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DO NOT REMOVE THIS NOTICE Gill Sans Bold Senior Science HSC Course Stage 6 Medical technology – bionics 0 0 2 I SSCHSC43169 2 er b to T S c O EN g in D M t a r EN o p or AM c n P0025972 Acknowledgments This publication is copyright Learning Materials Production, Open Training and Education Network – Distance Education, NSW Department of Education and Training, however it may contain material from other sources which is not owned by Learning Materials Production. Learning Materials Production would like to acknowledge the following people and organisations whose material has been used. • Senior Science Stage 6 Syllabus, Board of Studies, NSW, Amended November 2002 • Photographs and X-rays courtesy of Fran Philipson, Orana Radiology, Shelley Hudson, Ingrid Kaschik, and Rizwan Gaffer Masood. All reasonable efforts have been made to obtain copyright permissions. All claims will be settled in good faith. Writer: Shelly Hudson Editor: Julie Haeusler Revised: Richard Alliband Illustrators: Robert Colwell, Thomas Brown, Barbara Gurney, Tim Hutchinson, José Monteiro Consultants: Fran Philipson, Helen Walsh, Melissa Halpin and Colin McKay (Dubbo School of Distance Education) Merelyn Devine (Camden Haven DEC) Anne Migheli (Walgett DEC) Nella Sharp (Balranald DEC) Sue Benson (Southern Cross DEC) Di Skelton (Karabar DEC) Maria Gavranic (Sydney Secondary DEC) Yvonne Kinch (OLP) Jenny Glen Jim Stamell Copyright in this material is reserved to the Crown in the right of the State of New South Wales. Reproduction or transmittal in whole, or in part, other than in accordance with provisions of the Copyright Act, is prohibited without the written authority of Learning Materials Production. © Learning Materials Production, Open Training and Education Network – Distance Education, NSW Department of Education and Training, 2000. Revised November 2002 51 Wentworth Rd. Strathfield NSW 2135. Contents Module overview ....................................................................... iii Resources............................................................................................ iv Icons .................................................................................................... vi Glossary.............................................................................................. vii Part 1: Spare parts ..............................................................1–33 Part 2: Fixing a broken heart ...............................................1–28 Part 3: Heart to heart...........................................................1–30 Part 4: Bone to bone ...........................................................1–38 Part 5: Breathing easy.........................................................1–30 Part 6: Peek-a-boo ..............................................................1–25 Student evaluation of module Introduction i ii Medical technology – bionics Module overview Welcome to the Medical technology–bionics module for the HSC component of the Senior Science course. This module deals with parts of the body that can be replaced or treated to improve the health and/or quality of life of an individual. You will understand how the heart works and the use of biomaterials used in conjunction with the heart such as artificial heart valves and pacemakers. You will learn some of the causes of hardened arteries and the various medical procedures which aim to restore blood flow in diseased arteries. Artificial joints used in small and large joints are addressed and the substances they are made of are explained. Various medical procedures used in diagnostic medicine such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), X–rays and keyhole surgery are explained on an audiotape/internet audio files. You will also be involved in linking technological developments to new medical procedures which aim to improve medical procedures and patient recovery time. Be prepared to have a healthier lifestyle after completing this module! Introduction iii Resources Internet access is essential for many parts of this module. If you do not have Internet access at home seek out Internet access at a public library, internet café, TAFE, school or friend’s place. You will need the following equipment to carry out activities and experiments during the module. In most cases, you should have many of the items listed around your home. Part 1 • Bionics audiotape/internet audio files • stop watch or clock with a second hand Part 3 • coloured pencils or felt tip pens • glass, glass jar • uncooked chicken leg bone • white vinegar Part 4 • fresh chicken wing • small pair of scissors • small sharp knife • tweezers • board or dish to hold the specimen being dissected. • mortar and pestle–optional • silicone strip Part 5 • information sources for medical technological developments • scissors • glue • calcium hydroxide (builder’s or mortar lime) • medium jar • two small clean glasses • straw • small whisk or fork Part 6 • • iv Blu Tac® or plasticine ruler Medical technology – bionics Icons The following icons are used within this module. The meaning of each is written beside it: The hand icon means there is an activity for you to do. It may be an experiment or you may make something. The talk icon guides you to discuss a topic with others. There are exercises at the end of each part for you to complete and send to your teacher. The headphone icon asks you to complete an activity while listening to an audio tape. The safety glass icon points out that care needs to be taken when carrying out a task. There are suggested answers for the following questions at the end of each part. The computer mouse icon refers to an Internet website you may wish to visit for additional information. Introduction v Glossary The following glossary provides a scientific meaning for many of the term used in this module, Medical technology–bionics. The HSC examiner will expect you to understand the meaning of every scientific term used. If you find a term that you do not understand, then look it up in a scientific dictionary or ask your teacher for assistance. vi acetabular component component that fits into cup–shaped socket in the pelvis alveolus site of gas exchange in the lung; sac in the lung surrounded by a network of capillaries (plural: alveoli) aneurysm abnormal enlargement (dilation or outpouching) of the artery wall angioplasty repair of a blood vessel aorta blood vessel; carries oxygenated blood from the heart to the body except the lungs arhythmia irregularity or loss of rhythm of heartbeat arteriosclerosis a number of diseases in which the walls of the arteries become thickened and lose their ability to stretch; commonly called ‘hardening of the arteries’ artery large muscular blood vessel carrying blood to body tissue from the heart artery plaque layers of cholesterol, blood and cell fragments that coats artery walls articular cartilage cartilage on the ends of bones in a joint atherectomy removal of plaque from artery wall using a catheter with a cutting blade atherosclerosis building up of fatty deposits to form plaque in the innermost layer of the artery wall; the most common form of arteriosclerosis arthroscope long, thin tube with a camera at one end which is inserted into joints to assess joint damage artificial heart valve synthetic device allowing the flow of blood in one direction when implanted in the heart; replaces diseased heart valves artificial lung an implant in a vein delivering oxygen to blood and removing carbon dioxide from blood Medical technology – bionics Introduction artificial respirator forces air into lungs and removes air from lungs to maintain gas exchange in a patient who is not breathing atherectomy removal of the plaque from the artery wall using a catheter with a cutting blade atlas first vertebra of the backbone atrium upper heart chamber delivering blood to the ventricles atrioventricular (AV) junction junction through which electrical impulses from the sinoatrial node travel to the ventricles from the atria in the heart autoimmune disease body’s immune system attacks a body part axis second vertebra with a peg–like projection ball and socket joint the end of one bone is shaped like a ball which fits the end of another bone that is shaped like a cup or socket balloon angioplasty a catheter is inserted into an artery in the groin and manouvered to the obstructed artery where a balloon at the end of the catheter is repeatedly blown up and deflated to push artery plaque against artery walls, widening the artery bicuspid valve heart valve with two flaps for blood to flow through biocompatible non–reactive with body tissue or body fluids biomaterial material compatible with body tissue which can be used for implants biomedical medicine applied to the biological structure of organisms bionic ear see cochlear implant bionics the scientific study of living things as functional models for technical development of therapeutic devices, which imitate the functions of particular body parts blood clot blood forms a hard seal to minimise bleeding bone marrow tissue in the cavity of long bones: red and white blood cells are produced here bradycardia a very slow heart beat at rest of around 40 beats per minute bronchi divide into bronchioles in the lungs; plural of bronchus; two main branches of trachea in the lung vii bronchiole air passage to and from the alveoli bundle branch block the AV junction in the heart fails to transmit some electrical signals to the ventricles bypass surgery veins from other parts of the body are removed and placed in an area to bypass a blocked artery; alternatively small arteries in the chest are redirected to the heart calcified become hardened by calcium salts calcium phosphate salt which hardens the collagen matrix in bones cancellous bone spongy bone at the ends of long bones capillary very small blood vessel carrying blood to and from body tissue cardiac of the heart cardiac arrest the heart is fibrillating as a result of unsequenced cardiac contractions cardiac catheterisation a diagnostic study to evaluate the coronary arteries viii cardiomyopathy any disease of the heart muscles; usually produces an enlarged heart cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) A combination of external cardiac compression (ECC) and expired air resuscitation (EAR) to maintain heart and lung function of the body cartilage strong flexible substance made of collagen; cartilage is used to support and protect the body from shocks and impacts; the ends of the bone are covered with cartilage to make a smooth, flexible joint which minimises friction between the surfaces of the joint catheter tube passing into body cellular respiration chemical reactions which release energy for organisms cemented a plastic compound is used as a type of grouting material, forming an interlocking mechanical bond with the bone holding artificial joints in place circulatory system arteries, veins, capillaries and the heart delivers oxygen and nutrients to cells around the body and removes wastes cobalt/chromium alloy hard white/silver mix of the metals cobalt and chromium which is resistant to corrosion, is durable and biocompatible; used in biomedical implants cochlea spiral–shaped part of the inner ear which delivers sounds to the brain as electrical impulses Medical technology – bionics Introduction cochlear implant electrodes implanted into the cochlea assist in delivering electrical impulses from sounds to the cochlea, improving hearing collagen strong, flexible organic substance; present in joints as bands which hold the joint together and allows it to move freely complete heart block an interference with the normal conduction of electrical impulses that control activity of the heart muscles crown tooth cap made of a hard substance such as porcelain CT (computerised tomography) scans A thin beam of X–rays generated by a conventional X–ray tube passes through a single 'slice' of a patient through to a bank of X–ray detectors. By taking thousands of readings from multiple angles around the patient, a two or three dimensional image can be reconstructed. defibrillator paddles which deliver an electric charge to the chest of a person suffering a cardiac arrest destructive testing when during testing, a chemical reaction takes place that alters the chemical nature of the specimen diaphragm thin muscular sheath separating the intestines from the lung tissue; responsible for creating differences in air pressure within the lungs diaphysis long straight section of a bone; shaft of a long bone diffusion random movement of particles from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration DNA tests the genetic make up of a person is mapped double hinge joint a hinge joint that allows sideways movement electrocardiograph (ECG) the heart’s electrical activity is electronically measured and graphically represented, showing any irregular heart activity or damage to heart muscle endoscope long, thin tube with a camera at one end which is inserted through any internal part of the body to assess internal digestive and urinary conditions epiphysis the ends of bones exhale to breathe out expired air resuscitation (EAR) delivering air to the lungs of a person who is not breathing external cardiac compression (ECC) regular compression of the breastbone when the heart has stopped beating to pump blood around the body ix x externally outside femoral head ball shaped top end of femur bone in leg fibrillation electrical impulses in the heart cause the heart to quiver rather than contract; no effective blood movement results hardened arteries a number of diseases in which the walls of the arteries become thickened and lose their ability to stretch heart attack blood flow to heart muscles is impaired limiting the heart’s ability to contract heart–lung machine pumps blood around the body and exchanges gases with the air heart transplant replacing a diseased heart with a healthy heart from a donor heart valve folds of tissue around an opening that allow blood to flow in one direction only through the heart high density lipoprotein (HDL) ‘good’ cholesterol which assists in removing LDL from artery walls hinge joint the extremities of two joining bones fit like a hinge humerus the bone in the upper arm inhale drawing air into the lungs (heart valve) insufficiency where the valve does not close completely internal inside the body joint the place where two or more bones meet keyhole surgery a tiny camera and light on the end of a probe allows a surgeon to detect abnormalities within the body and carry out surgery without opening the body laser angioplasty a thin tube (catheter) is inserted into an artery and moved through the blood vessels to the blocked artery. The laser emits short pulses of photons that cause the plaque to vaporise ligament strong band of collagen connecting two bones at a joint. Restricts unwanted movement of the joint and helps to prevent dislocation. lipoproteins fatty protein which carries cholesterol in the blood stream low density lipoprotein (LDL) ‘bad’ cholesterol often deposited on artery walls Medical technology – bionics Introduction lungs a network of millions of tiny air sacs and bronchioles; site of gas exchange magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) X–rays of slices though part of the body taken to show organ abnormalities; slices may be compiled to create a three dimensional image showing the extent of the abnormality mammogram X–ray of breast tissue molybdenum a metal that forms strong biocompatible, durable alloys used in biomedical implants mortar and pestle mortar is a bowl with a smooth round interior used to grind solids with a hand held pestle nasal cavity warms, filters and moistens the air drawn into the lungs non–destructive testing allows data collection without changing the chemical components of the specimen pacemaker artificially paces heartbeat via electrodes placed inside, or on the surface of, the heart. The pacemaker delivers electrical impulses to the heart via these electrodes. pharynx passageway through which air travels on the way to the trachea plaque deposit formed from fatty material and cholesterol that forms on the inside walls of arteries pivot joint joint capable of rotation; rotates around a peg–like projection of a bone prosthetic an external artificial body part pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs pulmonary vein carries oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart to be pumped to the body (heart valve) regurgitation where the valve does not close completely respiratory system the system which is responsible for respiration (gaseous exchange in the lungs of oxygen from inhaled air into the bloodstream, and carbon dioxide from the bloodstream into exhaled air). rotoblator catheter with a diamond tip which rotates at a high speed and breaks the plaque into microscopic particles saddle joint synovial joint where one bone rests in a saddle–like impression of another bone xi xii sick sinoatrial node syndrome the sinoatrial node or the atria are damaged, causing the atria not to contract properly silicone organic compound which is non–reactive with body tissue sinoatrial (SA) node a group of cells located in the right atrium which sends electrical impulses causing the heart chambers to contract sliding joint allows movement from side to side or back to front stainless steel an alloy of iron, carbon, chromium which is highly resistant to corrosion; is biocompatible and used in biomedical implants stenosis where the valve opening becomes narrow stent device inserted in a narrowed area of a coronary artery to expand the artery stethoscope instrument which amplifies sounds such as the heart beat stroke interruption of blood flow in the brain; may be caused by a blood clot to the brain or a ruptured artery in the brain superalloy cobalt/chrome or titanium alloy synovial fluid fluid which lubricates joints synovial joints joints containing synovial fluid for joint lubrication and movement synovial membrane inside layer of the synovial capsule that secretes synovial fluid tachycardia abnormal rapid heart action tendon tough, rope–like strands which connects muscle to bone thermography images of the body’s infra–red radiation shows relatively hot and cold areas of the body thrombectomy the removal of a thrombus, or clot, which is obstructing blood flow titanium used in artificial joints; durable, lightweight, strong biocompatible material trachea connects pharynx to bronchi tricuspid valve heart valve with three flaps for blood to flow through ulna bone in the lower arm Medical technology – bionics Introduction ultra high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) rubbery durable substance covering articulating ends of load bearing artificial joints reducing joint friction ultrasound sound waves are reflected off internal organs, detected and displayed as a visual image on a screen uncemented artificial joints are inserted into bone; the bone grows to attach itself to the porous artificial joint surface, holding it in place vein blood vessel carrying blood from body tissue towards the heart ventricle bottom heart chamber responsible for pumping blood to the lungs and body ventricular tachycardia (VT) rapid contractions cause the heart to beat too quickly while at rest; can prevent the heart from filling with blood between beats vertebrae the small bones which surround the spinal cord and together make up the spinal column or backbone X–ray detected by a photographic sheet after passing through a part of the body; the images are used to detect abnormalities xiii Gill Sans Bold Senior Science HSC course Stage 6 Medical technology – bionics Part 1: Spare parts 0 20 In r e to b T S c O EN g in D M t a r EN o p r co A M 2 Senior Science Stage 6 HSC Course Lifestyle chemistry Medical technology – bionics Spare parts Fixing a broken heart Heart to heart Bone to bone Breathing easy Peek–a–boo Information systems Option Gill Sans Bold Contents Introduction ............................................................................... 2 Implants and biomedical devices .............................................. 4 Biomedical devices used externally ....................................................4 Biomedical implants .............................................................................7 The circulatory system ............................................................ 10 The heart ............................................................................................10 Cardiac contractions ..........................................................................14 Summary................................................................................. 19 Appendix 1 .............................................................................. 21 Appendix 2 .............................................................................. 23 Suggested answers................................................................. 25 Exercises – Part 1 ................................................................... 29 Part 1: Spare parts 1 Introduction In Part 1, you will be given opportunities to learn to outline: the role of the heart in maintaining human life, the functions of different parts of the heart; heart conditions and medical responses to such problems. You will learn how pacemakers maintain heartbeat and the history of their development. In this part you will be given opportunities to learn to: • • 2 identify parts of the body and the biomaterials and biomedical devices that can be used to replace damaged or diseased body parts including – pins, screws and plates – artificial joints – pacemakers – artificial valves – crowns, dentures – lenses – prosthetic limbs – cochlear implants explain the relationship between the structure and function of the following parts of the heart – valves – atria – ventricles – major arteries and veins • explain that specialised tissues in the heart produce an electrical signal that stimulates rhythmic contractions of the cardiac muscle • discuss problems that can result from interruptions to the normal rhythm of the heart. Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold In this part you will be given opportunities to: • gather and process information from secondary sources to trace the historical development of one of the following implants: – cochlear implants – artificial valves • gather, identify data sources, plan, choose equipment or resources for, perform a first hand investigation and analyse information about changes in the heartbeat rate before and after physical activity • plan and perform an investigation to identify individual aspects that comprise the heartbeat Extracts from Senior Science Stage 6 Syllabus © Board of Studies NSW, November 2002. The most up-to-date version is to be found at http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au/syllabus_hsc/index.html Part 1: Spare parts 3 Implants and biomedical devices Human body function may be assisted by many biomedical devices and biomaterials. You, or a member of your family may even use some of these devices. These devices can be separated into those used externally and internally (implanted). Biomedical devices used externally 1 The following diagrams show a range of biomaterials used to assist or replace damaged or diseased body parts externally. Use the words below to write the correct name next to each diagram: prosthetic limbs; eyeglasses; crowns; contact lenses; dentures. Diagram 4 Name Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Check your answers. Do you or any of your family members use any of these external devices? Outline each device, who uses it and how it helps. _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ Listen to the Biomedical devices section of the Bionics audiotape/internet audio files at www.lmpc.edu.au/science (go to Senior Science, go to Medical Technology, go to Bionics audio). Use the information in the audiotape to record relevant information for each external biomedical device in each column on the following page. Part 1: Spare parts 5 Answers are not provided for this activity to encourage you to complete the task. 6 Medical technology – bionics prosthetic limbs contact lenses glasses dentures crowns Biomedical device Where used on the body Component material Benefits of use History of development Gill Sans Bold Biomedical implants Have you heard of ear implants; metal pins screws and plates inserted into bones; artificial hip and knee joints; pacemakers; and artificial heart valves? These are all examples of biomedical devices that are implanted into the body to assist body function. Cochlear implants © The Bionic Ear and The University of Melbourne A cochlear implant, also known as a bionic ear, can markedly improve communication for a severely hearing impaired person. During careful surgery an electrode is placed into the spiral cochlea, making contact with nerve endings (shown in the diagram on the right below). The electrode is attached to an implant lying just under the skin behind the ear. Outside the skin, above the implant, sits a transmitting coil. The coil receives electrical signals from a speech processor which is connected to a microphone behind the ear. A microphone collects sounds which are processed into electrical signals then sent to the transmitter coil. FM radio waves transfer sound information to the implant under the skin. The implant receiver transmits the signals to the electrode inside the cochlea. These electrical signals stimulate nerve endings in the cochlea which are then converted into sounds by the brain. The diagram below demonstrates the internal implant and the external attachments associated with the cochlear implant. microphone hook over ear implant receives radio waves (and sends signals through electrode) electrode stimulates nerve endings inside cochlear speech processor ear drum transmitting coil (sends FM radio waves through skin to implant) Cochlear implant with external attachments. Part 1: Spare parts 7 An Australian scientist, Dr Graeme Clark invented the cochlear implant. His research into electrically stimulated hearing since 1970 led to the development of the Bionic Ear Institute in 1984. The Melbourne institute is still successfully carrying out cochlear implants today. Go to www.lmpc.edu.au/science, click senior science, then click medical technology – bionics to find links such as the Cooperative Research Centre for Cochlear Implant and Hearing Aid Innovation. Pins, screws and plates Metal pins, screws and plates are often used to keep bones in place while healing, replace parts of bones such as part of the skull and hold artificial joints in place. The diagram below show pins and screws in place inside an ankle while the broken bones heal. X–ray of pins and screws in place inside an ankle. Reproduced by permission Ingrid Kaschik Medical metal implanted in the body is generally made from alloys such as titanium/cobalt/chromium/molybdenum or stainless steel. These metals will not corrode once in the body and are strong enough to hold bones together for many years. Other biomedical implants such as pacemakers, heart valves and artificial joints are addressed in Parts 1 to 4. 8 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold You are required to record data on: • the type of implant • the material from which it is made • the part of the body where it is commonly used. If you have access to a computer database package, you could carry out the following activity using a database. If you do not have access to a database package you can store data in a table provided in Appendix 1. Turn to Appendix 1 at the back of this part. Appendix 1 explains an activity you must start now and send in with the exercises in Part 4. You will be instructed to add to the information in Appendix 1 during Parts 1, 2, 3 and 4 with the following reminder: Add relevant information on implants to the database or table in Appendix 1 from Part 1. This information will be returned with the exercises in Part 4. Part 1: Spare parts 9 The circulatory system When was the last time you cut yourself? Did you bleed much? That blood was meant for the cells in that part of the body. It was supposed to take nutrients and oxygen to cells and remove carbon dioxide and wastes from cells instead of flowing onto the skin’s surface and staining your clothes. Blood circulates around the entire body, taking nutrients (from food) and oxygen (from the lungs) to cells in the body. What keeps the blood pumping through your arteries, veins and capillaries? That’s right–its the heart. Your circulatory system is made up of the heart and all the arteries, veins and capillaries in your body. Without your circulatory system to provide essential things such as nutrients and oxygen to your cells, your body would cease to function. The heart Your heart is essential to your life. Have you ever thought about how much work it must do in a day just to keep you alive? On average, your heart beats 70 times in a minute. That calculates to over 4200 times an hour and over 100 000 a day–and that’s without exercise! This section takes a closer look at this major organ and its structure. 1 Listen to The heart section of the Bionics audiotape/internet audio files. Use this information to complete the labels indicated with letters on the diagram of the heart on the following page. These letters match those in the table on the following page. Write the correct labels in the table. 10 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Letter Label A B C D E F G H I J K body L to the he lungs to t L G F A H f m ro y bod e h t B I E K C D J View of the heart as though seen in a person facing you. The left side of the heart is on your right. Part 1: Spare parts 11 2 Answer the following true/false questions based on the information from the previous activity. a) Blood from the aorta travels to the body T F b) Blood moves into the left atrium through the tricuspid valve T F c) Blood travels through the pulmonic valve from the right ventricle T F d) The vena cava delivers blood to the heart from the lungs T F e) The left side of the heart contains oxygen rich blood T F f) T F T F T F T F The right side of the heart contains blood rich in carbon dioxide g) The pulmonary vein sends blood to the left ventricle h) The aortic valve opens, allowing blood from the left ventricle into the aorta i) 3 The left ventricle is more muscular than the right ventricle. Complete the sentences in the following passage using the information from the previous activities. • The blood enters the heart from the ___________ through the vena cava. It enters the _____________ _____________, travels through the _____________ _____________ and flows into the right _____________. • The muscle surrounding the right ventricle _____________, pushing blood through the ______________ _____________. • Blood then travels to the lungs through the _____________ _____________. • Here it exchanges carbon dioxide for _____________. The blood then flows back to the heart through the ______________ ______ into the _______ __________. • Once the left atrium fills with blood, the _____________ _____________ opens to allow blood into the _____________ _____________. 12 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold • The left ventricle then contracts, pushing blood through the _____________ _____________ into the _____________. • From here, oxygen rich blood is circulated around the body, giving _____________ and nutrients to cells. Check your answers. As your heart beats, blood flows through arteries in pulses. You can feel these pulses on certain parts of the body. The most common places to feel these are on the wrist and neck. If you have ever taken your pulse, you might have had some difficulty finding it on your wrist. For this reason it may be easier to take your pulse on your neck. Person taking pulse. Place two fingers on your neck as shown above, but don’t press too hard. You should feel your pulse beating. If not, press a little harder or softer until you feel your pulse. You will be taking your pulse in the following activity. Heart rate and physical activity You will be investigating changes in the heartbeat rate before and after physical activity. You will plan your own investigation in Exercise 1.1. Before attempting Exercise 1.1, read through an investigation planned by a student in Appendix 2, then answer the following questions. Part 1: Spare parts 13 1 Describe one thing that would be improved in this scientific report. _____________________________________________________ 2 Re–write the conclusion using scientific language, replacing the words ‘I’ and ‘my’ with words such as ‘it is thought’ or ‘the results indicate’. _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ Check your answers. Turn to Exercise 1.1 at the back of this part to plan and carry out an investigation on heart rate at rest and with sustained physical activity. Cardiac contractions The term cardiac refers to the heart. Cardiac muscle refers to muscles in the heart. You might wonder how the cardiac muscles know when to contract. The answer lies in specialised cells and electrical impulses within the heart. Specialised cells on the wall of the right atrium are located in the sinoatrial (SA) node. These cells are a natural pacemaker, starting an electrical chain reaction. An electrical impulse from the SA node causes the atria to contract. This sends blood through the valves to the ventricles on both sides of the heart as shown in the diagram below. sinoatrial node sending impulse to atrium muscles to contract blood is forced into the ventricles Atria contracting. 14 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold sinus node impulse from the sinoatrial node moves through the AV junction to the ventricles causing the ventricle muscles to contract. This forces blood into the aorta and pulmonary artery. Ventricles contracting, sending blood from the heart to the lungs and body. The electrical impulse from the atria passes to an atrioventricular (AV) junction to the ventricles. The AV junction can be likened to wires between the atria and ventricles. The impulse is slowed here, before being passed to the ventricles. This allows the atria to relax (and fill with blood) before the ventricles contract. 1 What initiates electrical impulses in the heart? _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ 2 What does the initial electrical impulse cause? _____________________________________________________ 3 How does the electrical impulse get to the ventricles? _____________________________________________________ 4 Why does the AV junction slow the impulse? _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ 5 What do you think would happen if the electrical signals became unsequenced? _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ Check your answers. Part 1: Spare parts 15 The heartbeat Have you ever listened to a heartbeat through a stethoscope? If so, you should have heard the ‘thump thump’ sound of the heart. After completing the previous section, you should already have your own ideas as to why the heart makes a double beat sound. The first beat is caused by the tricuspid and bicuspid valves closing after atria muscles have contracted squeezing blood into the ventricles. The second beat is caused by the closing of pulmonic and aortic valves after the ventricles contract, pumping blood around the body and to the lungs. You will now plan an investigation to identify individual aspects that comprise the heartbeat for ten seconds. What is the best way for you to hear a heartbeat? A stethoscope would do this job well, however its unlikely you have one at home. Holding your ear to a person’s chest or back may be the only option. Ask a willing person at home if you can listen to their heartbeat for about ten seconds. 1 What did you hear? Describe the sounds below. _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ 2 With your knowledge of the heartbeat, explain why the heart sounds as you described above. _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ The sound of a heartbeat is often described as ‘lub–dub’ or ‘lubb–dupp’. Lub or lubb, a long low–pitched sound, is produced by the closing of the valves between the atria and ventricles. Dub or dupp, a short, louder and high–pitched sound, comes from the closing of the valves between ventricles and the aorta and pulmonary artery. If a valve is damaged it cannot close completely and blood flow is more turbulent as blood leaks backwards. Certain blowing or whooshing sounds can be used to diagnose heart problems. 16 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Interrupting the heartbeat Some people’s heart can beat too quickly while at rest. The rapid contractions can prevent the heart from filling with blood between beats. This condition is called ventricular tachycardia (VT). Symptoms of VT are weakness, dizziness and fainting. These symptoms are caused by poor delivery of oxygen enriched blood to the body. Other people may have poor AV node junctions. Imagine the AV junction as a bundle of wires joining the atria to the ventricles. Bundle branch block is caused by one or two ‘wires’ failing to transmit electrical signals. The heart can still function normally under these conditions, however if all the ‘wires’ cease to function, the electrical signal will not be transmitted to the ventricle. This is called complete heart block. The symptoms of complete heart block are similar to VT symptoms. A condition causing a very slow heart beat at rest of around 40 beats per minute is called bradycardia. VT, bundle branch block, complete heart block and bradycardia are forms of arhythmias. This means abnormal beating. Another cause of abnormal beating can be sick sinoatrial node syndrome. In this instance the sinoatrial node or the atria are damaged, causing the atria not to contract properly. Symptoms of sick sinoatrial node syndrome are tiredness, shortness of breath and fainting. Disrupted electrical signals in the heart can cause the heart to stop beating or to quiver instead of pumping. The heart quivering is called fibrillation. Cardiac arrest is the name given to conditions in which the heart stops pumping. (Cardiac arrest is not to be confused with a heart attack, which is caused by a lack of blood to the heart tissue itself.) In each instance of cardiac arrest, cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) should be commenced in an attempt to push oxygenated blood around the body until the heart can resume its normal pattern of beating. In the case of cardiac arrest, external defibrillators can be used to send an electric pulse through the body, to stop the irregular beating of the heart, allowing it to return to a normal rhythm. You may have seen external defibrillators used in medical television programs to revive a patient whose heart is fibrillating. Part 1: Spare parts 17 1 Imagine you are a doctor. A patient has come to you complaining of weakness and a fluttering feeling in their chest. You begin to explain the main cause for such a feeling. In the space below explain in writing what causes that feeling, what it is called and what other symptoms can result from the condition. _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ 2 What causes a cardiac arrest? ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ 3 How may cardiac arrest be treated? ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ Check your answers. Turn to Exercise 1.2 to summarise the symptoms and conditions of an irregular beating heart. 18 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Summary Reconstruct the following words then write a brief description explaining each term. 1 ucilorrcaty smstey _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ 2 itruma _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ 3 envietrcl _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ 4 nussi deno _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ 5 marsyhihta _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ 6 wconr _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ 7 ipn _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ Part 1: Spare parts 19 8 hocrclea lpimnta ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ 9 libiimoaedc vdicee ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ 10 etahr rtae ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ Check your answers. 20 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Appendix 1 Extract information from Parts 1, 2, 3 and 4 to compile a database on biomedical implants. You should collect information on: • type of implant • component materials of the implant • part of the body where the implant is used. You may need to seek help from your teacher or supervisor. If you do not have access to a computer and/or a database program then complete this exercise by filling in the table on the following page. This page can be torn out, kept, added to as you learn about the relevant implants and returned with the Exercise in Part 4. You will receive the following reminder each time you are required to add information to the table below. Add relevant information on implants to your database or table in Appendix 1 from Part 1. This information will be returned with the exercises in Part 4. Complete the information you have learned on cochlear implants and pins, screws and plates now. Part 1: Spare parts 21 Implant type Component material(s) Body part commonly involved cochlear implant pins, screws and plates pacemaker artificial heart valves small artificial joints load bearing artificial joints 22 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Appendix 2 Part 1: Spare parts 23 24 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Suggested answers Biomedical devices used externally Diagram Name crowns dentures eye glasses contact lenses prosthetic limbs Part 1: Spare parts 25 2 3 26 Label Letter 1 Letter The heart Label A Vena cava G Pulmonary vein B Right atrium H Left atrium C Tricuspid valve I Bicuspid valve D Right ventricle J Left ventricle E Pulmonic valve K Aortic valve F Pulmonary artery L Aorta a) Blood from the aorta travels to the body T b) Blood moves into the left atrium through the tricuspid valve F c) Blood travels through the pulmonic valve from the right ventricle T d) The vena cava delivers blood to the heart from the lungs F e) The left side of the heart contains oxygen rich blood T f) T The right side of the heart contains blood rich in carbon dioxide g) The pulmonary vein sends blood to the left ventricle F h) The aortic valve opens, allowing blood from the left ventricle into the aorta T i) The left ventricle is more muscular than the right ventricle. T • The blood enters the heart from the body through the vena cava. It enters the right atrium travels through the tricuspid valve and flows into the right ventricle. • The muscle surrounding the right ventricle contracts, pushing blood through the pulmonic valve. • Blood then travels to the lungs through the pulmonary artery. Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold • Here it exchanges carbon dioxide for oxygen. The blood then flows back to the heart through the pulmonary vein into the left atrium. • Once the left atrium fills with blood, the bicuspid valve opens to allow blood into the left ventricle. • The left ventricle then contracts, pushing blood through the aortic valve into the aorta. • From here, oxygen rich blood is circulated around the body, giving oxygen and nutrients to cells. Heart rate and physical activity 1 The student wrote a recount rather than an experimental report. The student wrote the report using ‘I’ and ‘we’ rather than impersonal language. 2 Heart rate appears to increase with increased activity. As energy is used, more blood is required to circulate around the body delivering oxygen and nutrients to cells. It is thought the heart pumps faster to deliver more blood to cells. Cardiac contractions 1 Specialised cells in the sinus node in the right atrium initiates an electrical impulse in the heart. 2 The initial electrical impulse causes the atria to contract. 3 The electrical impulse passes to the ventricles via the AV junction. 4 The AV junction slows the impulse to allow the atria to relax before the ventricles contract. 5 If the electrical signals become unsequenced, blood could be pumped back to the atria instead of passing to the lungs or the body. Other answers are acceptable. Interrupting the heart beat 1 Fluttering of the heart is caused by the ventricle’s pumping action becoming out of sequence with the atria’s pumping action. The condition is called ventricular tachycardia. Other symptoms it can cause are weakness, dizziness and fainting. 2 Cardiac arrest is caused by disruption of electrical signals to the heart. This causes the heart to stop or to fibrillate. 3 Cardiac arrest may be corrected through CPR until the heart’s electrical activity returns to normal or through the use of external defibrillators. The defibrillators deliver an electrical impulse to stop Part 1: Spare parts 27 the heart’s erratic activity, in an attempt to cause the heart to resume beating normally. Summary 1 Circulatory system–the heart, arteries, veins and capillaries in the body circulating blood. 2 Atrium–one of the two top chambers of the heart which fill with blood and pass blood to the ventricles. 3 Ventricle–bottom chambers of the heart with muscular walls to pump blood to the lungs and body. 4 Sinus node–group of specialised cells in the right atrium that start an electrical chain reaction, causing the heart to pump. 5 Arhythmias–the unsequenced or unusual beating of the heart. 6 Crown–can replace missing teeth, cover existing teeth or be attached to broken or chipped teeth. May be made of porcelain, stainless steel, polymer glass or gold. 7 Pin–used to hold bones together and join artificial joints to bones; medical pins are made of cobalt/chromium, molybdenum and stainless steel. 8 Cochlear implant–electrode implanted into the cochlea to improve hearing; developed by Dr Graeme Clark–an Australian scientist from Melbourne. 9 Biomedical device–device used to aid the functioning of the human body such as dentures, cochlear implants and artificial joints. 10 Heart rate–heart rate increases with increased activity. 28 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Exercises - Part 1 Exercises 1.1 to 1.3 Name: _________________________________ Exercise 1.1 You must now plan, carry out and report on the relationship between heartbeat rate at rest and with sustained physical activity. You may refer to Appendix 2 to help you plan your investigation. Aim To investigate the changes in heartbeat rate during rest and sustained physical activity. Apparatus What will you need to carry out your investigation? _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ Method How will you carry out your investigation? Present your method as a procedure. If you have access to a data logger, it can used to detect and record your heart rate during various activities. _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ Part 1: Spare parts 29 _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ Before carrying out the activity, predict the outcome you expect from carrying out the method you outlined (in one or two sentences). _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ Results How will you present your results? They should be easy to read and clearly show the trend you expect to observe. Include an appropriate graph of your results. A histogram or bar graph are ideal choices for the results you are likely to expect. If you are not sure how to graph your results, refer to the Science resource book or contact your teacher. Put your results below and your graph on the next page. 30 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Don’t forget your graph Conclusion What happened to your heart rate with physical activity? Explain your observations. Comment on any problems or ways of improving the experiment. _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ Part 1: Spare parts 31 Exercise 1.2 In the spaces provided, explain each heart condition and their accompanying symptoms Heart condition Description of condition Symptoms ventricular tachycardia bundle branch block complete heart block sick sinoatrial node syndrome fibrillation cardiac arrest bradycardia 32 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Exercise 1.3 Certain Australian scientists and Australian companies have a proud record in the development of cochlear implants. Use an Internet search engine such as www.google.com to trace the historical development of cochlear implants. Highlight the names of any Australian scientists, organizations or companies when you have completed the exercise. _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ Part 1: Spare parts 33 Gill Sans Bold Senior Science HSC Course Stage 6 Medical technology – bionics Part 2: Fixing a broken heart 0 20 In r e to b T S c O EN g in D M t a r EN o p r co A M 2 Senior Science Stage 6 HSC Course Lifestyle chemistry Medical technology – bionics • Spare parts • Fixing a broken heart • Heart to heart • Bone to bone • Breathing easy • Peek–a–boo Information systems Option Gill Sans Bold Contents Introduction ............................................................................... 2 Pacemakers .............................................................................. 3 The history of pacemakers ..................................................................4 Heart valves .............................................................................. 7 Demonstrating heart valves .................................................................9 Faulty valves.......................................................................................10 Artificial heart valves ..........................................................................15 Summary................................................................................. 20 Suggested answers................................................................. 21 Exercises – Part 2 ................................................................... 25 Part 2: Fixing a broken heart 1 Introduction Part 2 covers a range of heart diseases from faulty heart valves and enlarged hearts to hardened arteries. The medical techniques used to correct these heart conditions range from heart valve replacement and balloon angioplasty to heart transplants. The information in Part 2 may make you squeamish, however, you are likely to take good care of your heart as a result. In this part you will be given opportunities to learn to: • identify that a pacemaker will produce a regular electrical pulse • identify the types of materials used to make pacemakers and the properties that make these suitable for implanting in the body • describe the problems that can result from faulty valves in the heart • describe the properties of materials such as Teflon/pyrolytic carbon that make them versatile materials for making artificial body parts, including heart valves In this part you will be given opportunities to: • identify data sources, gather and process information to outline the historical development of pacemakers and use available evidence to identify types of technological advances that have made their development possible. • construct a simple model to demonstrate the function of valves in the heart • process information to identify different types and functions of artificial valves in the heart. Extracts from Senior Science Stage 6 Syllabus © Board of Studies NSW, November 2002. The most up-to-date version can be found at http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au/syllabus_hsc/index.html 2 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Pacemakers You learned about the effects of an irregular heartbeat in Part 1. Years ago, nothing could be done to aid sufferers of an irregular heartbeat. In the technological age, treating an irregular heartbeat is quite routine. It is likely you have heard of pacemakers. You may know someone who has had a pacemaker implant. So, what does a pacemaker do? Given that you have just learnt about interruptions in the heartbeat, you probably have an idea about the function of pacemakers. Write your ideas about the function of a pacemaker. You will review your response after the following set of activities. If you have no idea, ask someone their ideas about the function of a pacemaker. _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ Listen to the Pacemaker section of the Bionics audiotape/internet audio files then outline the structure, function and features of pacemakers by completing the following questions. 1 Describe the structure of a pacemaker. _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ 2 Explain how and where a pacemaker is implanted. _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ Part 2: Fixing a broken heart 3 3 Explain the functions of a pacemaker. ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ 4 Explain how a pacemaker can be adjusted without surgery. ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ 5 Describe the materials pacemakers are made of and the properties of the materials that make them suitable for implantation. ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ No answers are offered for this section to encourage you to write your own summaries. Turn to Exercise 2.1 to outline the need for and function of pacemakers. Add relevant information on implants to your database or the table in Appendix 1 from Part 1. This information will be returned with the exercises in Part 4. The history of pacemakers You are about to become an expert on the evolution of pacemakers. You need to: • identify data sources • gather, process and analyse information to outline the historical development of pacemakers. As you process and analyse information try to identify the technological advances that have made development of pacemakers possible. 4 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Go to the www.lmpc.edu.au/science web site, then senior science. Then go to Medical technology – bionics, click on Links and go down to Part 2. There are a number of web sites that should help you to record information on historical development of pacemakers on the timeline below. If you do not have access to the Internet then try encyclopedias and medical books in a public library as data sources. 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 Answers are not provided for the previous activity to encourage you to gather and process information. Part 2: Fixing a broken heart 5 Technological advances As you read about the development of pacemakers over time, you may have understood that electricity had been discovered and successfully produced for the first developments to take place. You may have also gathered that batteries which store adequate amounts of energy to last several years had also been invented. Other inventions and discoveries were made, enabling the development of pacemaker models we see today. Match the following features of pacemakers with the technologies that preceded their development by joining the two with a line. Feature of pacemaker Technological development transistor transmitters development of memory devices in computers microchips development of material unable to conduct electromagnetic radiation remote control calibration and transmission of information development of computer chip storage of information development of computer sensing equipment sensing of information inside the body development of biocompatible resins and metals suitable coatings accepted by the body development of point contact transistor shield protecting against external electromagnetic radiation use of electromagnetic waves for information transmission Check your answers. 6 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Heart valves 1 Turn to page 11 of Part 1. You should have labelled four heart valves. Repeat those labels on the following diagram of a heart. Each valve is made of flaps of skin–like tissue. The flaps of tissue appear to be thin and delicate, but are made of collagen, which has great strength and flexibility. Three of the heart valves have three flaps. The bicuspid valve (or mitral valve) has two flaps. All this means is that tricuspid valves (with three flaps) has three spaces for blood to flow through and the bicuspid valve has two spaces for blood flow. 2 Write three flaps or two flaps under each valve label above. Check your answers. Part 2: Fixing a broken heart 7 Each valve has a one–way action. The valve opens in response to differences in pressure. The diagram below shows a valve with low blood pressure on the ‘downstream’ side of the valve and high blood pressure on the ‘upstream’ side of the valve. This causes the valve to open, allowing blood to pass from an area of high pressure to low pressure. blood flow low blood pressure high blood pressure open valve Heart valve open, allowing blood to pass from an area of high pressure to low pressure. Once blood has passed through the valve, the distribution of pressure changes. The downstream side of the valve now has higher pressure than the upstream side of the valve. This puts pressure on the flaps of the valve, causing it to close as shown below. valve closed high blood pressure low blood pressure blood flow The heart valve closes with higher ‘downstream’ pressure. You might wonder why the blood doesn’t flow backwards from high to low pressure. The answer is the one–way valve action. The valves are structured such that they close firmly when acted on by high pressure from ‘downstream’, preventing the backwards flow of blood. If you have ever entered a shop turnstile, you will know that it will turn one way only, allowing you into the shop. Can you exit the shop the same way you came in? No. You generally must pass through a checkout or another door where bags are checked. The turnstile functions in a similar way to heart valves – allowing a one–way passage only. 8 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Demonstrating heart valves Doors with hinges are usually hinged on one side only. This means they can only open one way. These doors can be pushed to gain entry into a room and pulled when exiting a room. The action of a one–way door is similar to the action of a heart valve. Find a door in your home that will only open one way. Imagine the door is a heart valve and you are blood under high pressure. 1 Stand on the side of the door so the door opens away from you. The door should be closed. 2 You are under high pressure and the area on the other side of the door is under low pressure. You are only able to push on the door using your high pressure. Push the door open and walk through to the other room. 3 Now that you are on the other side of the door, and you are still blood under high pressure, you push the door behind you, shutting it. 4 Imagine the door had no handle. You are blood under high pressure and all you are able to do is push, not pull. You have a natural tendency to move from high pressure to low pressure. This means that you want to go back through the door to where you came from which has low pressure, but you are unable to open the door. The door only opens in one direction – causing you to remain on that side of the door. Well done – you just simulated the action of a heart valve. Complete the following questions based on this activity. 1 Explain how a one–way door acts like a heart valve. _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ 2 What causes a heart valve to open? _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ 3 Explain why a heart valve closes after blood has passed through the valve. _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ Part 2: Fixing a broken heart 9 4 Explain why blood cannot flow backwards through a heart valve? You may use the one–way door analogy to help your explanation. _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ Check your answers. Turn to Exercise 2.2 at the back of this part to explain the function of heart valves. Faulty valves Not all people are lucky enough to go through life with healthy hearts. Unsynchronised beating is not all that can go wrong with your heart. Faulty valves can cause symptoms such as: • chest pain • shortness of breath • inability to sleep • fatigue and an inability to carry out daily activities • swollen ankles • abnormally large abdomen. There are two problems that can occur with heart valves. • Stenosis – where the valve opening becomes narrow. • Insufficiency or regurgitation – where the valve does not close completely. Stenosis Heart valves can become calcified. This means they can become coated in layers of calcium salts. This can be likened to coating your one–way door with layer upon layer of paint each month of your life. The result is a narrowing of the valve opening. When the valve opening is smaller, less blood can pass through the opening at any one time. This decreases the heart’s efficiency and less blood is being pumped to the body. 10 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Insufficiency or regurgitation Valves can become diseased or worn out. This results in the valves not closing completely. Under normal circumstances the valve indicated in the opposite diagram prevents the backwards flow of blood into the atrium as the left ventricle contracts. atrium fills with blood valve closes preventing ‘backward blood flow’. If the valve between the left atrium and ventricle does not close properly, some blood will be forced back to the atrium instead of the aorta. This would put extra pressure on the atrium. The pressure is then transferred backwards to the lungs. This is demonstrated in the diagram opposite. pressure on lungs less blood pumped to the body faulty valve allows backwards flow of blood In this case of insufficiency, not only is the body not receiving enough blood, the heart’s efficiency is cut down as is the lung’s efficiency. This results in the symptoms of tiredness and shortness of breath discussed earlier. If you had trouble understanding this concept, the following activity may help you. The diagram on the following page shows traffic, representing blood, flowing through four gates. The gates represent the four heart valves. Use the diagram to answer the questions which follow. Part 2: Fixing a broken heart 11 gate 1 (healthy valve) gate 2 (calcified valve allowing less traffic through) gate 3 (calcified valve allowing less traffic through) gate 4 (healthy valve) Traffic flowing through gates on a freeway representing blood flow through diseased heart valves. 12 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Use the diagram on the previous page to write the question for the following answers. 1 _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ Gates two and three are suffering from stenosis. 2 _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ Less cars appear between gates two and three because gate two is narrow, allowing less cars through. 3 _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ Around half the traffic is flowing between gates three and four as compared to traffic flowing between gates one and two. 4 _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ Less blood is leaving the heart than is entering the heart. 5 _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ The person with this condition is likely to experience fatigue and shortness of breath. Check your answers before moving on. Look at the diagram on the following page. The arrows indicate the flow of traffic on a freeway, which is similar to the flow of blood. The gates represent heart valves that only allow traffic to flow one way. One gate is faulty, allowing traffic (blood) to flow backwards. Use the diagram to answer the questions which follow. Part 2: Fixing a broken heart 13 traffic flowing on a freeway cars spaced out, heading in one direction gate 1 (healthy valve allows traffic one way only) gate 2 (healthy valve allows traffic one way only) cars bunched up facing both directions gate 3 (diseased valve allows traffic to flow backwards) gate 4 (healthy valve allows traffic one way only) less traffic is flowing Traffic flowing through gates on a freeway representing blood flow through diseased heart valves. 14 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Refer to the diagram on the previous page to answer the following questions. 