Freshwater swamps and riverine vegetation type is identified along watercourses and low lying
areas with freshwater (i.e., overland flow) influence.
Lowland forest communities (including hill vegetation communities) cover a majority of Santa Isabel Island
(approximately 83%) (Pauku 2009) up to 600 m asl (Statterfield et al. 1998). Information regarding montane
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forest (Whitmore 1969a) indicates that this vegetation type occurs from 500 m asl, while seasonal dry forests
and grasslands generally occur on rain shadow parts of Guadalcanal Island.
3.2
Fauna
The two fauna surveys (dry and wet season) targeted selected terrestrial fauna groups (invertebrates,
amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals).
3.2.1
Birds
The most suitable for data for analysis from the field surveys was for the birds. Bird data were collected from
lowland forests and mangroves. From these, species richness, evenness and diversity indices were
calculated (Table 9).
Bird data were collected using mist nets and direct observation. Four sites were surveyed in lowland forests
and one in Mangroves. Due to the absence of replication in mangroves, the four sites studied in lowland
forests are analysed.
Table 9: Bird Diversity Indices Calculated in the Local Study Area
Dry Season
Habitat
Lowland forest
Coastal Strand Vegetation (Mangroves)
Sample
S
JESL01
9
JESL02
N
J’
H’
(1-λ)
17
0.92
2.02
0.90
19
40
0.91
2.69
0.94
JESL03
18
46
0.92
2.66
0.94
JESL05
11
31
0.90
2.17
0.89
Average
14.25
33.50
0.91
2.38
0.92
JESL06
15
45
0.73
1.99
0.77
S is Species richness, N is the number of individuals of each species per transect, J’ is the Pielou’s Evenness index, H’ is the Shannon
Index (log base e), and 1-Lambda is the Simpson Index (1-λ).
Thirty-five bird species were observed in lowland forests and 15 in mangroves. The number of bird
observations ranged between 17 and 46 in the lowland forests and 45 in the Mangroves. On average,
species richness was similar in both habitats, with an average of 14.25 in lowland forests and 15 bird species
in mangroves per site.
Forty-three bird species were recorded in all habitats and 36 bird species were recorded in lowland forests.
Based on the observations recorded the first order Jackknife estimated that 63 birds species can potentially
be expected to occur in all habitats and 53 species of birds can potentially be expected to occur in lowland
forests (Table 10). In total, fourteen species were recorded in the mangroves, of which only six species were
not recorded in lowland forests.
Table 10: Observed and Expected Animal Species in the Local Study Area
Number of species
Animal group
Observed
Expected
%
Birds
43
63
68.25
Amphibians
13
19
69
Reptiles
14
21
67.73
6
8
78.22
Bats
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3.2.2
Amphibians, Reptiles and Bats
Fourteen species of amphibians, 19 species of reptiles and six species of bats were recorded in the lowland
forests and mangroves in the LSA. Unlike the bird data amphibians, reptiles and bats data were more
limited, and consequently, there are insufficient data points to calculate diversity indices other than species
richness (Table 11).
Table 11: Reptile, Amphibian and Bat Species Richness in the Local Study Area
Lowland forest
Faunal Group
Mangroves
JESL01
JESL02
JESL03
JESL05
JESL07
JESL06
Reptiles
5
4
7
4
1
3
Amphibians
6
4
4
8
3
3
Bats
5
4
7
4
1
3
Jackknife calculations estimated that 19 species of amphibians, 21 of reptiles and eight species of bats may
occur in the LSA (Table 10). These results suggest that approximately 70% of the species of amphibians
and reptiles have been recorded during the field surveys and 78% of the bat species.
Accumulation Curves
Species data were recorded from lowland forests (four transects) and coastal strand vegetation (mangroves)
(one transect) for:

birds

amphibians

reptiles

mammals (bats)
It should be noted that while the mammal surveys targeted all groups of mammals bats were the most
common group of mammals recorded during the field surveys. The only other mammal recorded was the
Pacific rat (Rattus exulans). Subsequently, species accumulation curves were calculated for bats only. Bat
data were recorded from lowland forests (five sites) and mangroves (one site). Limited mammals (other than
bats) are known in the Solomon Islands. The results found were as expected.
A species accumulation curve for each of the above four groups was calculated for:

combined vegetation types (five transects) of the LSA

coastal strand vegetation (mangroves) (one transect)

lowland forests (four transects)
The species accumulation curves are presented in Attachment II.
Overall the species identification curves indicate that additional sampling would be required to statistically
record all potential species in the combined vegetation types and individual vegetation types.
3.3
3.3.1
Flora
Vegetation Types
Vegetation transects were completed across the LSA and the RSA to record canopy vegetation species
(Attachment I) greater than 10 cm DBH. Whitmore (1966) identified six vegetation types consisting of
12 sub-vegetation types (referred to as components). Field observations in the LSA and RSA attempted to
identify the vegetation component that the particular vegetation transect was being undertaken in.
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The data was assessed using an exploratory multivariate ordination analysis (Clarke and Gorley 2006), to
identify potential canopy species distribution patterns (Figure 6). Among the different existing robust models,
a non-metric multi-dimensional scaling ordination (MDS) was used.
An MDS establishes how transects relate to each other (similarities) in terms of the parameter recorded (in
this case canopy species diversity). The outcomes provide an indication of the similarity between the survey
sites.
In an MDS, points that are closer together represent samples that are similar in community composition, and
points that are far apart correspond to different values of the variable set (Clarke and Gorley 2006).
Due to the complexity of the multi variable assessment no single X or Y axis’s value is presented rather a
visual indication of similar vegetation types. In other words, the closer the points, the more similar the
canopy species are between sites. All canopy tree species data and number of trees per species at each
site was entered.
Figure 6: Tree Species Non-Metric Multi-Dimensional Scaling Ordination Exploratory Analysis Local Study Area
The MDS ordination showed that vegetation transects followed a pattern similar to those that Whitmore
(1966) described as comprising the four major vegetation type groups (Table 8). The MDS results, a
comparison to Whitmore’s vegetation types and components, and the surveyed sites are presented in
Table 12.
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Table 12: Multi-Dimensional Scaling Results and Whitmore Comparison
Multi-Dimensional
Scaling
Whitmore Descriptions
Component
Ultramafic and
Ultramafic/Ultrabasic
forests, and two of the
transects from midland
forests trended to group
Low diversity forests
Coastal forest, which is a
disturbed forest by the
shoreline will be
considered a separate
group
Ipomoea pescaprae,
Canavalia rosea,
Virna marina,
Wollastonia biflora,
Barringtonia asiatica,
Callophyllum
inophyllum, Cerbera
manghas, Heritiera
littoralis, Intsia bijuga,
Terminalia catappa,
Casuarina
equisetifolia
Two of the
Ultramafic/Ultrabasic
forest transects, together
with three midland
transects, which were all
located in riparian forests,
and the two transects
located in the freshwater
swamps, grouped
together
Saline swamp and
mangrove forests showed
Mixed swamp forest
Tall forest dominated
by Rhizophora
sp.and
Brugueria sp
Vegetation Type
Lowland forest
Coastal
Freshwater
swamp/riverine
forest
Coastal strand
vegetation (mangroves)
Site/Transect
JESL01, JESL02, JESL03,
JESL05, JESL07, JESL08,
JESL14, JESL15, JESL17,
Transect 26
Transect 27
JESL09, JESL10, JESL12,
JESL16, JESL18, JESL19,
Transect 25
JESL06, JESL11, JESL13
To confirm that the pattern of association between transects of each habitat was consistent, a cluster
analysis was run (Figure 7). A cluster analysis is a multivariate analysis that shows how dissimilar groups of
transects are in relation to each other (Clarke and Gorley 2006). The same data used for the MDS was used
for the Cluster analysis.
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Figure 7: Cluster Analysis
The cluster analysis confirmed the different levels of classification of the vegetation (Figure 7) as shown by
the MDS (Figure 6). Following these results, vegetation types were regrouped into:

lowland forests

freshwater swamp/riverine forests

coastal strand vegetation (mangroves)
Due to the physical differences observed in the field, coastal forest was considered a fourth group.
Another MDS was run using the new vegetation types classification. A visual representation of the grouping
of the vegetation transects according to the vegetation types is given below (Figure 8). These new
vegetation types are also supported in the literature (Statterfield et al. 1998; Whitmore 1966).
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Figure 8: Trees Species Multi-Dimensional Scaling Ordination
Biodiversity Sampling Intensity
Due to timing limitations and access restrictions, not all habitats could be sampled equally during the field
surveys (Section 2.3.5). However, statistical analysis was undertaken to assess the success of the sampling
and provide information for effort required for future surveys using species accumulation curves of selected
taxa were per vegetation type.
Species accumulation curves were initially calculated for canopy tree species, birds, amphibians, reptiles
and bats species to assess future sampling requirements.
A species accumulation curve was calculated for canopy vegetation identified in the combined vegetation
types of the RSA and additional curves for each separate vegetation type.
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Figure 9: Trees Species Accumulation Curve
According to Figure 9 , more overall intensive sampling effort would be required to record all the trees
species present in the LSA (the curve should flatten at the top right end when theoretically all species in the
community have been recorded).
To determine which is the level of sampling intensity required at each habitat, species accumulation curves
were calculated for:

Lowland forests

Freshwater swamp/riverine forests

Coastal strand vegetation (Mangroves)
The results are presented in Attachment II and indicate that a higher sampling intensity of canopy vegetation
species is required in all habitats to be confident that a high likelihood that canopy vegetation species in the
LSA have all been recorded.
To establish the potential number of species in the area, the first order Jackknife was calculated. Jackknife
is considered an appropriate sampling method in this context and predicts the number of potential species
that occur in the area (Gotelli and Colwell 2011).
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3.3.2
Tree Species Richness, Diversity and Structure
Richness
In addition to the sampling intensity analysis, potential species richness per habitat type was estimated using
the first order Jackknife estimator (Gotelli and Colwell 2011) on PRIMER v6 (Clarke and Gorley 2006).
Based on the number of tree species observed in the three habitats, Jackknife calculations predicted that
lowland forests potentially contain the highest species richness with 118 species. Coastal strand vegetation
(mangroves) are predicted to contain the lowest diversity, with 34 species, and freshwater swamp/riverine
forests potentially contain 107 species (Table 13).
Lowland forests and freshwater swamps/riverine forests were similarly sampled, with 71%, and 72.1% of the
potential tree species recorded, respectively. About 62% of the potential tree species were recorded in the
coastal strand vegetation (mangroves).
Table 13: Observed and Expected Tree Species in the Local Study Area
Number of species
Habitat Description
Observed
Expected
%
Lowland forest
84
118
71
Freshwater swamp/riverine forest
77
107
72.1
Coastal Strand Vegetation (Mangroves)
21
34
62.4
Diversity
Data were collected at different sampling intensities according to habitat type, with 14 transects studied in
lowland forests, eight in freshwater swamps/riverine forests, three in coastal strand vegetation (mangroves)
and one in coastal forest.
Species richness, evenness and diversity indices were calculated for the four habitats and are summarised
in Table 14.
Table 14: Averages of Tree Species Diversity Indices
Habitat
S
N
J’
H’
(1-Lambda')
Lowland forest
18.69 (±4.94)
70.44 (±23.81)
0.86 (±0.05)
2.44 (±0.28)
0.90 (±0.04)
Freshwater
swamp/Riverine
forest
17 (±1.63)
29.25 (±5.38)
0.93 (±0.02)
2.79 (±0.19)
0.94 (±0.02)
Mangroves
8 (±5)
38 (±6.56)
0.72 (±0.19)
1.48 (±0.86)
0.65 (±0.31)
Coastal
19.00
54.00
0.84
2.47
0.90
S is Species richness, N is the number of individuals of each species per transect, J’ is the Pielou’s Evenness index, H’ is the Shannon
Index (log base e), and 1-Lambda is the Simpson Index (1-λ). Coastal forest results do not include standard deviations as the result are
obtained from a single transect
Structure
Structural measurements of the trees in the four habitats were taken and averages of the results are
presented in Table 15.
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Table 15: Forest Structure in the Local Study Area
2
Height [m]
DBH [cm]
Density [tree/m ]
Lowland forest
13.32 (±1.56)
22.32 (±4.58)
0.12 (±0.04)
Freshwater swamp/riverine forest
13.67 (±1.69)
26.96 (±6.10)
0.05 (±0.01)
Coastal Strand Forest (Mangroves)
16.38 (±1.94)
31.73 (±4.33)
0.06 (±0.01)
Coastal
21.04
24.61
0.09
(DBH = Diameter at Breast Height; Density is calculated on the basis that transects are 100 m× 6 m= 600 m2). Coastal forest results do
not include standard deviations as the result are obtained from a single transect
3.3.3
Habitat Diversity and Structure
The MDS (Figure 6) and Cluster Analyses (Figure 7) show that the vegetation types initially identified in the
desktop assessment (Figure 6) including ultramafic and ultramafic/ultrabasic forests are highly related
however are not significantly different from midland forests. These represent a complex approximating the
widely-recognised broad ecosystem type referred to as lowland forest by Statterfield et al. (1998) and
Whitmore (1966).
Moreover, the analyses show that these lowland forests differ in tree community composition from coastal
strand vegetation (mangroves). The freshwater swamp/riverine forest community composition shares
elements with the lowland forest type, yet this community analysis shows it to be a distinct type, in terms of
tree diversity.
Habitat Diversity
Lowland Forests
Lowland forests generally occupy flat areas from the coast extending to the lowland ridges or hills (Pacific
Horizon Consultancy Group 2008) up to 600 m asl (Statterfield et al. 1998). According to the data collected,
lowland forests are dominated (five or more records in at least two transects) by species such as Canarium
liguliferum, Cryptocarya sp., Crytostachys kisu, Decasperma sp., Euodia hortensis, Garcinia solomonensis,
Hydriastele hombronii, Syzygium buettnerianum, Syzygium sp., Teijsmanniodendron ahernianum and
Syzygium nemorale. There is one record of Calophyllum sp. on site JESL07, and one record of
Calophyllum obscurum (Classified as Vulnerable by the IUCN) on site JESL01 endemic to Choiseul, Santa
Isabel Island and Malaita.
In terms of species diversity, lowland forests contained the largest average number of trees (70.44), highest
species richness (18.7) per transect, and was the second most diverse after the freshwater swamp/riverine
forests (Table 13). The list of species found in the surveys is presented in Attachment I.
The understory vegetation covered 47.67% of the lowland forests ground, and contained the highest species
2
richness of all habitats with 7.44 species per m .
Freshwater Swamps/Riverine Forests
Freshwater swamps/riverine forests are characterised in the region by mixed herbaceous species, palms,
Pandanus spp. and other wetland or wet ground species, such as sago and rosewood (PHCG 2008).
Such areas are particularly sensitive to soil compaction from logging. Records show that the freshwater
swamps are dominated by Cyathocalyx petiolatus, Dysoxylum excelsum, Ficus wassa, Macaranga dioica
and Terminalia sp. One rosewood tree (Pterocarpus indicus), a species classified as Vulnerable by the
IUCN Red List, was recorded in JESL16. The list of species found in the surveys is presented in
Attachment I.
In terms of diversity (Table 14), species richness was determined at 17 trees species per transect. There
were less than half the number of trees per transect (29.25) compared to the lowland forests (70.44) and
diversity indices were slightly higher than lowland forests (Table 12).
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The understory vegetation was the densest of all habitats and covered 74.6% of the Freshwater
2
Swamp/Riverine forests ground. On average, the understory contains 5.8 species per m .