6 What do the backwards arrows indicate between gates 3 and 4? _____________________________________________________ 7 What is happening to blood flow between gates 2 and 4? _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ 8 Explain why traffic is flowing both ways between gates 3 and 4 and gates 2 and 3? _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ 9 Which condition is gate 3 suffering from – stenosis or insufficiency? _____________________________________________________ 10 Which gate experiences excess pressure as a result of gate 3 being faulty? Explain your choice. _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ Check your answers. Turn to Exercise 2.3 at the back of this part to create a webpage explaining heart valve conditions. Artificial heart valves You might think the replacement of faulty heart valves would be close to impossible. In reality, heart valve replacement is a relatively common procedure, with 200 000 heart valve replacements each year. Go to the www.lmpc.edu.au/science web site, then senior science. Then go to Medical technology – bionics, click on Links and go down to Part 2. There are a number of web sites that should help you to record information on the different types and functions of artificial heart valves. Describe the properties of materials used that make them suitable for implanting in the body. The following two pages are blank for you to record information. Part 2: Fixing a broken heart 15 16 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Use the information you have read and recorded to attempt the questions on the next three pages. If you find a question too difficult go on to the other questions. Use key words in the questions you had difficulty with to search out further information on the Internet that could help with answers. Part 2: Fixing a broken heart 17 1 What major development has allowed heart valve surgery? _____________________________________________________ 2 What do pigs, bioprosthetic valves and humans have in common? _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ 3 Identify (recognise and name) three different types of artificial heart valves by adding the labels ball valve, tilting disk valve and bileaflet valve to the diagrams below. Valve type 4 Diagram List five materials currently used in artificial heart valves in the table below. Gather your information from web sites. Materials currently used in replacement heart valves 18 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Durable Thromboresistant Strong Material Smooth From the following qualities, match the material from the above question to the qualities listed below that make it useful as a valve implant. The first one has been done for you as a guide. (Each material may have more than one quality. You may need to draw your own conclusions on the qualities each material must have based on the evidence available.) Light weight 5 pyrolytic carbon 6 Explain two problems associated with some heart valve designs and the materials used. _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ Check your answers. Turn to Exercise 2.4 at the back of this part to address questions on replacement heart valves. Add relevant information on implants to your database or the table in Appendix 1 from Part 1. This information will be returned with the exercises in Part 4. Part 2: Fixing a broken heart 19 Summary Use the letters below to begin 20 sentences which will help you remember information in this part. The object of this activity is to create about a single page summary that you can revise before an exam. a ________________________________________________________ b ________________________________________________________ c ________________________________________________________ d ________________________________________________________ e ________________________________________________________ f_________________________________________________________ g ________________________________________________________ h ________________________________________________________ i_________________________________________________________ j_________________________________________________________ k ________________________________________________________ l_________________________________________________________ m________________________________________________________ n ________________________________________________________ o ________________________________________________________ p ________________________________________________________ r_________________________________________________________ s ________________________________________________________ t_________________________________________________________ u ________________________________________________________ 20 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Suggested answers Technological advances Feature of pacemaker Technological development transistor transmitters development of point contact transistor microchips development of computer chip remote control calibration and transmission of information use of electromagnetic waves for information transmission storage of information development of memory devices in computers sensing of information inside the body development of computer sensing equipment suitable coatings accepted by the body development of biocompatible resins and metals shield protecting against external electromagnetic radiation development of material unable to conduct electromagnetic radiation Heart valves pulmonic valve three flaps tricuspid valve three flaps Part 2: Fixing a broken heart bicuspid valve two flaps aortic valve three flaps 21 Demonstrating heart valves 1 A one–way door can only open in one direction – heart valves also open in one direction only. 2 A heart valve opens due to the pushing action of blood attempting to move from high pressure to low pressure. 3 After blood has passed through the valve, the areas of high and low pressure are reversed. When high pressure acts on the ‘downstream’ end of the heart valve, it causes it to close. 4 Blood cannot flow backwards through a heart valve because the pressure of the blood flowing backwards onto the valve flaps causes them to close, like the pushing action on the back of a door. This closure prevents blood from flowing backwards. Faulty valves 1 What are gates two and three suffering from in terms of diseased heart valves? Other answers are acceptable. 2 Explain the traffic conditions between gates two and three in terms of diseased heart valves. Other answers are acceptable. 3 How much traffic is flowing between gates three and four as compared to traffic flowing between gates one and two? Other answers are acceptable. 4 Compare the amount of blood entering the heart (freeway) to the blood leaving the heart. Other answers are acceptable. 5 If a person has a heart with diseased valves as shown in the diagram, explain two symptoms they are likely to experience. Other answers are acceptable. 6 The backwards arrows between gates 3 and 4 indicate blood flowing in both directions. 7 Blood is flowing in both directions between gates 2 and 4. 8 Blood is flowing both ways between gates 2 and 3 and 3 and 4 because gate 3 is faulty, allowing blood to move backwards through the gate. 9 Gate 3 is suffering from insufficiency. 10 The diagram shows traffic banking up to gate 2. Gate 2 is experiencing excess pressure as a result of gate 3 not functioning properly. 22 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Artificial heart valves 1 The heart and lung machine which allows the heart to stop functioning while keeping the patient alive during the surgery, has allowed the replacement of heart valves. 2 Bioprosthetic valves from pigs have been implanted as replacement heart valves in humans. 3 Valve type Diagram ball valve bileaflet valve tilting disc valve 4 Materials currently used in replacement heart valves pyrolytic carbon silicone rubber ball with 2% barium sulfate cage–stellite alloy No. 21 sewing ring knitted teflon and polypropylene cloth titanium isotropic pyrolitic carbon – Uglesitall cobalt/chrome alloy knitted polyester Part 2: Fixing a broken heart 23 Durable Thromboresistant Strong Smooth Material Light weight 5 pyrolytic carbon Silicone rubber ball with 2% barium sulfate Cage–Stellite alloy No. 21 Knitted Teflon and polypropylene cloth titanium isotropic pyrolitic carbon cobalt/chrome alloy knitted polyester 6 Problems associated with some replacement heart valves are: knitted Teflon could fray and cause blood clots to form; silicone balls can swell and get stuck inside the valve; valves that are sutured into place can cause swelling, infections and blood clotting. Other answers are acceptable. 24 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Exercises - Part 2 Exercises 2.1 to 2.4 Name: _________________________________ Exercise 2.1 Imagine you are 47 years old. You have been experiencing shortness of breath, seemingly constant exhaustion and a fluttering feeling in your chest. You are referred to a cardiac specialist. The cardiac specialist tests the electrical signals within your heart and recommends the implantation of a pacemaker. You listen to her explanation about the procedure. In two paragraphs or less, write a concise explanation of a pacemaker, its parts, installation, function, length of surgery and adjustments after surgery that the cardiac specialist is likely to tell you. Remember to think like a cardiac specialist as you are writing your explanation. Use the terms they would when dealing with a patient and remember to explain all the points outlined in the previous paragraph. Room for your answer continues on the following page. _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ Part 2: Fixing a broken heart 25 _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ Exercise 2.2 Heart valves have a specific function. Their structure is closely related to their function. In one paragraph, explain their structure, how heart valves work and relate this to their function. You may use diagrams in the margin to help with your answer. _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ 26 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Exercise 2.3 Imagine you are a patient experiencing tiredness and shortness of breath. Your doctor explains you are likely to have faulty heart valves, although he doesn’t have time to explain it to you. You go home and search the Internet to find out what could be wrong with your heart valves. Imagine that you find a webpage that fully explains two problems associated with faulty heart valves that you could have. Use the space provided below to create a web page that you think fully explains the two possible heart valve conditions. Be as creative and innovative as you like. This page has been left blank for this purpose. Part 2: Fixing a broken heart 27 Exercise 2.4 1 Draw an example of a replacement heart valve below. 2 Explain two problems associated with replacement heart valves encountered by doctors through history. ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ 3 State three materials currently used in heart valves and explain why these materials are suitable for use in transplants. ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ Add relevant information on implants to your database or the table in Appendix 1 from Part 1. This information will be returned with the exercises in Part 4. 28 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Senior Science HSC Course Stage 6 Medical technology – bionics Part 3: Heart to heart 0 20 I er b to T S c O EN g in D M t a r EN o p or AM c n 2 Senior Science Stage 6 HSC Course Lifestyle chemistry Medical technology – bionics • Spare parts • Fixing a broken heart • Heart to heart • Bone to bone • Breathing easy • Peek–a–boo Information systems Option Gill Sans Bold Contents Introduction................................................................................ 2 Heart transplants ....................................................................... 3 Atherosclerosis.......................................................................... 6 Reducing the risk..................................................................................8 Techniques for treating atherosclerosis ..............................................9 Optional activity – the red bullet........................................................ 12 The skeletal system................................................................. 14 Calcium compounds in bones........................................................... 16 Summary ................................................................................. 17 Suggested answers................................................................. 21 Exercises – Part 3 ................................................................... 25 Part 3: Heart to heart 1 Introduction Part 3 covers build up and elimination of plaque in the blood circulation system then introduces you to the structure of bones by investigating those in chicken limbs. In this part you will be given opportunities to learn to: • describe and explain the effects of a build up of plaque on the walls of major arteries and veins on the blood flow to and from the heart • discuss ways in which plaque can be eliminated or altered to ease blood flow • identify the role of the skeletal system particularly in relation to maintaining an upright stance and protecting vital organs In this part you will be given opportunities to: • gather information from secondary sources on techniques used including angioplasty, to ease blood flow to and from the heart and in blood vessels, when there has been a build up of plaque • gather, process and analyse information to outline areas of current research in heart transplants and/or artificial hearts and their impact on society • perform a first hand investigation to remove calcium compounds from chicken bones to examine the flexible nature of bones. Extracts from Senior Science Stage 6 Syllabus © Board of Studies NSW, November 2002. The most up-to-date version can be foundat http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au/syllabus_hsc/index.html 2 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Heart transplants Before beginning Part 3, turn to the experiment on page 16 where you place a chicken bone in vinegar. You will need at least three days to complete this experiment. It is strongly suggested you start this experiment now, as your results and conclusions will be sent in with the exercises from this part. In some cases, there is more wrong with a person’s heart than an irregular heartbeat, faulty valves or artery plaque. Possible heart problems are: • cardiomyopathy (any disease of heart muscle; usually causes an enlarged heart) • autoimmune disease (in which the body’s immune system attacks the heart). Heart transplants are often the only option for some sufferers of heart disease. In the future artificial hearts may replace heart transplants. You are about to gather information to help you outline areas of current research with regards to heart transplants and artificial hearts. Go to the www.lmpc.edu.au/science web site, then senior science. Then go to Medical technology – bionics, click on Links and go down to Part 3. There are a number of web sites that should help you to record information on current research into heart transplants and artificial hearts.. Regard current research as research carried out in the last two years. Check that the web site information has been produced or updated in the last two years. If you do not have access to the Internet then try encyclopedias and medical books in a public library as data sources. Record the date of publication and when the information was last revised. The next page is available for you to record the information. Part 3: Heart to heart 3 4 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Social implications of heart transplants The development of medical procedures that allow heart transplants to take place has several impacts in society. • People with heart disease can live a longer life – this contributes to an aging population. • People awaiting heart transplants can wait years for a transplant due to a lack of donors. This can have a significant impact on the recipient, caregivers and hospitals which attempt to keep the person alive after their own heart ceases to function. • Heart transplant recipients experience emotional distress at being called into hospital to receive a transplant and the donor heart is found to be damaged and not viable for transplantation. • Ethical, moral and religious implications argue for and against replacing body parts to extend the lives of people who would otherwise die. • Patients may increase their susceptibility to other life threatening diseases as a result of a heart transplant by taking immune suppressing drugs which minimise the rejection of transplanted tissue. • Upon obtaining a driver’s license, people must choose to be an organ donor or not. • Families of people who die suddenly are faced with organ donation decisions as they are coming to grips with the tragedy. • Families of brain dead victims, whose heart and lungs are functioning are faced with organ donation decisions when the person still appears to be alive. (Organs are often removed while the body is still functioning to optimise the recipients’ chances of survival.) • Removal of organs such as a beating heart from a brain dead person has emotional impacts on nurses and medical staff as the person is technically still alive. Turn to Exercise 3.1 at the back of this part to summarise current research in heart transplants and artificial hearts and their impacts on society. Part 3: Heart to heart 5 Atherosclerosis Atherosclerosis is the building up on the innermost layer of the artery wall of fatty deposits which harden to form plaque. A person suffering from a heart attack is actually suffering from a lack of blood to the heart muscles themselves. All muscles need a constant supply of blood to function and heart muscles are no exception. Arteries on the surface of the heart supply life–giving oxygen and glucose to the heart itself, allowing it to pump, thus keeping you alive. When the arteries supplying blood to heart muscles become blocked, the heart muscles no longer have the requirements to function. The heart muscle cells can die rapidly and, without intervention, the person will die. Arteries leading away from the heart can also become blocked with fatty residue. What would you expect to happen if blood is prevented from flowing out of the heart as it is pumping? The thought isn’t pretty is it! The question then is – what causes blocking of arteries and what can be done to treat and prevent it? 6 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Listen to the Coronary artery disease section of the Bionics audiotape/internet audio files. The information contained in the audiotape matches the diagrams below. Complete the table. 1 2 3 4 5 Answers are not supplied for this audio activity to encourage you to complete the activity. Part 3: Heart to heart 7 By the time a person notices symptoms of atherosclerosis, such as tiredness and shortness of breath, it has advanced to the stage where it is almost life threatening. So, how can atherosclerosis be avoided? Reducing the risk Your blood carries the two forms of lipoproteins that are associated with cholesterol. Low density lipoproteins (LDL) transports cholesterol around the body in the blood stream. LDL is the form of cholesterol which is deposited on artery walls, forming artery plaque. LDL is often referred to as bad cholesterol. High density lipoproteins (HDL) is good cholesterol. HDL assists in removing LDL from artery walls, delivering it to the liver for removal. Research has shown that high levels of HDL are just as important as low levels of LDL in the blood for reducing the risk of atherosclerosis. The question then is – how can one maintain low levels of LDL and increase HDL in the blood? The answer lies in diet. A diet high in complex carbohydrates, vitamin rich fruits and vegetables and low in fats is important in maintaining low LDL and high HDL levels. Such a diet also offers numerous other health benefits. In fact a healthy diet from a young age almost ensures against the formation of artery plaque. What you eat will flow through your blood. If you eat fried, fatty foods, the fat will be absorbed into your blood stream and the cholesterol may be deposited on your artery walls – even in childhood. Lifestyle also plays an important role in reducing the risk of atherosclerosis. Smokers more than double their risk of atherosclerosis and passive smokers (those who breathe in second–hand smoke) increase their risk of atherosclerosis by 20%. Regular exercise and low stress levels helps keep the body healthy, reducing the risks associated with hardening of the arteries. State four ways you can reduce the risk of atherosclerosis. _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ Check your answers. 