According to the species accumulation graph (Figure 9) statistically more data is required to predict the
number of species that potentially occur in this habitat and the ideal sampling intensity. However Jackknife
estimator (Gotelli and Colwell 2011) of canopy species richness and animal species richness indicates that
up to 78% of species were surveyed.
Coastal Strand Vegetation (Mangroves)
The coastal strand vegetation (mangroves) are primarily mangrove areas that are estimated to occur on
2.3% of Solomon Islands land area and have lower species diversity than other habitats (PHCG 2008).
According to the results of our analysis, Mangroves were dominanted by species such Bruguiera
gymnorhiza, Rhyzophora apiculata, Inocarpus fagifer and Terminalia brassii.
In terms of diversity, the Mangroves contained a similar average of trees per transect (38) to the freshwater
swamps, but with eight species per transect. With a Shannon Index of 1.48 and a Simpson Index of 0.72,
the Mangroves are the least diverse habitats of the three. The list of species found in the surveys is
presented in Attachment I.
The Mangroves forest understory contained the lowest vegetation cover with 21.6%, and the lowest species
2
richness with an average of 4.33 species per m .
Habitat Structure
On average, lowland forests contained the highest tree density of all habitats, with twice as many trees per
square metre compared to freshwater swamps/ Riverine forests and Mangroves. However, lowland forests
contained shorter and thinner trees compared to Mangroves, where the thickest and tallest trees of all
habitats occurred. Freshwater swamp forest tree height was similar to lowland forest trees and the thickness
of the trees was half way between lowland forests and Mangroves.
3.4
Species of Concern
As outlined in Section 2.2, SoC are species that require special conservation considerations. The following
list outlines the SoC identified for the Project.
Calophyllum obscurum
IUCN Category - Vulnerable B1 + 2c
Distribution of this species is restricted to three islands within Solomon Islands (Choiseul, Santa Isabel and
Malaita) with a reduction in the population currently occurring due to clearing and forestry. Restricted to
primary forest on ridges or flooded coral platforms (IUCN 2013).
Liparis sp. nov.? (Potential New Orchid)
Potential New Species
This species (Photograph 2) was collected on 21 September 2013 at E: 518592.88 N: 9103788.32 by
Daniel Joyce and Myknee Sirikolo. It is comparable to the seven species of the genus Liparis that are known
in Solomon Islands, which comprise terrestrial and epiphytic orchids. Morphological features of the collected
specimen do not conform with all the known species recorded in Solomon Islands and is considered likely to
be a new orchid species. It is an epiphytic orchid, with cylindrical and fleshy pseudobulbs, having terminal
racemose inflorescence which contains many flowers, golden to green and tainted with purple colours. It
also has two distinctive secondary leaf veins which are parallel on both sides of the main leaf vein. The
specimen is currently being held in the Solomon Island Herbarium.
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Photograph 2: Liparis Sp. Nov?
Metroxylon salomonense (Sagu Palm)
IUCN Category – Not assessed
Species used for building and construction materials. Important to local residents as a resource.
Pterocarpus indicus (Rosewood)
IUCN Category - Vulnerable A1d
This species is targeted for timber harvesting. Subpopulations have declined because of overexploitation,
sometimes illegal exploitation, of the timber, as well as from increasing general habitat loss.
Xanthostemon melanoxylon (Tubi, Ivory Wood)
IUCN Category - Not assessed
This species is considered endemic to Solomon Islands. All Xanthostemon species are not included in the
2011 checklist of Convention on the International Trade of Endangered Species (CITES) and Xanthostemon
melanoxylon is not categorised as threatened based on the 2011 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
This Act does not categorically prohibit the harvesting or cutting of Xanthostemon sp. provided that it is not
for export. The Forests Act of 1999 corresponds to this Act by declaring any species, grade or other
category of timber as restricted from export in unprocessed form, prohibited from export, and restricted or
prohibited from import.
This species is also considered locally important with carving of the timber undertaken by locals.
Accipiter imitator (Imitator Goshawk)
IUCN Category - Vulnerable C2a(i); D1
This species (Photograph 3) is endemic to Bougainville, Papua New Guinea, Choiseul and Santa Isabel
Islands (Solomon Islands). The total population is estimated to number less than 1,500 mature individuals
and considered severely fragmented across islands it is known from. Little information is known about this
species however a number of the sub populations may consist of as few as 50 individuals (BirdLife
International 2012. Accipiter imitator).
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Photograph 3: Accipiter imitator (Imitator Goshawk) Captured JESL05 12/08/2013 Mist Net 4
Ducula rubricera (Red knobbed Imperial Pigeon)
IUCN Category - Near Threatened
Threatened and RR
This species is restricted to the Bismark Archipeligo, including New Britain, Papua New Guinea, Bougainville
and nearly all forested areas in Solomon Islands. Predominately found in locations with extensive forest, it is
rarer in degraded habitat affected by clearing for forestry and agriculture (BirdLife International 2012.
Ducula rubricera).
Esacus giganteus (Beach Thick Knee)
IUCN Category - Near Threatened.
Species threatened by disturbance of beach habitats (BirdLife International 2012. Esacus giganteus).
Haliaeetus sanfordi (Solomon Eagle)
IUCN Category - Vulnerable D1.
This species is restricted to Bougainville, Buka, Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands and is classified as
Vulnerable due to the estimated small population, which is suspected to be declining. It is additionally
judged to contain distinct subpopulations, some totalling more than 250 Birds (BirdLife International 2012.
Haliaeetus sanfordi).
Monarcha barbatus (Black and White Monarch, Solomons Monarch)
IUCN Category - Near Threatened.
This species (Photograph 4) is restricted to Bougainville in Papua New Guinea, Choiseul, Santa Isabel,
Guadalcanal and other small islands. The species is relatively uncommon throughout its range and appears
to have little tolerance for degraded forests (BirdLife International 2012. Haliaeetus sanfordi).
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Photograph 4: Monarcha barbatus (Black and White Monarch, Solomon’s Monarch)
Rhipidura cockerelli (Cockerell's Fantail)
IUCN Category - Near Threatened.
Rhipidura cockerelii (Photograph 5) occurs on Bougainville in Papua New Guinea and most of Solomon
Islands where it occurs at low population densities. The global population size has not been quantified, but
the species is described as moderately common to common in lowland forests throughout its range. It
occurs in primary and closed secondary forest and forest edge to about 1,150 m asl. It is fairly uncommon
and intolerant of degraded forest.
Photograph 5: Rhipidura cockerelli (Cockerell's Fantail)
Unknown Species Potentially Zoothera heinei (Russet-Tailed Thrush)
IUCN Category Least Concern
One specimen of this species was identified in the lowland forest vegetation type. The specimen was
forwarded to the American Museum of Natural History (AMNH) for identification. Initial information from
AMNH indicates that the specimen is a juvenile Zoothera heinei (Photograph 6) and represents a range
extension of the species.
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Photograph 6: Zoothera heinei (Russet-Tailed Thrush)
Papustyla sp/Papustyla pulcherrima
IUCN Category - Not assessed.
Papustyla pulcherrima (Photograph 7) is a species known from restricted distribution within Papua New
Guinea and Manus Island (Delsaerdt 2012). Species protected under CITES (Conservation International
2013).
Photograph 7: Papustyla SP/Papustyla pulcherrima
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Palmatorappia solomonis (Treasure Island Tree Frog)
IUCN Category - Vulnerable B1ab(iii)
2
Listed as vulnerable because its extent of occurrence is less than 20,000 km , its distribution is severely
fragmented and there is continuing decline in the extent and quality of its forest habitat in the Solomon
Islands Archipelago. This species (Photograph 8) is known from several large islands in the Solomon
archipelago, including Bougainville and Buka in Papua New Guinea. Recent studies suggest that this
species might have a wide distribution in Solomon Islands. It has been recorded from 700 to 1,500 m asl on
Bougainville, but in Solomon Islands it has been recorded only up to 250 m asl (Richards and Parker 2004).
Photograph 8: Palmatorappia solomonis (Treasure Island Tree Frog)
Pteropus mahaganus (Sanborn's Flying Fox)
IUCN Category - Vulnerable B1ab(iii)
2
Listed as Vulnerable because its extent of occurrence is less than 20,000 km , its distribution is fragmented
and there is continuing decline in the extent and quality of its forest habitat.
This little-known species has been recorded from the islands of Santa Isabel and Tanabuli in Solomon
Islands and Bougainville and Buka in Papua New Guinea. Extensive searches have not recorded
populations of this species on other islands in the Solomons group (Flannery 1995). It has been recorded
from sea level to 200 m asl. This species is found in coastal lowlands in coconut plantations and lowland
tropical forest. Animals have been recorded feeding on young coconuts at night. It is not a colony rooster; it
roosts individually and in small groups in foliage and small tree hollows (Leary etal 2008).
Cyrtodactylus salomonensis
IUCN Category - Near Threatened
This species (Photograph 9) is endemic to Solomon Islands where it is known from Bougainville, Alu
(Shortland Is.), Choiseul, New Georgia, Isabel, Malaita and Guadalcanal. It is typically found from sea level
(Malaita) to 400 m asl (Guadalcanal and Malaita) (McCoy 2011, pers. comm.).
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Photograph 9: Cyrtodactylus salomonensis
A summary and location of important species identified during the field surveys is provided in Table 16.
Table 16: Important Species Location
Scientific
Common Name
IUCN Status
Sampling Location
Amphibians
Treasure Island Tree Frog
Vulnerable
JESL02, JESL03
Sanborn's Flying Fox
Vulnerable
JESL02
Zoothera heinei
Russet-tailed Thrush
Least Concern
JESL01
Ducula rubricera
Red-Knobbed Imperial Pigeon
Near Threatened
JESL02
Esacus giganteus
Beach Thick Knee
Near Threatened
Lake Sivoko
Near Threatened
JESL05, JESL06
Palmatorappia solomonis
Mammals
Pteropus mahaganus
Birds
Rhipidura cockerelli
Black and White Monarch Solomon’s Monarch
Cockerel’s Fantail
Near Threatened
JESL03
Accipiter imitator
Imitator Goshawk
Vulnerable
JESL05
Haliaeetus sanfordi
Solomon Eagle
Vulnerable
JESL05
Calophyllum obscurum
-
Vulnerable
JESL01 JESL07
Liparis sp. nov.?
(Potential New Orchid)
Uknown
JESL09
Metroxylon salomonense
Sagu Palm
Not assessed
JESL06
Xanthostemon melanoxylon
Tubi, Ivory Wood
Not assessed
JESL03, JESL14 and
JESL15
-
Uknown
JESL06
-
Near Threatened
JESL01, JESL02,
JESL03
Monarcha barbatus
Plants
Molluscs
Papustyla sp
Reptiles
Cyrtodactylus salomonensis
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3.5
Assessment of Biodiversity Importance
The discovery of a range extension for the Guadalcanal thrush and a possible new plant species (Liparis sp.
nov.?) may indicate the possibility of additional species not yet described occurring in these habitats.
Further evidence of this may be found in the future identification of the captured invertebrate species.
A complete critical habitat assessment has not been undertaken for the vegetation types surveyed, however
the number of SoCs identified and the potential two new species indicate the vegetation types in the LSA
and RSA are likely to be considered critical habitat,
Additionally these habitats may be particularly sensitive to any alterations of the ecosystem structure,
composition and function, and fall under the critical habitat category. To better understand the biodiversity
patterns present, further research is essential. A full assessment of the critical habitats of the area is
required and shall be undertaken during future phases.
4.0
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
A literature review of Solomon Islands as a whole identified that the biodiversity and endemicity of terrestrial
ecology existing in the region is second only to New Guinea. A large volume of research has been
undertaken on a number of flora and fauna groups (plants, amphibians, birds and mammals) in the region.
The literature review also identified a number of groups (e.g., invertebrates) that require additional research
to identify the diversity of species and range of these groups within Solomon Islands.
A field survey was designed based on a need to sample a range of flora and fauna groups; however, focus
was placed on those groups that had previous research (i.e., birds, mammals, trees and amphibians)
associated with them which allowed for field identification. This was beneficial given the short field program
and limited knowledge of a number of groups (e.g., insects).
Results of the field survey identified three vegetation types occurring within the LSA:

lowland forests

freshwater swamp/riverine forests

coastal strand vegetation (mangroves)
These vegetation types are considered to generally align with previous vegetation types of the Solomon
Islands proposed by Whitmore (1966) (Table 8). A canopy species richness of these vegetation types was
undertaken using Jackknife estimator (Gotelli and Colwell, 2011) on PRIMER v6 (Clarke and Gorley 2006).
Canopy species diversity patterns were then calculated. Additionally groundcover was assessed using
2
average number of species per m and percentage cover. A summary of the results for vegetation and
habitats assessments is presented below.
Lowland Forest
In terms of species diversity, lowland forests contained the largest average number of trees (70.44), highest
species richness (18.7) per transect, and was the second most diverse after the Freshwater swamp/Riverine
forests (Table 13). The list of species found in the surveys is presented in Attachment I.
The understory vegetation covered 47.67% of the Lowland Forests ground, and contained the highest
2
species richness of all habitats with 7.44 species per m .
Freshwater Swamps/Riverine forests
In terms of diversity (Table 14), species richness (S) was determined at 17 trees species per transect. There
were less than half the number of trees per transect (29.25) compared to the lowland forests (70.44) and
diversity indices were slightly higher than lowland forests (Table 12).
The understory vegetation was the densest of all habitats and covered 74.6% of the freshwater
2
swamp/riverine forests ground. On average, the understory contains 5.8 species per m .
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According to the species accumulation graph statistically more data is required to predict the number of
species that potentially occur in this habitat and the ideal sampling intensity. However JACKKNIFE estimator
(Gotelli and Colwell 2011) of canopy species richness and animal species richness indicates that up to 78%
of species were surveyed.
Coastal Strand Vegetation (Mangroves)
In terms of diversity, the coastal strand vegetation (mangroves) contained a similar average of trees per
transect (38) to the freshwater swamps/riverine forests, but with eight species per transect. With a Shannon
Index of 1.48 and a Simpson Index of 0.72, the coastal strand vegetation (mangroves) are the least diverse
habitats of the three. The list of species found in the surveys is presented in Attachment I.
The coastal strand vegetation (mangroves) forest understory contained the lowest vegetation cover with
2
21.6%, and the lowest species richness with an average of 4.33 species per m .
Fauna
The two fauna surveys (dry and wet season) targeted selected terrestrial fauna groups (invertebrates,
amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals.
The most suitable for data for analysis from the field surveys was for the birds. Bird data were collected from
lowland forests and coastal strand vegetation (mangroves). From these, species richness, evenness and
diversity indices were calculated.
Thirty-five bird species were observed in lowland forests and 15 in coastal strand vegetation (mangroves).
The number of bird observations ranged between 17 and 46 in the lowland forests and 45 in the coastal
strand vegetation (mangroves). On average, species richness was similar in both habitats, with an average
of 14.25 in lowland forests and 15 bird species in coastal strand vegetation (mangroves) per site.
Fourteen species of amphibians, 19 species of reptiles and six species of bats were recorded in the lowland
forests and coastal strand vegetation (mangroves) in the LSA. Unlike the bird data amphibians, reptiles and
bats data were more limited, and consequently, there are insufficient data points to calculate diversity indices
other than species richness.
The results indicate that the survey area contains high biodiversity (specifically within the lowland forest).
A number of IUCN-listed species were identified in the LSA (Section 3.4) with a total of 16 SoC identified in
the RSA.
The results of the flora and fauna survey confirm the current literature of significant diversity and endemicity
in Solomon Islands and that further studies are likely to identify new species.
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5.0
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Barker, P. 2001. Resource Management & Conservation DPIWE Resource Management and Conservation,
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Clarke, KR, Gorley, RN. 2006. PRIMER v6: User Manual/Tutorial. PRIMER-E, Plymouth.
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Coleman, R. G., Lee, D. E., Beatty, L. B., Brannock. 1965. Eclogites and eclogites: their differences and
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Colwell, Robert K. 2000. Biodiversity: Concepts, Patterns and Measurement. In Simon A. Levin.
The Princeton Guide to Ecology. Princeton: Princeton University Press. pp. 257–263.
Dahl, A. L. 1986. Review of the protected areas system in Oceania. IUCN/UNEP, Gland, Switzerland.
Delsaert, A.G. J. 2012. Land Snails on the Solomon Islands Vol. II Camaenidae L'Informatore Piceno,
Ancona, Italy,
Doughty, Day and Plant. 1999. Birds of the Solomon’s, Vanuatu, and New Caledonia Princeton University
Press
Emberton, K.C., T.A. Pearce and R. Randalana. 1996. Quantitatively sampling land-snail species richness
in Madagascan rainforests. Malacologia 38: 203-212
Flannery, T. F. 1995. Mammals of the South-West Pacific and Moluccan Islands. Cornell University Press,
Ithaca.
Gotelli, N. J. and R. K. Colwell. 2011. Estimating species richness. Pages 39-54 in A. E. Magurran and
B. J. McGill, editors. Frontiers in measuring biodiversity. Oxford University Press, New York.
Leary, T., Hamilton, S., Bonaccorso, F. and Helgen, K. 2008. Pteropus mahaganus. In: IUCN 2013. IUCN
Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2013.1.<www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on
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Hammond, P. M. 1992. Species inventory, Pages 17 – 39 in B Groombridge, ed. Global Biodiversity:
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Hansell, J. R. F., and Wall, J. R. D. 1970. Land Resources of Solomon Islands Vol. 2 Guadalcanal
Hansell, J. R. Hansell, J. R. F., and Wall, J. R. D. 1976. Land resources of Solomon Islands, Vol. 1
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Islands, Ministry of Natural Resources, Honiara. Solomon Islands Geological Survey Memoir 14: Page 114.
Heaney, L. R., D.S. Balete, E, A. Rickart R. C.B. Utzurrum, and P.c. Gonzales. 1999. Mamalian diversity
on Mount Isarog, a threaterned centre of endemisim on south Luzon Island, Philippines. Fieldiana; Zoology,
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6.0
GLOSSARY
Baseline
A surveyed or predicted condition that serves as a reference point to which later
surveys are compared
Biodiversity
Biodiversity is the variety of life included at the genetic, individual organism,
species, population, community, ecosystem, and landscape levels of organisation
and all the ecological and biological processes through which they are connected