8 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Techniques for treating atherosclerosis The best way to prevent or minimise atherosclerosis is by wise lifestyle choices. There are many things one can change in life – where you live, what work you do, who you associate with, how you spend your time, etc. However, the body you are born with cannot be changed. That body is your body for life. The emphasis by many in society may be on the external appearance of your body but what really counts is the condition of your internal parts. Especially important is the condition of the muscles that make up the walls of your arteries. If the arteries have deposits of plaque they cannot do their job as effectively. Prevention of atherosclerosis by making wise lifestyle choices is the best approach. If prevention fails and a person has access to modern technology there are several techniques for treating atherosclerosis. Seven of them are: • atherectomy • balloon angioplasty • bypass surgery • cardiac catheterization • laser angioplasty • stents • thrombectomy. If you know the meanings of parts of scientific, technical and medical terms you can often work out what long words or terms mean. For example–ectomy on the end of a word refers to removal of the part at the start of the word. You should be able to work out what is removed in an appendicectomy operation. Angioplasty refers to repair of a blood vessel. You should be able to work out what is used to repair a blood vessel in balloon angioplasty and in laser angioplasty. The table on the next page requires you to label seven diagrams. Each of these diagrams represents one of the techniques that could be used to treat atherosclerosis. By carefully looking at each diagram and reading the notes, you should be able to select a suitable label from the list above. After you have labeled the seven diagrams check your answers. Part 3: Heart to heart 9 artery dye showing artery width artery balloon is blown up repeatedly, pressing plaque against artery walls plaque catheter inserted into artery catheter injecting dye into artery rotating blade breaks artery plaque into microscopic particles stent in place in artery, holding artery open, restoring blood flow plaque blood artery artery plaque pushed to the artery walls catheter laser vapourises plaque in a blocked artery to restore blood flow thrombus or blood clot is removed to restore blood flow artery plaque artery catheter vein is used to bypass the clogged artery, restoring blood flow hardened artery with little blood flow 10 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Bypass surgery Laser angioplasty Thrombectomy Atherectomy Stents Statement Balloon angioplasty Tick the procedure described by each of the following statements. The first one has been done for you as a guide. Cardiac catheterisation 1 a procedure to detect the severity of atherosclerosis a blade is used to cut away plaque from artery walls a clot is removed from an artery, restoring blood flow a balloon on a catheter is expanded in an artery blood is directed around the blocked artery a hole is made in the centre of a plaque blockage dye is injected into the affected artery wire coil holds the artery open artery plaque is flattened against artery walls this method is only used when angioplasty fails a high speed blade rotates, removing plaque used when one or two coronary arteries are affected 2 Explain why arteries affected by atherosclerosis should be treated. _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ Check your answers. Turn to Exercise 3.2 at the back of this part to outline three procedures which restores blood flow in arteries affected by atherosclerosis. Part 3: Heart to heart 11 Optional activity – the red bullet Did you know that hardening of the arteries and strokes are often related? For each of the diagrams below, colour the blood in the center of the artery in red, the plaque yellow and the artery wall in pink. A typical artery with plaque lining the artery walls. blood artery plaque A physiological response to stress is artery contraction. Emotional stress causes greater artery contraction than physical exercise. Contraction causes the plaque to be crunched, allowing cracks to form in the plaque’s hard seal. 12 crack in plaque contracted artery plaque The cracks allow soft fat to ooze out from under the hard fatty seal like egg white oozes out of a cracked egg. The soft fat can then travel down stream, adding to artery plaque in another part of the body. soft fat oozing into the blood stream from cracked plaque A blood clot forms at the cracked plaque site sealing the crack. You are familiar with blood clotting when you cut your skin. If the blood did not clot, forming a seal, you could bleed to death, even from a small skin cut. blood clot sealing plaque crack blood plaque Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold The blood clot has the potential to break away with the force of blood flow, traveling down stream. The blood clot then has the potential to completely clog smaller veins and capillaries, halting blood flow and starving cells of vital oxygen and nutrients. A blood clot to the brain can block blood flow to brain cells, causing one form of stroke, and possibly shutting the brain down. This can kill the person. Blood may be thinned with aspirin, minimising the danger of blood clots and potential strokes. Procedures that involve insertion of catheters into arteries for investigatory or artery opening purposes can break away plaque on artery walls, causing cracks and subsequent blood clots, thus increasing the chances of stroke. Part 3: Heart to heart 13 The skeletal system The skeleton protects many of the internal organs. For example, the brain is encased in the skull, the heart and lungs are surrounded by the rib cage and the spinal cord runs within the canal formed by the vertebrae (backbones). Colour the skull, rib cage and spine in three different colours on the skeleton draw below. This will highlight the bones that protect vital organs. Human skeleton. 14 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold The human skeletal system also plays a vital role in maintaining an upright stance. Bones are strong for this purpose. Reconstruct the following sentence. an protects The system upright skeletal and vital maintains organs stance. _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ Check your answers. The diagram below shows the different types of tissue inside the longest bone in the human body (the femur). The anatomy of a bone. Bones are living body parts. They are made of cells, just as your skin, lungs and heart are made of cells. Your bones store many mineral salts containing calcium, phosphorus, sodium and potassium. The above diagram shows ‘spongy’ bone with pores in the bone at each end and a hollow centre containing bone marrow. Part 3: Heart to heart 15 The strength of different parts of bones differs due to their structure. The cancellous or spongy bone at the ends of bones is typically surrounded by cartilage. The cartilage itself absorbs impacts as it is very flexible. The cancellous bone under the cartilage is more rigid than the cartilage, but is able to absorb greater shocks than the diaphysis (the long section of bone), which is even more rigid. This means that, in general, the ends of bones (the epiphysis) are more able to absorb shocks than the straighter section of bone. Indicate the shock absorbing abilities of cancellous bone and the diaphysis by labelling the diagram on the previous page. Calcium compounds in bones Bones are made of collagen (a very strong, flexible protein) and calcium phosphate salt which hardens the bone. You may have the idea that bones are solid, inflexible structures that break or shatter under great stress. You may change you ideas after the following activity. Aim • To remove calcium compounds from a chicken bone. • To examine the flexible nature of bones. You will need: • an uncooked chicken bone, for example, a chicken leg (with meat removed) • white vinegar • a glass, glass jar or container large enough for your chicken bone. Method 1 Observe the solid structure of the bone prior to the experiment by attempting to bend the bone. 2 Place the chicken bone in the glass, jar or container. 3 Completely submerge the bone in vinegar. Continue this experiment in Exercise 3.3 at the back of this part. 16 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Summary You have an opportunity to reflect on your learning while reviewing the information you have gained in Parts 1 to 3. Enjoyment Each activity from Parts 1 to 3 are listed below. 1 Tick the boxes on the left to indicate the activities you enjoyed. 2 Colour in the boxes on the right to indicate the amount of information you feel you absorbed from each activity outlined. An example has been done for you as a guide. Activity Percent learned 0% 50% 100% External biomedical devices – information on audiotape/internet audio file. External biomedical devices – information on audiotape/internet audio file. Creating a timeline of the development of pacemakers. Adding information on biomedical implants to a table. Labeling the heart from the audio and answering true/false questions. Carrying out an investigation on your pulse rate. Part 3: Heart to heart 17 Answering questions on how the heart beats. Listening to a person’s heartbeat. Explaining abnormal heartbeats from a doctor’s perspective. Summarising different conditions responsible for an irregular heartbeat. Gathering information on pacemakers from the audio. Explaining pacemakers from a doctors perspective. Extracting information on the history of pacemakers from the Internet. Matching information on technological developments aiding pacemaker use. Labelling the different heart valves in the heart. Demonstrating the action of heart valves by walking through a door–way. Explaining the function of heart valves. Linking information on cars on highways to blood flow through heart valves. 18 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Designing a webpage explaining different heart valve conditions. Researching and reporting on artificial heart valves from Internet information. Quickly scanning information on research into heart transplants. Presenting brief summaries on research into heart transplants and artificial hearts. Recording information on atherosclerosis from the audio next to diagrams. Learning how to reduce the risk of atherosclerosis. Labeling a table showing the techniques used to treat atherosclerosis Colouring in diagrams associated with the red bullet (strokes) – optional activity. Skeletal system – colouring in; sentence reconstruction; and labeling diagram. Removing calcium compounds from a chicken bone. You probably didn’t realise all the activities you have carried out in this module. The amount you shaded in the right column should indicate the knowledge you have gained so far in Medical technology – bionics. You can be the judge of the amount you have learned – and the amount of revision you require. Part 3: Heart to heart 19 20 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Suggested answers Reducing the risk The risk of atherosclerosis can be significantly reduced with: a diet high in complex carbohydrates, fruits and vegetables and low in fat; regular exercise; low stress levels; and not smoking. Techniques for treating atherosclerosis artery dye showing artery width artery balloon is blown up repeatedly, pressing plaque against artery walls plaque catheter inserted into artery catheter injecting dye into artery Cardiac catheterisation Balloon angioplasty rotating blade breaks artery plaque into microscopic particles stent in place in artery, holding artery open, restoring blood flow plaque blood artery Stents Part 3: Heart to heart artery plaque pushed to the artery walls catheter Atherectomy 21 laser vapourises plaque in a blocked artery to restore blood flow thrombus or blood clot is removed to restore blood flow artery plaque catheter artery Thrombectomy Laser angioplasty vein is used to bypass the clogged artery, restoring blood flow hardened artery with little blood flow Bypass surgery 22 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold a blade is used to cut away plaque from artery walls ✓ a clot is removed from an artery, restoring blood flow ✓ a balloon on a catheter is expanded in an artery ✓ blood is directed around the blocked artery ✓ a hole is made in the centre of a plaque blockage dye is injected into the affected artery ✓ ✓ ✓ wire coil holds the artery open artery plaque is flattened against artery walls ✓ this method is only used when angioplasty fails ✓ a high speed blade rotates, removing plaque used when one or two coronary arteries are affected 2 Bypass surgery Laser angioplasty Thrombectomy Atherectomy ✓ Stents a procedure to detect the severity of atherosclerosis Balloon angioplasty Statement Cardiac catheterisation Detecting and treating atherosclerosis ✓ ✓ Arteries affected by atherosclerosis should be treated or the condition will compound, eventually blocking blood flow to and from the heart. Other answers are acceptable. The skeletal system The skeletal system maintains an upright stance and protects vital organs. Part 3: Heart to heart 23 24 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Exercises - Part 3 Exercises 3.1 to 3.3 Name: _________________________________ Exercise 3.1 Choose two areas of current research into heart transplants and two areas of current research into artificial hearts. For each research area: • explain the research • explain the possible implications of the research with regards to heart transplants or artificial hearts • explain how you think the research could impact on society (this can be the same for many areas of research). Research Part 3: Heart to heart Implications Impact on society 25 Exercise 3.2 Draw an example of and explain, in your own words, three different procedures which restore blood flow in arteries affected by atherosclerosis. 1 ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ 2 ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ 3 ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ 26 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Exercise 3.3 This experiment is continued from Calcium compounds in bones on page 16. 1 Draw a diagram of the chicken bone submerged in vinegar. The space provided indicates the size of the diagram required. Use pencil and label parts of the diagram. 2 Leave the bone in the vinegar for at least three days. Is vinegar acid or alkaline? _____________________________________________________ Can this substance damage your skin? What other things may be damaged with this substance? _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ Explain how will you ensure this substance is handled carefully to reduce possible hazards. _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ Part 3: Heart to heart 27 Given that vinegar can be dangerous, how will you dispose of the used vinegar? Give a reason for your choice. ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ 3 After at least three days remove the chicken bone from the vinegar and soak it in water for three hours. 4 Observe the flexibility of the bone, comparing it to its flexibility before immersion in the vinegar. Write a sentence about any change in flexibility in the next (results) section. Results Draw the bone as bent as you can make it, or take a photograph and glue in the space provided. Continued on the next page. 28 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Scientific testing of materials can be destructive or non–destructive. Destructive testing causes a chemical reaction to take place, which alters the chemical nature of the specimen. This type of testing is difficult or impossible to reverse. Non–destructive testing allows data collection without changing the chemical components of the specimen. Such tests are often observation based. Which type of testing did you just carry out on the chicken bone? Explain your answer. _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ State the non–destructive tests you did on the chicken bone before and after placing it into vinegar. Explain why these tests are non–destructive. _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ Every substance has physical and chemical properties. Physical properties can be easily observed on the substance by itself, however understanding the chemical properties of a substance requires testing with other substances. State the different types of results you gathered from destructive and non–destructive testing. It may help you to refer to the physical and chemical properties of the chicken bone in your answer. _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ Part 3: Heart to heart 29 Conclusion Given that bones are made of collagen and calcium compounds, which of these were removed from the bone with the use of vinegar? Use your observations of your chicken bone to help explain your answer. You may also refer to page 16 to help explain your answer. _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ Explain how this experiment demonstrates the flexible nature of bones. _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ 30 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Senior Science HSC Course Stage 6 Medical technology – bionics Part 4: Bone to bone 0 20 In r e to b T S c O EN g in D M t a r EN o p r co A M 2 Senior Science Stage 6 HSC Course Lifestyle chemistry Medical technology – bionics • Spare parts • Fixing a broken heart • Heart to heart • Bone to bone • Breathing easy • Peek–a–boo Information systems Option Gill Sans Bold Contents Introduction ............................................................................... 2 Synovial joints ........................................................................... 4 Joint structures .....................................................................................4 Joint movement ....................................................................................5 Synovial joint classification ..................................................................7 Artificial joints .......................................................................... 13 Silicone joints......................................................................................13 Large artificial joints ...........................................................................15 Life of replacement joints ...................................................................18 Joint fixation........................................................................................19 Summary................................................................................. 21 Appendix ................................................................................. 23 Suggested answers................................................................. 25 Exercises – Part 4 ................................................................... 31 Part 4: Bone to bone 1 Introduction In Part 4, you will be given opportunities to learn to recognise different types of joints, what artificial joints are made from and where they are placed in the body. You will learn how the implants are attached to bones and current research involving the life of artificial joints. In this part you will be given opportunities to learn to: • describe the different types of synovial joints as – ball and socket – hinge – double hinge – sliding – pivot and identify their location • describe the role of cartilage and synovial joint fluid in the operation of joints • identify the properties of silicone that make it suitable for use in bionics • explain why silicone joints would be suitable substitutes for small joints in the fingers and toes that bear little force • describe the properties that make ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) a suitable alternative to cartilage surrounding a ball and socket joint in terms of its • 2 – biocompatibility with surrounding tissue – low friction – durability explain why artificial joints have the articulating ends covered in polyethylene Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold • describe the properties of the materials including ‘superalloy’ that make a ball and stem for the bone components of a large joint including: – high strength – low weight – good compatibility with body tissue – inertness • identify that artificial implants can be either cemented or uncemented into place • describe the properties of the cement that is used in implants and discuss how an uncemented implant forms a bond with the bone. In this part you will be given opportunities to: • perform an investigation to examine the relationship between cartilage, muscle, tendon and bone in an animal limb • perform an investigation to demonstrate the different types of joints and the range of movements they allow • process secondary information to compare the shock absorbing capabilities of different parts of bones • plan, choose equipment or resources for and perform a first–hand investigation to demonstrate the properties of silicone such as acid resistance, flexibility and imperviousness to water that make it suitable for use in bionics • analyse secondary information to compare the strength of UHMWPE and ‘superalloy’ metal. Extracts from Senior Science Stage 6 Syllabus © Board of Studies NSW, November 2002. The most up-to-date version can be found at http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au/syllabus_hsc/index.html Part 4: Bone to bone 3 Synovial joints Joints allow our body to move. This body movement is produced by muscle action across a joint. The definition of a joint is the place where two or more bones meet. Joints can be classified according to the structure and the material that connects the joints or the degree of movement that occurs at that joint. Joint structures Ligaments Tough bands of collagen ( a very strong, flexible substance) which hold a joint together by joining bones on one side of a joint to bones on the other side. They act like strong rubber bands, holding bone ends together at the joint. They prevent dislocation but stretch slightly to allow the bones to move. Tendons Tough, rope–like strands which connect muscle to bone. Synovial fluid The slippery fluid which lubricates movable joints. It is secreted by the synovial membrane which is a lining on the inner surface of the joint capsule. Cartilage A rubbery substance which is used to support and protect the body from shocks and impacts. The ends of the bone are covered with cartilage to make a smooth, flexible joint. Joints about which bones move are classified as synovial joints. These joints contain synovial fluid for joint lubrication. 4 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Write the joint structure described by the statements below in the space provided. 1 A rubbery substance covering ends of bones. __________________ 2 ‘Rubber bands’ that hold bones together. __________________ 3 Very strong flexible substance. __________________ 4 Connects muscle to bone. __________________ 5 Protects and supports bones against impacts. __________________ 6 Lining on the inner surface of a joint capsule. __________________ 7 Slippery fluid lubricating a joint. __________________ 8 Prevents dislocation of bones. __________________ Check your answers. Turn to Exercise 4.1 at the back of this part to examine joint structures in chicken limbs. Joint movement Features of synovial joints are shown in the diagram below. Synovial joint. Part 4: Bone to bone 5 Refer to the diagram on the previous page to complete the sentences that describe the features of synovial joints. 1 The ________________ ________________ encloses the joint. 2 The ________________ membrane lines the joint capsule. It secretes synovial fluid into the cavity. 3 ________________ ________________ fills the joint cavity. It lubricates the joint and provides nutrients. 4 ________________ ________________ covers the end of the bones in a joint. It is smooth, shiny and white. Articular cartilage reduces the friction between the bones in a joint. Check your answers. Factors affecting movement Each type of synovial joint has a different range of movements. Movements are mainly determined by the shape of the bones at the joint. Other factors that influence movement are: • the flexibility or elasticity of ligaments and tendons. Tendons connect muscles to bones. • the strength and length of muscles around a joint • the presence of synovial fluid. 1 The degree and kind of movement in each joint varies. List three things that may limit the range of movement in a joint. _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ Many people have ligament reconstruction operations as a result of sporting injuries. The operations involve connecting the bones together again using the existing ligament or grafting a piece of tendon. The most common ligament reconstructions are for the shoulder and knee. 2 Which sports do you think are likely to injure the knee and shoulder? ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ Check your answers. 6 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Synovial joint classification Synovial joints differ according to the shapes of the ends of the bones of different joints. There are several types of synovial joints: • ball and socket joint eg. in the shoulder • hinge joint eg. in the elbow • sliding joint eg. in the backbone • pivot joint eg. in the neck • double hinge joint eg. in the hand • saddle joint eg. in the thumb. Ball and socket joint In ball and socket joints, the end of one bone is shaped like a ball. It fits the end of another bone that is shaped like a cup or socket. An example is where the femur joins the pelvis at the hip. Examine the diagram that follows. You can see the end of the femur is shaped like a ball. The pelvis has a socket (or cup) where the femur joins the hip. Ba ll and socket hip joint. 1 Do you have a mortar and pestle that you use in the kitchen? If so, move the pestle around in the mortar. Another way to demonstrate a ball and socket joint is to make a fist with one hand and a cup shape with the other. Place the ball (fist) in to the socket (cupped hand). Now rotate your fist. Part 4: Bone to bone 7 This will give you an idea of the sort of movements that a ball and socket joint can perform. 2 Move your arm at the shoulder and your leg at the hip. Tick the movements you can do with the joints below. 3 Movement Shoulder Hip lift limb forward lift limb backwards lift limb to the side lift to the opposite side rotate the limb in a circular motion You should have found that a ball and socket joint allows the following range of movements: • bending • straightening • movement away from the body • movement towards the body • rotation movements Hinge joint Hinge joints are another type of synovial joint. They occur where the extremities of two joining bones fit like a hinge. Examine the following diagram. This shows the elbow, which is an example of a hinge joint. The bone in the upper arm (humerus) joins a bone in the lower arm (ulna). 8 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Hinge joint in the elbow. Bend your elbow. Can you move your forearm from side to side from the elbow? Based on the information above, why do you think this is? _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ Check your answer. Sliding joint Sliding joints in the spine. Part 4: Bone to bone 9 Sliding joints only allow movement from side to side or back to front. The joints between the ribs and the vertebra joints are sliding joints. This type of joint is shown in the diagram above. You can see that each of the adjoining vertebrae is separated by a disc. Another example of a sliding joint is found in the wrist. 1 Stand up straight. Can you bend from side to side? How far down your leg can you reach? _____________________________________________________ 2 Stand up straight. Can you bend backwards very far? _____________________________________________________ Move your back to see the range of movements that are possible. Can you bend further in a forwards direction than a backwards? Explain why this is so. Look at the diagram of the vertebrae to help explain your answer. _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ Check your answer. Pivot joint Pivot joint in the neck. 10 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold A pivot joint is only capable of rotation. Look at the diagram on the previous page, which shows the atlas and axis – the first and second vertebrae in the spinal column. The first vertebra (atlas) rotates around a peg–like projection of the second vertebra (axis). Move your neck to see the range of movements that are possible. Which movements are the result of the pivot joint between the axis and the atlas? _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ Check your answer. Double hinge joint A double hinge joint is like a hinge joint that also allows sideways movement eg. spreading the fingers. The knuckle joints in the hand are examples of double hinge joints. This is where the bones of the palm join the bones of the fingers. 1 Move your fingers at the knuckle joints. Sketch a diagram of your hand then draw arrows on the diagram showing the range of movements possible. Use thick arrows to show the main directions and thinner arrows showing the other directions of movement. 2 Your jaw is another example of a double hinge joint. Again, sketch your face and use arrows to indicate the directions of movement in your jaw. Check your answers. Part 4: Bone to bone 11 Did you know...? The joint formed by the carpal bone and the metacarpal of the thumb is not a ball and socket joint. This joint is an example of a saddle joint. The bone extremities are shaped like a saddle in this synovial joint as shown below. The thumb joint is an example of a saddle joint Locate this joint in your hand. What sorts of movements are possible? _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ Check your answers. Turn to Exercise 4.2 at the back of this part to locate the different types of joints and the range of movements they allow. 12 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Artificial joints Silicone joints Joints can be damaged through sports or accidents or degrade as a result of arthritis. In many cases a diseased or damaged joint can be replaced by an artificial joint. Silicone is an organic compound which is non–reactive with body tissue. This means that body tissue will not reject a silicone implant by swelling and becoming inflamed and tender. Silicone is also unlikely to degrade when surrounded by body tissue. Rubber and silicone have several similarities however silicone possesses several other important properties. Use the code below to identify the properties of silicone. a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y 1 flexible _____________________________________________________ 2 holds a particular shape _____________________________________________________ 3 light weight _____________________________________________________ 4 smooth _____________________________________________________ Part 4: Bone to bone 13 5 acid resistant ______________________________________________________ 6 impervious to water ______________________________________________________ 7 cracks under moderate pressure ______________________________________________________ 8 absorbs impacts ______________________________________________________ Check your answers. It is these properties that make silicone a suitable substitute for small artificial joints in the fingers and toes. The fingers and toes generally bear little force (unless lifting weights). Therefore, it is unlikely silicone joints in the fingers and toes will break or crack. You may have heard of the bionic man. The term bionic refers to the scientific study of living things as functional models for technical development of therapeutic devices, which imitate the functions of particular body parts. A bionic device is therefore an artificial body part specifically designed to function in a similar way to natural body parts. You have already studied pacemakers and artificial heart valves. These are examples of bionics. The two diagrams below demonstrate replacement silicone joints implanted in a hand and foot. Colour in the replacement silicone joints. knuckle joints are replaced by silicone joints Replacement silicone joints in knuckle joints. 14 toe joints are replaced by silicone joints Replacement silicone joints in toe joints. Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold You are required to investigate some of the properties of silicone. You should have received a 20 cm silicone strip from your teacher. You will plan and carry out tests on the strip of silicone, then relate these findings to the silicone used in artificial joints. If you have not yet received your silicone strip, contact your teacher now. Turn to Exercise 4.3 at the back of this part to plan, carry out and report on an investigation into the properties of silicone. Add relevant information on implants to your database or the table in Appendix 1 from Part 1. This information will be returned with the exercises in Part 4. Large artificial joints Ball and socket joints are examples of large joints that can degrade with arthritis. The cartilage covering the ends of bones becomes inflamed, as the body’s own defenses attack the joint, destroying it as it would harmful bacteria. Ultimately the joint becomes very painful to move. Joints can also be damaged through impact sports over time and joint bones can become weak with age or diseased. Medical science has developed various artificial ball and socket joints, which are designed to replace worn joints, giving people greater freedom of movement and quality of life. The diagram on the below shows a typical ball and socket hip joint. The diagram on the next page shows the components of an artificial ball and socket hip joint. The components of the natural joint and artificial joint look similar. femur pelvis Typical ball and socket hip joint. Part 4: Bone to bone 15 acetabular component (lined with UHMWPE) femoral head (covered in UHMWPE) femoral stem (superalloy) Artificial ball and socket hip joint. The diagrams below show X–rays of artificial hip joints implanted in 1985 and those used today. Hip replacement 15 years ago © Fran Philipson Recent hip replacement © Orana Radiology. In 1985 metal rods were screwed to the outside of bone. Today an artificial stem is placed inside the femur (thigh bone). 16 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold You might be wondering what materials comprise an artificial hip. The Artificial joints section of the Bionics audiotape answers this question and many more. Listen to the Artificial joints section of the Bionics audiotape/internet audio file. Listen for important pieces of information and take notes in point form. The object of this activity is for you to extract information on artificial joints, not create a text copy of the audio. You may need to stop the audio to jot down your points. The points should consist of key words and should not take sentence form eg. ‘joints made of superalloy metal,’ or ‘superalloy – cobalt/chromium and titanium’. • _____________________________________________________ • _____________________________________________________ • _____________________________________________________ • _____________________________________________________ • _____________________________________________________ • _____________________________________________________ • _____________________________________________________ • _____________________________________________________ • _____________________________________________________ • _____________________________________________________ • _____________________________________________________ • _____________________________________________________ • _____________________________________________________ • _____________________________________________________ • _____________________________________________________ Add relevant information on implants to your database or the table in Appendix 1 from Part 1. This information will be returned with the exercises in Part 4. Part 4: Bone to bone 17 Life of replacement joints The materials used in artificial joints are not able to regenerate and heal as our joints do. Constant movement day after day, year after year takes its toll on replacement joints. The Appendix discusses the problems associated with artificial joints. Read the information in the Appendix then answer the questions below. 1 Which part of an artificial joint wears first? _____________________________________________________ 2 Explain why this part of the replacement joint degrades. _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ 3 Explain the cause of artificial joints loosening over time. ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ 4 Explain one form of research aimed at improving the life of artificial joints. ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ Check your answers. Turn to Exercise 4.4 at the back of this part to address questions on artificial joints. Turn to Exercise 4.5 to complete the activity on biomedical implants from Appendix 1, Part 1. 18 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Joint fixation If you were to make a coffee table, you would probably use glue and nails to hold the table together. How do you think artificial joints are held in place in the body? Years ago, a metal rod was attached outside the bone with screws as shown on page 16. Today’s hip replacements are attached to existing bone in one of two ways: cemented and uncemented. Any materials used need to be biocompatible, corrosion and wear resistant and able to support weight–bearing loads. About 80% of hip replacements last 20 years. X–rays of the hip region showing the condition of the bone, age, weight, general health and lifestyle are all used to decide whether a cemented or uncemented implant is best for a patient. A person can walk without support almost immediately after a cemented hip replacement. However, an uncemented hip replacement may require a person to use crutches or a walker for 8–10 weeks. Uncemented implants are preferred for younger, active or very heavy people. For a cemented implant a fluid acrylic polymer that acts as a grout is used. The cement is similar to that used by dentists to fix teeth. This fluid penetrates into cracks and other spaces and solidifies, binding bone and joint components together. Uncemented implants use a porous, textured metal mesh into which human bone grows. They are large and longer than cemented implants and it takes much longer before the patient can walk unsupported after the operation. Try to find some people who have had implant operations who are willing to share their experiences with you. Part 4: Bone to bone 19 Use the above information to match the following questions with their answers. Draw a line between the matching questions and answers. What two methods are employed to place implants in the body? The quality of the bone. What determines if a doctor cements or uncements an implant into place? A plastic compound. How does acrylic (implant cement) attach to bone? It forms an interlocking mechanical bond with the bone. What is in implant cement? Cementing and uncementing. How do uncemented implants form a bond with bone? It forms an interlocking mechanical bond with the bone. Check your answers. Turn to Exercise 4.6 at the back of this part to discuss cementing and uncementing implants into place. 20 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Summary Complete the following crossword using the clues on the following page. 1 2 1 4 3 5 9 4 6 7 8 10 12 11 13 15 16 14 17 18 19 21 20 22 23 24 25 Part 4: Bone to bone 21 Across Down 1 a substance beginning with ‘t’ that comprises artificial joints 1 tough, rope–like strands that connect muscle to bone 3 the vertebrae joints are examples of this type of synovial joint 2 the elbow is an example of this type of joint 4 very strong, flexible substance present in bones, ligaments and tendons 4 material covering the ends of bones where bones meet at a joint 8 most of the joints in the body are these type of joints 5 artificial joints may be cemented or ________________ into place 11 a structure that joins a bone to another bone 6 silicone is an excellent substance in joint replacement as it is inert, smooth and ________________. 13 light flexible substance used as replacement joints in fingers 14 joint type which allows the greatest range of movement 17 artificial joints can contain this element 18 ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene 23 the long section of a bone 25 ‘spongy’ bone 7 a substance often used to hold artificial joints in place particularly in the thigh bone 9 this joint is an example of a ball and socket joint 10 knuckles are an example of this type of joint 15 you tested silicone with vinegar to find silicone is ______ ______________. 16 an example of a double hinge joint 19 a general term for the metals present in artificial joints. 20 this metal can be part of a superalloy 21 the neck is and example of this type of joint 22 the ends of bones 24 silicone joints can replace ____ joints 22 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Appendix Studies have shown that superalloy metals show very little or no wear over time, even after 15 years. The metal is clearly strong enough to last for many years however, the joint itself had a limited life for several reasons. The constant rubbing action between the superalloy metal and the ultra high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) causes the UHMWPE to fatigue, causing greater resistance in the joint. In almost every case, the UHMWPE degrades long before the superalloy metal. The rubbing action also causes microscopic particles of the UHMWPE and metal to be released into surrounding body tissue. The joint itself still functions as normal, however the particles accumulating in surrounding tissue are small enough for the body to consider them harmful microbes. The body puts its defenses into motion, causing the area to become inflamed. The cells around the area become overworked in a fruitless attempt to destroy these particles. This then causes the bone around the joint to degrade. The joint then becomes loose and painful. This can take 15 to 25 years, however, the joint must be replaced. Recent studies are blaming sterilisation procedures for this degradation. Superalloy and UHMWPE joints are bombarded with gamma radiation in the sterilising process. This aims to minimise infection in the joint once implanted, however it is thought the radiation causes the polyethylene to oxidise and begin to degrade, losing some mechanical properties. Research is underway into alternative sterilisation methods. Other research involves studies into the structure of synovial joint fluid, enhancing the durability of the superalloy/UHMWPE interface and causing the debris to break off in larger pieces. Synovial fluid research aims to mimic the structure and lubricating properties of synovial fluid for use in artificial joints. Recent research suggests that bombarding the surface of superalloys with ions hardens the outer surface, protecting it against destructive friction with UHMWPE. This significantly reduces the amount of debris released in the joint over time. Other research suggests that if the debris caused by joint friction broke away in slightly larger chunks, the bodies defences would not recognise the debris as harmful and would not attack it. Part 4: Bone to bone 23 24 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Suggested answers Joint structures 1 A rubbery substance covering ends of bones. cartilage 2 ‘Rubber bands’ that hold bones together. ligament 3 Very strong flexible substance. collagen 4 Connects muscle to bone. tendon 5 Protects and supports bones against impacts. cartilage 6 Lining on the inner surface of a joint capsule. synovial membrane 7 Slippery fluid lubricating a joint. synovial fluid 8 Prevents dislocation of bones. ligament Joint movement 1 The fibrous capsule encloses the joint. 2 The synovial membrane lines the joint capsule. It secretes synovial fluid into the cavity. 3 Synovial fluid fills the joint cavity. It lubricates the joint and provides nutrients. 