Catchment
The area of land bounded by topographic features that drains water to a larger
waterbody such as a river, wetlands or lake. Watershed can range in size from a
few hectares to thousands of kilometres
Community
Plant or animal species living in close association or interacting as a unit
Critical habitat
A concept used by the International Finance Corporation (IFC) as part of their
approach to risk management and sustainable development. Areas of critical
habitat are unique, irreplaceable or vulnerable areas of a particularly sensitive
nature for biodiversity conservation that deserve special attention and may
require extraordinary mitigations
Ecological
The science of the relationships between organisms and their environments
Ecosystem
An integrated and stable association of living and non–living resources
functioning within a defined physical location. A community of organisms and its
environment functioning as an ecological unit. For the purposes of assessment,
the ecosystem must be defined according to a particular unit and scale.
Endemic
A species native or restricted to a certain place
Extinct
When there is no reasonable doubt that the last individual has died; exhaustive
surveys in known and/or expected habitat, at appropriate times (diurnal,
seasonal, annual), throughout its historic range have failed to record an
individual. Surveys should be over a time frame appropriate to the taxon’s cycle
and life form
Fauna
Animals of a particular region, habitat or geological period
Flora
Plants of the region, habitat or geological period being described
Habitat
The place or environment where a plant or animal naturally or normally lives or
occurs
Local Study Area
Defines the spatial extent directly or indirectly affected by the Project
Lowland
The plains surrounding relatively higher elevations
Rare species
Any nationally– or internationally–listed species of conservation concern
Richness
The number of species in a biological community (e.g., habitat)
Species
A group of organisms that actually or potentially interbreed and are reproductively
isolated from all other such groups; a taxonomic grouping of genetically and
morphologically similar individuals; the category below genus.
Species richness
The number of different species occupying a given area
Taxa
A group of organisms of any taxonomic rank (e.g., family, genus, species, etc.)
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7.0
ABBREVIATIONS
asl – Above Sea Level
CITES - Convention on the International Trade of Endangered Species
CR - Critically Endangered
DBH – Diameter at Breast Height
DD – Data Deficient
EBA - Endemic Bird Area
En - Endangered
ESIA – Environmental and Social Impact Assessment
EX - Extinct
Ha – hectares
h – hour
IFC - International Finance Corporation
IUCN - International Union for Conservation of Nature
JBIC - Japanese Bank for International Co-operation
km – Kilometre
LC – Least Concern
LSA – Local Study Area
m – metre
mm – millimetre
MDS - Multi-Dimensional Scaling
NT – Near Threatened
RR- Restricted Range
RSA - Regional Study Area
SINP - Solomon Islands Nickel Project
SMM Solomon - SMM Solomon Ltd.
SoC - Species of Concern
UV – Ultraviolet
VU – Vulnerable
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Report Signature Page
GOLDER ASSOCIATES PTY LTD
Dan Joyce
Senior Environmental Scientist
Mervyn Mason
Senior Ecologist
Ian Gilchrist
Associate, Principal Environmental Consultant
DJ/MM/IG/kg
A.B.N. 64 006 107 857
Golder, Golder Associates and the GA globe design are trademarks of Golder Associates Corporation.
j:\env\2013\137633001 sumitomo\2400 esia 1 documentation\12 - hold point (ready to finalise)\137633001-4002-r-rev0-2400-terrestrial ecology baseline report\137633001-4002-rrev0-2400-terrestrial ecology baseline report.docx
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Attachment I
Survey Species Identified
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Table I-1: Animal Species Identified in the Surveys
Common Name
Scientific Name
Group
INVERTEBRATES
-
Cupha melichrysos
Butterfly
-
Cupha melichrysos tredecia
Butterfly
-
Cyrestis acilia
Butterfly
-
Delias schombergi isabellae
Butterfly
-
Euploea batessi
Butterfly
Orange-flash Crow Butterfly
Euploea leucostictos
Butterfly
-
Euploea treitschkei aenea
Butterfly
-
Mycalesis splendens versicolor
Butterfly
-
Ornithoptera victoriea
Butterfly
-
Papilio bridgei bridgei
Butterfly
Swallow Tail Butterfly
Papilio woodfordi
Butterfly
Swallow Tail Butterfly
papilio woodfordi ariel
Butterfly
-
Protorthemis woodfordi
Butterfly
-
Saletara cycinna corinna
Butterfly
Cane Toad
Anaxyrus americanus
Frog
-
Batrachylodes elegans
Frog
-
Batrachylodes gigas
Frog
-
Batrachylodes sp.
Frog
-
Batrachylodes vertebralis
Frog
Solomon Island Eyelash/Horn Frog
Ceratobatrachus guentheri
Frog
L. thesaurensis
Litoria thesaurensis
Frog
Treasure Island Tree Frog
Palmatorappia solomonis
Frog
-
Platymantis guppyi
Frog
-
Platymantis neckeri
Frog
-
Platymantis sp.
Frog
Weber's wrinkled ground frog
Platymantis weberi
Frog
Rana Kreftie
Rana kreffti
Frog
Cane Toad
Rhinella marina
Frog
Marine File Snake
Acrochordus granulatus
Reptile
Brown Tree Snake
Boiga irregularis
Reptile
Pacific tree boa
Candoia bibroni
Reptile
-
Candoia paulsoni
Reptile
Copper-tailed Skink
Ctenotus taeniolatus
Reptile
-
Cyrtodactylus solomonensis
Reptile
Pacific Bluetail Skink
Emoia caeruleocauda
Reptile
VERTEBRATES
REPTILES
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Table I-1: Animal Species Identified in the Surveys (continued)
Common Name
Scientific Name
Group
Teal Emo Skink
Emoia cyanogaster
Reptile
Yellow-throated Skink
Emoia flavigularis
Reptile
Black Emo Skink
Emoia nigra
Reptile
Skunk Gekko
Gekko vittatus
Reptile
Oceania Gecko
Gehyra oceanica
Reptile
Stump-toed gecko
Gehyra mutilata
Reptile
Emerald Tree Skink
Lamprolepis smaragdina
Reptile
-
Sphenomorphus cocinnatus
Reptile
Crane's Skink
Sphenomorphus cranei
Reptile
Brown Lizard
Sphenomorphus woodfordi
Reptile
Scorpion
unknown
Reptile
-
Gehyra sp.
Reptile
Imitator Goshawk
Accipiter imitator
Bird
Variable Goshawk
Accipiter novaehollandiae
Bird
Hornbill
Aceros plicatus
Bird
Uniform swiftlet
Aerodramus vanikorensis
Bird
Little Kingfisher
Alcedo pusilla
Bird
Pacific Black duck
Anas superciliosa
Bird
Singing starling
Aplonis cantoroides
Bird
Metallic Starling
Aplonis metallica
Bird
Ducorp’s cockatoo
Cacatua ducorpsii
Bird
Variable kingfisher
Ceyx lepidus
Bird
Cardinal Lori
Chalcopsitta cardinalis
Bird
Glossy Swiftlets
Collocalia esculenta
Bird
White billed crow
Corvus woodfordi
Bird
Midget Flowerpecker
Dicaeum aeneum
Bird
Island Imperial-pigeon
Ducula pistrinaria
Bird
Red-knobbed Imperial-pigeon
Ducula rubricera
Bird
Pacific Reef egret
Egretta sacra
Bird
Beach Thick Knee
Esacus giganteus
Bird
Lesser Frigatebird
Fregata ariel
Bird
Solomons Sea Eagle
Haliaeetus sanfordi
Bird
Brahminy Kite
Haliastur indus
Bird
Moustached treeswift
Hemiprocne mystacea
Bird
Pacific swallow
Hirundo tahitica
Bird
MacKinlay's Cuckoo-Dove/Fruit Dove
Macropygia mackinlayi
Bird
Intermediate egret
Mesophoyx intermedia
Bird
Finsch's Pygmy Parrot
Micropsitta finschii
Bird
Yellow-Faced Myna
Mino dumontii
Bird
BIRDS