4 Articular cartilage covers the end of the bones in a joint. It is smooth, shiny and white. Articular cartilage reduces the friction between the bones in a joint. Factors affecting joint movement 1 The following determine the range of movement in a joint: the shape of bone in the joint; the flexibility or elasticity of ligaments and tendons; the strength and length of muscles around a joint; and the presence of synovial fluid. 2 Sports that require sharp turns on the feet and shoulder impacts tend to incur the most knee and shoulder injuries eg. basketball. Part 4: Bone to bone 25 Ball and socket joint Movement Shoulder Hip lift limb forward lift limb backwards lift limb to the side lift to the opposite side rotate the limb in a circular motion Hinge joint You should only be capable of moving your forearm up and down from the elbow and not side to side. This is because the joint is a hinge joint, only allowing movement in one plane. Sliding joint You can bend further forwards than backwards because the extensions at the back of the vertebrae inhibit the backwards–bending motion. Pivot joint The atlas pivot joint allows the head to look from side to side. (Movement between the vertebrae also allows you to tilt your head forward and back and from side to side). Double hinge joint The movement recorded for double hinge joints should have been side to side, back to front and small rolling movements. (Your diagrams would have been diagrams with arrows) Did you know…? (saddle joint) Side to side, rolling and a back to front sliding movements are possible with the saddle joint. 26 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Silicone joints 1 flexible 2 holds a particular shape 3 light weight 4 smooth 5 acid resistant 6 impervious to water 7 cracks under moderate pressure 8 absorbs impacts. Life of replacement joints 1 UHMWPE wears before the superalloy. 2 The UHMWPE sustains half the upper bodyweight and is subject to the constant friction of metal moving against its surface. This causes the UHMWPE to degrade over time. 3 Constant grinding action between the UHMWPE and superalloy surface causes microscopic fragments to be released into the surrounding tissue. The body attacks this debris as it would attack bacteria. The area becomes inflamed and bone tissue becomes exhausted from the fruitless fight against the debris, causing the bone to degrade, loosening the joint. 4 Research is underway into alternative sterilisation methods; the structure of synovial joint fluid; enhancing the durability of the superalloy/UHMWPE interface; and causing the debris to break off in larger pieces. Part 4: Bone to bone 27 Joint fixation What two methods are employed to place implants in the body? Cementing and uncementing. What determines if a doctor cements or uncements an implant into place? The quality of the bone. How does acrylic (implant cement) attach to bone? It forms an interlocking mechanical bond with the bone. What is in implant cement? A plastic compound. How do uncemented implants form a bond with bone? The implant metal has a porous, textured, mesh–like surface into which the bone grows. Summary 1 1 9 L I D I T I T E N G D O N T A N I 6 8 4 10 12 11 U M 4 C O L L A A U F R S Y N O V I A L J O I T H C E I D L I G A M E N T X B S I L I C O N P M I I A U E B O G B N B A L L A N D S O C K E T L C O B A L T C E I N E E I C U U H M D D C I R S C K N P E E U H L G D I A P H Y S I S P R E E V I I E O S O P S T R M T H T O A I Y C A N C E L L O U S S N L M I T O S Y 3 5 S 2 13 15 16 G E 7 C E M E N T H I N G E 14 17 18 19 21 W P E 20 22 23 24 25 28 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Exercises - Part 4 Exercises 4.1 to 4.6 Name: _________________________________ Exercise 4.1 Aim To investigate the relationship between cartilage, muscle and tendon in an animal limb. Apparatus Collect the following: • fresh chicken wing • small pair of scissors • small sharp knife • tweezers • board or dish to hold the specimen being dissected. Method Read through steps 1 – 8 before commencing wing dissection. 1 Examine the chicken wing. Move the joints and note the direction the bone moves. (Be careful not to damage the joint.) Identify the types of synovial joints in the wing. 2 Use the scissors and sharp knife to peel away the skin of the wing, leaving the structures visible underneath. Be careful to avoid damaging muscles, tendons, ligaments and cartilage. 3 Locate a large muscle and trace it from one end to the other, locating the tendons at each end. (Refer to page 4 to recall the definition of a tendon.) 4 Pull on the tendons and note the movement. Part 4: Bone to bone 29 5 Using your dissecting instruments, separate the muscle from the other tissue and trace the tendons to their origins. 6 Clear away the tissue from the central joint to locate the ligaments. (Refer to page 4 to recall the definition of a ligament.) 7 Locate the cartilage in the joint. (Refer to page 4 to recall the definition of cartilage) 8 Make one or two clear and accurate diagrams of the muscle(s), tendons, ligaments, cartilage and bone, labelling these structures. Results Make clear and accurate diagram(s) of the muscles, tendons, ligaments, cartilage and bone in the chicken wing. Identify these structures using two diagrams. (Use pencil.) Conclusion Explain the relationship between ligament, cartilage, muscle, tendon and bone in a chicken wing in one paragraph. _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ 30 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Exercise 4.2 Choose four joint types from the following list: • ball and socket joint • hinge joint • pivot joint • sliding joint • double hinge joint • saddle joint. a) Indicate one site each for the four joint types, showing locations on the body diagrams below. b) Indicate all the range of movements possible for each of the four joints. You may use arrows and/or sketch in limbs showing the range of motion possible on the front and side diagrams below. (Use pencil.) Part 4: Bone to bone 31 Exercise 4.3 You are required to investigate some of the properties of silicone: Plan, choose equipment or resources for and perform a first–hand investigation to demonstrate the properties of silicone such as acid resistance, flexibility and imperviousness to water that make it suitable for use in bionics. Extract from Senior Science Stage 6 Syllabus © Board of Studies NSW, 1999. You should recall the following properties of silicone: • flexible • holds a particular shape • light weight • smooth • acid resistant • impervious to water • cracks under moderate pressure • absorbs impacts. Some hints for designing your investigation are: • vinegar is an acid; evidence of a reaction with acid is: bubbling; dissolving of the substance • a substance may be weighed, submerged in water and reweighed to determine if it has absorbed water • a substance which absorbs impacts will bounce back to its original shape after a force is applied • the silicone may be cut into pieces to be tested. Are you ready to plan your investigation? Aim What are you trying to find out? (refer to the syllabus extract above) _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ Apparatus What will you need to carry out your investigation? Explain why you will require each piece of equipment listed on the right. 32 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Apparatus Justification _____________________ _______________________ _____________________ _______________________ _____________________ _______________________ _____________________ _______________________ _____________________ _______________________ Method How will you carry out your investigation? Remember that you must test acid resistance, flexibility and imperviousness to water. However, you may choose to test all the properties of silicone. Present your method in a sequential format and justify your choice of procedure on the right for each step. Space for your method continues on the next page. Method Justification ________________________________ _______________________ ________________________________ _______________________ ________________________________ _______________________ ________________________________ _______________________ ________________________________ _______________________ ________________________________ _______________________ ________________________________ _______________________ ________________________________ _______________________ ________________________________ _______________________ ________________________________ _______________________ ________________________________ _______________________ ________________________________ _______________________ ________________________________ _______________________ Part 4: Bone to bone 33 ________________________________ _______________________ ________________________________ _______________________ ________________________________ _______________________ ________________________________ _______________________ ________________________________ _______________________ ________________________________ _______________________ ________________________________ _______________________ Results How will you record your results for each type of test? How will you highlight your results? Will you include drawings or photographs? The lines on the following page before the conclusion are for you to justify your choice of results presentation. 34 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Justify your presentation of the results. _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ Conclusion Describe properties of silicone based on your results. _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ Discussion Explain how each of the properties of silicone makes it suitable for use in bionics. (Imagine the conditions that would exist inside the body, such as a watery environment, to help you explain your answer.) _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ Part 4: Bone to bone 35 Exercise 4.4 a) Identify two types of superalloys used in artificial joints. ______________________________________________________ b) Explain four properties of superalloys that make them suitable as bone components of artificial joints. ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ c) What does UHMWPE stand for? ______________________________________________________ d) Label parts of the artificial hip joint below as superalloy and UHMWPE. e) What does UHMWPE mimic in normal synovial joints and why is it necessary? ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ f) Compare the strength of UHMWPE and ‘superalloy’ metal. ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ 36 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold g) What three properties make UHMWPE useful in artificial joints? Explain your answer. _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ h) Colour in the area(s) of the artificial hip joint that degrades most after years of use. Exercise 4.5 By now you should have compiled information about implants – their type, materials and parts of the body. This should be in the form of a database. If this was not possible, you would have compiled your data as a table. You can present this information to your teacher as a database (on disk, CD or as a print out) or as a completed table (from Appendix 1) in Part 1. Attach this information to this page. Part 4: Bone to bone 37 Exercise 4.6 ‘An elderly person with weak bones and poor bone regrowth is likely to have an artificial joint cemented into place rather than uncemented.’ While describing how cemented implants attach to bone and how uncemented implants bond with bone, explain why the above statement would be true or false.. _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ 38 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Senior Science HSC Course Stage 6 Medical technology – bionics Part 5: Breathing easy 0 20 In r e to b T S c O EN g in D M t a r EN o p r co A M 2 Senior Science Stage 6 HSC Course Lifestyle chemistry Medical technology – bionics • Spare parts • Fixing a broken heart • Heart to heart • Bone to bone • Breathing easy • Peak–a–boo Information systems Option Gill Sans Bold Contents Introduction ............................................................................... 2 Technology and the body .......................................................... 4 The respiratory system.............................................................. 5 Function of the respiratory system ......................................................5 Structure of the respiratory system .....................................................6 How do I breathe?..............................................................................10 Exhaling carbon dioxide.....................................................................13 Cardiopulmonary resuscitation ..........................................................13 Life support systems ............................................................... 15 Summary................................................................................. 17 Appendix 1 .............................................................................. 19 Appendix 2 .............................................................................. 21 Suggested answers................................................................. 23 Exercises – Part 5 ................................................................... 25 Part 5: Breathing easy 1 Introduction You will gain an understanding of technologies’ contribution to our understanding of how the body works; the function of the respiratory system and the technologies used to sustain life during Part 5. You will be involved in researching information, listening to an audiotape/internet audio files, interacting with diagrams and writing in circles. In this part, you will be given opportunities to learn to: • describe the structures of the respiratory system and identify their function including – trachea – bronchi – alveoli – capillary network around the alveoli • explain why cardiopulmonary resuscitation techniques can maintain life when the heart has ceased beating • identify that artificial lungs remove carbon dioxide from the blood and replace it with oxygen • discuss the type of operations that would require the use of an artificial lung • identify devices that constitute life support systems in any major hospital. In this part, you will be given opportunities to: 2 • perform an investigation to model the action of the diaphragm in inhalation and exhalation • perform a first–hand investigation to identify carbon dioxide in inhaled air and in exhaled air and determine which has the greater concentration • gather, process and present information from secondary sources to identify monitoring and other devices that constitute life support systems and use available evidence to explain their roles in maintaining life. Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold • gather, process and analyse information and use available evidence to discuss how technological developments have impacted on the understanding of how the body works. Extracts from Senior Science Stage 6 Syllabus © Board of Studies NSW, November 2002. The most up-to-date version can be found at http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au/syllabus_hsc/index.html Part 5: Breathing easy 3 Technology and the body These days, doctors seem to know all there is to know about the body and how it works. Have you ever stopped to think ‘how do they know’? Do you think we would know so much without technology? Technological advances have allowed a detailed study of the human body. Doctors can use technology to assist in the diagnosis of disease and injury in the following ways. • Identification of broken bones, locate tumors in the brain and map our genes. • Women can have ultrasounds to check development of a baby; mammograms to screen for breast cancer; and pap smears to screen for cervical cancer. • X–rays detect bone abnormalities; CT (computerised tomography) scans can map different parts of the body also detecting abnormalities; and an ECG (electrocardiograph) can detect abnormalities in the heart. • Keyhole surgery uses a tiny camera on the end of a probe to identify abnormalities anywhere in the body. • Blood can be tested for anything from sugar levels and viruses to iron levels and antibodies, while DNA tests can determine a person’s parentage. These are only a few technological advances, helping doctors to understand how the body works. Turn to Exercise 5.1 to research two different technological developments and their impact on the understanding of how the body works. 4 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold The respiratory system Your lungs are part of your respiratory system. You may remember how they work to exchange carbon dioxide and oxygen with the air. The following section should help you recall the role of the respiratory system in maintaining you as a functioning organism. Function of the respiratory system The lungs and air passages transport air from the external environment to the blood vessels where oxygen can be absorbed and carbon dioxide removed. All cells carry out respiration. Glucose is oxidised to produce carbon dioxide, water and energy. This process, called cellular respiration, requires oxygen. Cells obtain energy for body processes through respiration. The following equation summarises and simplifies respiration as it occurs in the cells in your body. You should remember this equation from the Plants module in the preliminary course. The function of respiration is to release energy for the body to use. oxygen + glucose carbon dioxide + water + energy Oxygen needs to be supplied to cells for respiration (energy production) to occur. 1 How does oxygen enter the body? _____________________________________________________ Water and carbon dioxide (waste products from respiration) must be removed from cells in the body. Part 5: Breathing easy 5 2 Where is water removed from the body? ______________________________________________________ 3 Where is carbon dioxide removed from the body? ______________________________________________________ Check your answers. The respiratory system exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide with the environment. Respiratory organs transport air to the blood vessels for the exchange of gases to take place. Air is also returned to the environment by the respiratory system. The respiratory system and the circulatory system work together to supply all cells with oxygen and to remove carbon dioxide. Structure of the respiratory system The following diagram lists the main parts of the respiratory system. nose nasal passage trachea wall (magnified) epiglottis cilia to the stomach trachea bronchus bronchiole alveoli rib right lung showing lobes diaphragm left lung dissected to show internal structure air capillaries cluster of alveoli alveolus 6 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Air enters the lungs when we breathe in (inhale) through the nose and mouth. Trace the passage of air into the lungs using the previous diagram. Colour the organs the air passes through in order from the mouth and nose until it reaches the alveoli. a) Colour the trachea red. b) Colour the bronchi in orange. The bronchi divide into the bronchioles. Bronchioles then divide into alveoli which are small round pockets supplied with a great deal of blood. At what site do you think most gas is exchanged? _________________________________________________________ Check your answers. Alveoli and gas exchange Oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged between the air and the blood. This occurs across the walls of the alveoli. This is the site of gas exchange. Alveoli are covered with very narrow blood vessels called capillaries. This is shown in the diagram below. Part 5: Breathing easy 7 1 The lines running over the grape–like structures on the previous page are capillaries. Label capillaries on the diagram. 2 Draw the capillaries on the alveoli without capillaries. Remember this is the site of gas exchange so there are lots of them! 3 Blood comes to the alveoli through the pulmonary artery from the heart. This blood is low in oxygen and high in carbon dioxide when it arrives in the lungs – the blood is actually bluish in colour when depleted of oxygen. Colour the arteries blue. 4 Gas exchange occurs between the capillaries and the alveoli. Carbon dioxide moves from the blood in the capillaries into the alveoli. Oxygen moves via diffusion from the air in the alveoli into the blood through the capillary wall. Shade in the area where this occurs on one of the alveoli cross–sections. 5 Blood leaves the lungs through the pulmonary vein, and travels back towards the heart. It is high in oxygen and low in carbon dioxide when it leaves the lungs. The blood is red in colour. Colour the veins red. Air leaves the lungs through the bronchioles then the bronchi, then the trachea when we breathe out (exhale). This air is higher in carbon dioxide and lower in oxygen. You have already coloured in the bronchi and trachea in a previous diagram. What colour are these structures? _________________________________________________________ Check your answer. Gas exchange – up close The alveoli provide a large surface area for a greater quantity of gas exchange. The moist, thin walls of the alveoli allows for rapid diffusion of oxygen into the blood and carbon dioxide out of the blood. Without moisture, the gases would not be able to dissolve and move across the thin membranes. The diagram on the following page shows the exchange of gases between the alveoli and the capillaries on a microscopic scale. 