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Table I-1: Animal Species Identified in the Surveys (continued)
Common Name
Scientific Name
Group
long-tailed Myna
Mino kreffti
Bird
Black and white monarch
Monarcha barbatus
Bird
Black and White Monarch - Solomons Monarch
Monarcha barbatus
Bird
Chestnut Bellied monarch
Monarcha castaneiventris
Bird
Steel Blue Fly Catcher
Myiagra ferrocyanea
Bird
Yellow-face Myna
Myzomela eichhorni
Bird
Red-capped Myzomela
Myzomela lafargei
Bird
Olive-backed sunbird
Nectarinia jugularis
Bird
Boo book owl
Ninox jacquinoti
Bird
Eastern Curlew
Numenius madagascariensis
Bird
Golden Whistler
Pachycephala pectoralis
Bird
Superb Dove
Ptilinopus superbus
Bird
Cockerell's Fantail
Rhipidura cockerelli
Bird
Rufous Fantail
Rhipidura rufifrons
Bird
Collared Kingfisher
Todiramphus chloris
Bird
Russett Tailed Thrush
Zoothera heinei
Bird
Guadalcanal thrush
Zoothera Turipavae
Bird
Yellow-throated White-eye
Zoothera Turipavae
Bird
Yellow-throated white-eye
Zosterops metcalfii
Bird
White eye
Zosterops sp.
Bird
Crested Cockatoo
Bird
Northern blossom bat
Macroglossus minimus nanus
Mammal
Solomon tube nose bat
Nyctimene bougainville
Mammal
Solomon Island Tube nose
Nyctimene major
Mammal
Sanborn's Flying Fox
Pteropus mahaganus
Mammal
Pacific Rat
Rattus exulans
Mammal
Rousette Bat
Rousettus amplexicaudatus
Mammal
Eastern Bent-winged Bat
Miniopterus schreibersii
Mammal
Large-footed Myotis
Myotis adversus
Mammal
Fawn Leaf-nosed Bat
Hipposideros cervinus
Mammal
Naked-rumped Sheathtail Bat
Saccolaimus saccolaimus
Mammal
Umboi Tube-nosed Bat
Nyctimene vizcaccia
Mammal
- no common name
March 2014
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JEJEVO/ISABEL B PROJECT
TERRESTRIAL ECOLOGY BASELINE REPORT
Table I-2: Plant Species Identified in the Surveys
Scientific name
Actinodaphne sp.
Aglaia sp.
Alstonia Brassie
Alstonia spectabilis
Amaranths corymbs
Areca macrocalyx
Asplenium nidus
Astronidium novoguineense
Astronidium salomonense
Barringtonia sp.
Begonia salomonensis
Begonia sp.
Blennoderma drummondii
Blennoderma sp.
Brownlowia argentata
Bruguiera gymnorhiza
Calamus stipitatus
Calanthe ventilabrum
Calophyllum obscurum
Calophyllum paludosum
Calophyllum sp.
Calophyllum vitiense
Campnosperma brevipetiolata
Cananga odorata
Canarium asperum
Canarium hirsutum
Canarium liguliferum
Canarium solomonense
Canarium sp.
Caryota rumphiana
Celtis philippensis
Cerbera manghas
Claoxylon sp.
Comesperma breviflorum
Cryptocarya globosa
Cryptocarya kajewskii
Cryptocarya medicinalis
Cryptocarya Solomonensis
Cryptocarya sp.
March 2014
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TERRESTRIAL ECOLOGY BASELINE REPORT
Table I-2: Plant Species Identified in the Surveys (continued)
Scientific name
Cryptocarya whitmorei
Cyathea vittata
Cyathocalyx petiolatus
Cyperus compressus
Cyrtostachys kisu
Davallia denticulata
Decasperma sp.
Delairea odorata
Dendrocnide salomonensis
Derris elegans
Derris triphylla
Dicranopteris sp.
Dillenia ingens
Dillenia Irenata
Dillenia salomonensis
Dioscorea sp.
Drymophloeus dennisii
Drymophloeus insolita
Dysoxylum caulostachyum
Dysoxylum costulatum
Dysoxylum excelsum
Dysoxylum sp.
Elaeocarpus floribundus
Elaeocarpus sp.
Elaeocarpus sphaericus
Elatostema reticulatum
Endospermum formicarum
Euodia elleryana
Euodia hortensis
Euodia sp.
Fagara brisasana
Fagara obtusifolia
Fagara sp
Fagraea racemosa
Fagraea salomonensis
Ficus chrysochaete
Ficus copiosa
Ficus longifolia
Ficus sp.
Ficus variegate
March 2014
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JEJEVO/ISABEL B PROJECT
TERRESTRIAL ECOLOGY BASELINE REPORT
Table I-2: Plant Species Identified in the Surveys (continued)
Scientific name
Ficus virgata
Ficus Wassa
Finschia waterhousiana
Flagellaria indica
Freycinetia decipiens
Freycinetia solomonensis
Garcinia solomonensis
Gmelina moluccana
Gnetum gnenum
Gomphandra sp.
Gonancylis macrophylus
Haplolobus salomonensis
Heritiera littoralis
Hernandia peltata
Hernandia sp.
Heterospathe minor
Homalomena cordata
Horsfieldia polyantha
Hydriastele hombronii
Hydriastele macrospadix
Inocarpus fagifer
Leptaspis urceolata
Licuala lauterbachii
Litsea perglabra
Lumnitzera littorea
Lygodium circinnatum
Macaranga dioica
Macaranga similis
Macodes cominsii
Mapania palustris
Melicope sp.
Merremia peltata
Metrosideros collina
Metroxylon salomonense
Microsorium scolopendria
Mussaenda cylindrocarpa
Myristica fatua
Myristica irya
Myristica sp.
Neonauclea orientalis
March 2014
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TERRESTRIAL ECOLOGY BASELINE REPORT
Table I-2: Plant Species Identified in the Surveys (continued)
Scientific name
Neonauclea SP
Nephrolepis biserrata
Nephrolepis hirsutula
Ophioglossum pendulum
Osmoxylon novoguineensis
Palaquium firmum
Pandanus compresus
Pandanus sp.
Pandanus spiralis
Pandanus ysabelensis
Parinari glaberrima
Parinari solomonensis
Pelendra sp.
Phreatia micrantha
Phyllanthus sp.
Physokentia dennisii
Piper sp.
Planchonella firma
Pleomele angustifolia
Plerandra solomonensis
Plerandra stahliana
Polyscias guilfoylei
Polyscias sp.
Pometia pinnata
Premna corymbosa
Premnia barinbosa
Pseuderanthemum pacificum
Psychotria solomonensis
Ptchosperma salomonense
Pteris ligulata
Pteris polysora
Pterocarpus indicus
Ptychosperma psilocladum
Ptychosperma salomonense
Pullea sp.
Racembambos holttumii
Rhizophora apiculata
Rhus taitensis
Saraca indica
Saurauia purgans
March 2014
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TERRESTRIAL ECOLOGY BASELINE REPORT
Table I-2: Plant Species Identified in the Surveys (continued)
Scientific name
Schizomeria serrata
Scindapsus cuscuaria
Scindapsus sp.
Selaginella rechingeri
Semecarpus forstenii
Smilax indica
Spathiphyllum solomonense
Sterculia conwentzii
Syzygium buettnerianum
Syzygium cinctum
Syzygium mircidius
Syzygium myriadenum
Syzygium nemorale
Syzygium onesimum
Syzygium sp.
Syzygium tierneyanum
Teijsmanniodendron ahernianum
Terminalia brassii
Terminalia calamansanay
Terminalia seticana
Terminalia sp.
Timonius pulpous
Timonius timon
Tinospora glabra
Trichomanes humile
Trichospermum psilocladum
Uncaria ferrea
Vitex cofassus
Vrydagzynea salomonensis
Weinmannia sp.
Weinmannia urdanetensis
Xanthostemon melanoxylon
Xylocarpus granatum
Ziziphus angustifolius.
March 2014
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TERRESTRIAL ECOLOGY BASELINE REPORT
Attachment II
Species Accumulation Curves
March 2014
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TERRESTRIAL ECOLOGY BASELINE REPORT
Figure II-1: Lowland Forests Species Accumulation Curve
March 2014
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JEJEVO/ISABEL B PROJECT
TERRESTRIAL ECOLOGY BASELINE REPORT
Figure II-2: Freshwater Swamps/Riverine Forests Species Accumulation Curve
March 2014
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TERRESTRIAL ECOLOGY BASELINE REPORT
Figure II-3: Coastal Strand Vegetation (Mangroves) Species Accumulation Curve
Figure II-4: Bird Species Accumulation Curve
March 2014
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JEJEVO/ISABEL B PROJECT
TERRESTRIAL ECOLOGY BASELINE REPORT
Figure II-5: Amphibian Species Accumulation Curve
Figure II-6: Reptile Species Accumulation Curve
March 2014
Report No. 137633001-4002-R-Rev0-2400