8 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Label the following structures on the diagram below. The labels appear in italics. 1 The dark arrow at the top of the diagram indicates blood low in oxygen and high in carbon dioxide from the body. 2 The structure surrounding the alveoli cavity is the blood capillary. 3 The wall surrounding the alveoli cavity is the wall of alveolus. 4 The double headed arrow indicates inhaled and exhaled air. 5 Each circle inside the blood capillary represent a blood cell. 6 The arrow from the blood capillary into the alveoli cavity indicates movement of carbon dioxide. 7 The arrow from the alveoli cavity to the blood capillary indicates oxygen movement. 8 The dark arrow at the bottom of the diagram indicates blood flow to the body, high in oxygen and low in carbon dioxide. Exchange of gases at the alveoli in the lungs. Check your answers. Part 5: Breathing easy 9 How do I breathe? Have you ever wondered how your body works to exchange gases with the air? Do you have any ideas? See if your ideas are correct by reading the following. There are two ways gases move. These are by diffusion and across pressure gradients. Your lungs utilise differences in pressure to draw air into your lungs and expel air from the lungs. The structures most responsible for causing this difference in pressure are the diaphragm (die–ah–fram). Locate the diaphragm on the diagram below. Gases always move from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure. For you to inhale, your lungs must have lower pressure than the pressure outside your body. The air will move from high pressure outside your body to the area of low pressure inside your lungs. For you to exhale, your lungs must have higher pressure than the pressure outside your body for the air to move from high to low pressure, out of the body. Did you find that explanation confusing? The following activity may help. 10 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold You should have seen weather maps that have areas of high (H) and areas of low (L) pressure. High and low pressures are indicated on the lungs below as H and L inside circles. 1 Draw arrows pointing from the H to the L through the trachea on the lungs below, as this shows movement of air from high pressure to low pressure. 2 Circle the correct word in the sentence below each diagram. L mouth and nose cavity L trachea L L H H lung L L This diagram shows a person inhaling/exhaling. mouth and nose cavity H H trachea H H L L lung H H The diagram shows a person inhaling/exhaling. Part 5: Breathing easy 11 You may be wondering how the lungs can alter their pressure from high to low. The diaphragm is primarily responsible for this. So how does it work? The process is really quite simple. Refer to the diagrams below. high pressure low pressure low pressure • As the diaphragm lowers through muscle contraction the lungs expand. • This creates low pressure inside the lungs. • The air then moves from high pressure outside the lungs to low pressure inside the lungs. • As the diaphragm rises through muscle relaxation the air inside the lungs experiences high pressure. • The air then moves out of the lungs from high pressure to low pressure. lung diaphragm lowers low pressure high pressure high pressure lung diaphragm rises 3 Explain how you inhale. ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ 4 Explain how you exhale. ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ Check your answers. 12 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Turn to Exercise 5.2 at the back of this part to investigate the action of the diaphragm in inhalation and exhalation. Exhaling carbon dioxide How do you know the air you exhale has a higher concentration of carbon dioxide than the air you inhale? We know that limewater (calcium hydroxide and water) turns from clear to a milky colour when in the presence of carbon dioxide. The calcium hydroxide reacts chemically with the carbon dioxide to form calcium carbonate. In this activity you will need a small amount of lime (a source of calcium hydroxide). You may be able to obtain this from your teacher, a bricklayer or builder or a hardware store. Turn to Exercise 5.3 at the back of this part to investigate carbon dioxide in exhaled air. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation Do you remember how the heart works from Part 1? The heart keeps blood pumping to the lungs and body. See if you can fill in the missing words in the sentences below. 1 Blood, which is low in ________________ and rich in ____________ ________________ is pumped from the _____________ to the lungs. 2 Here, the blood exchanges carbon dioxide for ______________ in the _______________, then travels back to the heart where it is pumped around the _________________. Check your answers before moving on. What if the heart stops? Blood can’t be pumped to the lungs to take oxygen to the cells. The body would starve for oxygen and cells would begin to die. You are capable of keeping a person alive when their heart has stopped. It is likely you already know how to apply cardiopulmonary Part 5: Breathing easy 13 resuscitation (CPR). CPR consists of both expired air resuscitation (EAR), filling the lungs with air, and external cardiac compression (ECC), keeping the heart pumping blood. The diagram on the following page shows two students practicing CPR (EAR and ECC) on a dummy. Never practice CPR on anybody whose heart is already beating. Students practising CPR on a dummy model of a human being (student on the left ECC, student on the right EAR). External cardiac compression (ECC) is applied to the sternum (breastbone) of a person who is unconscious and without a pulse. The action of pressing on the sternum, directly above the heart (at one second intervals) keeps blood pumping around the body. Expired air resuscitation (EAR) applied in conjunction with CPR provides the blood with oxygen. This is achieved by exhaling air into the victim’s lungs. The application of ECC and EAR can mean the difference between life and death. If body cells can continue to exchange carbon dioxide with oxygen in the blood, cells can be kept alive until the body can resume normal functions. 3 Answer the following question as you would if you were sitting your final HSC exam. Your answer should be explanatory and concise. Explain why cardiopulmonary resuscitation techniques can maintain life when the heart has ceased beating. ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ Check your answers. There are other ways a person may be kept alive when the heart has stopped beating. These are called life support systems. 14 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Life support systems Medical engineers have developed several devices that will sustain human life. This section looks in detail at the various life support systems in use in major hospitals. University students often sit in lecture theatres, jotting down relevant notes from information given orally by a lecturer. For this activity, imagine you are a university student. Your lecturer gives you a hand out, outlining what the lecture will be about. The points on the handout include: • life support devices in major hospitals • the function of artificial lungs • the types of operations requiring use of an artificial lung • life support monitoring devices. This list gives you some guidance on what you should take notes on during the lecture. Listen to the Life support systems section of the Bionics audiotape/internet audio files. Imagining you are a university student, take your own notes based on the information in the lecture. Room for your notes is provided below and on the following page. _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ Part 5: Breathing easy 15 _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ Turn to Exercise 5.4 at the back of this part to explain the roles of specific devices in maintaining life. 16 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Summary Have fun filling in the blanks below. Part 5: Breathing easy 17 18 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Appendix 1 Part 5: Breathing easy 19 20 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Appendix 2 Artificial respirator. Heart monitor and defibrillator Part 5: Breathing easy 21 external fitting implant several feet long a thousand hollow fibre membranes carbon dioxide oxygen helium } several millimetres to fit into a vein expanding helium balloon Artificial lung. A heart lung machine. Accessed from <www.njbusinessguide.con//riz/heart–_lung_machine.htm> Downloaded 28 November 2000. 22 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Suggested answers The respiratory system 1 Oxygen enters the body through the lungs. 2 Water is filtered by the kidneys and exits the body through the urinary system and perspiration. Some water escapes in exhaled air. 3 Carbon dioxide leaves the body through the lungs. Structure of the respiratory system The site of most gas exchange is the alveoli. Alveoli and gas exchange The bronchi are coloured orange; the trachea, red. Gas exchange – up close blood from body (low in oxygen, high in carbon dioxide) blood capillary wall of alveolus air inhaled air exhaled carbon dioxide oxygen blood cell Part 5: Breathing easy blood to rest of body (high in oxygen, low in carbon dioxide) 23 How do I breathe? 1 L mouth and nose cavity L trachea L L H H lung L L The diagram shows a person exhaling. mouth and nose cavity 2 H H trachea H H L L lung H H The diagram shows a person inhaling. 3 The diaphragm lowers causing low pressure inside the lungs. The higher pressure outside the body causes air to move from high to low pressure, into the lungs, causing inhalation. 4 As the diaphragm rises, the lungs experience a higher pressure than the air outside the body. The air moves from high pressure to low pressure, causing air to move out of the lungs as exhalation. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation 24 1 Blood, which is low in oxygen and rich in carbon dioxide is pumped from the heart to the lungs. 2 Here the blood exchanges carbon dioxide for oxygen in the alveoli, then travels back to the heart where it is pumped around the body. 3 CPR techniques use chest compressions above the heart to keep blood pumping around the body, delivering life–giving oxygen to body cells. This can keep a person alive until the body can resume its normal functioning. Other answers are acceptable. Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Exercises - Part 5 Exercises 5.1 to 5.4 Name: _________________________________ Exercise 5.1 Many technological developments have allowed the body to be studied in great detail. Choose two such technological developments (some ideas are available on page 4). For each of the two technological developments: • state the technological development • briefly explain what the technology does or what it is used for • explain how knowledge of the body and how the body works has improved as a result of this technology • clearly identify your source of information by stating: the author; date of publication; title of the book or article; publisher; the place of publication or the website address. (You may also attach copies of the information you used.) Tick the sources of information you are able to access below. books and encyclopedias from your school library or local library Internet local hospital staff local surgery telephone contact with major hospitals other A table is available for your answer on the following page. Part 5: Breathing easy 25 Technological development Technological development Use of technology Use of technology How knowledge of the body has improved with this technology How knowledge of the body has improved with this technology Source of information Source of information 26 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Exercise 5.2 Turn to the diagrams in Appendix 1 which demonstrate an experiment. These diagrams show the action of the diaphragm in expanding the lungs. Use the diagrams in Appendix 1 to complete the following. 1 Write an aim for this experiment. _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ 2 Record all the apparatus present in the diagrams. _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ 3 Once the apparatus is assembled, explain what is manipulated to cause the apparatus to work. _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ You may refer to page 11 and 12 which discusses high and low pressure associated with the movement of air in the lungs to help you complete the following questions. 4 Cut out the diagram from Appendix 1 showing the expanded balloons and glue it below on the left. With reference to areas of high and low pressure inside the balloon and outside the jar, explain why the balloons in the bell jar have expanded. _____________________ _____________________ _____________________ _____________________ _____________________ _____________________ _____________________ _____________________ Part 5: Breathing easy 27 5 Cut out and glue in the diagram from Appendix 1 with the deflated balloons. With reference to areas of high and low pressure, explain why the balloons are deflated. _____________________ _____________________ _____________________ _____________________ _____________________ _____________________ _____________________ _____________________ 6 You know that the diaphragm is important for the action of breathing. Explain how the pictures demonstrate the diaphragm’s action of drawing air into the lungs and expelling air from the lungs. Use the following terms and highlight each of them in your explanation: • high pressure • low pressure • expand • deflate • diaphragm • down • up. ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ 28 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Exercise 5.3 The materials you will need for this activity are italicised in the sentences below. Search through the text for these items and collect them before beginning your experiment. Make sure you read and heed the safety warnings before you use lime. 1 Limewater is made by adding a small amount of lime (lime can be obtained from a bricklayer, builder or hardware store) in a medium jar with 2 cups of water. Shake well. Keep the lime away from your eyes and skin. Lime or limewater in the eyes must be immediately washed away with lots of water. Allow the jar to stand until the water appears clear and the excess calcium hydroxide has settled to the bottom. Leave overnight with the jar covered to minimise exposure to the air. 2 Gently pour the same amount of the clear liquid into two small clean glasses, being careful not to disturb the calcium hydroxide on the bottom of the jar. 3 For one of the samples of clear liquid, whisk it for one minute with a small whisk or with a fork. 4 Was there any change in the colour of the liquid? Record your observations below. _____________________________________________________ 5 Use the information on page 13 to explain what your observation indicates. _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ 6 Use a straw to blow air from your lungs into the second sample of clear liquid for one minute. Ensure that you blow through the straw; do not draw liquid up the straw. 7 What observation did you make? _____________________________________________________ 8 Use the information on page 13 to explain what your observation indicates. _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ Part 5: Breathing easy 29 ______________________________________________________ 9 Which sample contains the greater concentration of carbon dioxide? Explain why. ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ Exercise 5.4 Explain the role of two of the following devices in maintaining human life. • artificial respirator • artificial lung • heart lung machine • monitoring devices _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ 30 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Senior Science HSC Course Stage 6 Medical technology – bionics Part 6: Peek-a-boo 0 20 In r e to b T S c O EN g in D M t a r EN o p r co A M 2 Senior Science Stage 6 HSC Course Lifestyle chemistry Medical technology – bionics • Spare parts • Fixing a broken heart • Heart to heart • Bone to bone • Breathing easy • Peek–a–boo Information systems Option Gill Sans Bold Contents Introduction ............................................................................... 2 Non-invasive medical techniques .............................................. 3 X-rays....................................................................................................4 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) ....................................................4 Ultrasound ............................................................................................5 Thermography ......................................................................................7 Minimally invasive medical techniques...................................... 9 Appendix 1 .............................................................................. 11 Appendix 2 .............................................................................. 13 Suggested answers................................................................. 15 Exercises – Part 6 ................................................................... 17 Part 6: Peek-a-boo 1 Introduction Part 6 gives you opportunities to learn the different non–invasive and minimally invasive medical techniques. You will also revise Parts 1–6 while completing an open book practice test. In this part you will be given opportunities to learn to: • discuss the terms non–invasive and minimally invasive in relation to medical techniques • identify non–invasive diagnostic techniques including X–rays, ultrasound, thermography and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and discuss their importance in diagnostic medicine • describe the advantages of using minimally invasive surgery techniques such as keyhole surgery. In this part you will be given opportunities to: • identify data sources, gather, process, analyse and present information to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of non–invasive and minimally invasive medical techniques. Extracts from Senior Science Stage 6 Syllabus © Board of Studies NSW, November 2002. The most up-to-date version can be found at http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au/syllabus_hsc/index.html 2 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Non-invasive medical techniques You have worked well through Parts 1 to 5 to get to this point. You have read through several long appendices to gather information. The majority of information and instructions for Part 6 is presented on side B of the Bionics audiotape to allow you to gather information from an auditory, rather than visual source. You can also access the same auditory information through the www.lmpc.edu.au/science web site. Listen to the information and follow the instructions on the Non–invasive medical techniques section of the Bionics audiotape/internet audio files. The audio will instruct you as to how to complete the activities throughout this part. You will be introduced to various non–invasive medical techniques such as X–rays, magnetic resonance imaging, ultrasounds and thermography. 1 Define non–invasive medical techniques _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ 2 X–ray maps slices of the body to detect bone and tissue irregularities ultrasound detects irregularities in body temperature MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) detects irregularities in bones and soft tissues thermography detects irregularities in body soft tissue Check your answers. Part 6: Peek-a-boo 3 X–rays Spine X–ray. X–ray of large intestine. X–ray summary _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) Magnetic resonance image of the spinal column and ribs Magnetic resonance images of the spine Courtesy of Fran Philipson. MRI summary 4 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ Ultrasound image of inside the knee transducer computer knee The process involved in gaining an ultrasound image. Check your answers. Part 6: Peek-a-boo 5 area of ultrasound scan amniotic sac amniotic fluid 12 week foetus Examples of ultrasound images. Ultrasound summary _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ 6 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Thermography Part 6: Peek-a-boo 7 right leg left leg 5 4 4 3 2 2 1 3 4 4 2 3 2 3 3 1 4 3 3 A thermographic image of legs with injuries. Thermography summary _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ Turn to Exercise 6.1 at the back of this part to complete an activity on non–invasive medical techniques. 8 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Minimally invasive medical techniques Listen to the Minimally invasive medical techniques section of the Bionics audio to write your own points around the key hole diagram below. Part 6: Peek-a-boo 9 knee cap (patella) 1 5 4 2 3 Key hole surgery in knee joint. Check your answers. You may be able to access the www.lmpc.edu.au/science web site to view a short video of an arthroscopy. This video shows an operation on cartilage inside a knee using keyhole surgery. Turn to Exercise 6.2 at the back of this part to demonstrate your understanding of minimally invasive medical techniques. Turn to Exercise 6.3 at the back of this part to complete a practice test on the Medical technology – bionics module. 10 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Appendix 1 Fractured bone. Part 6: Peek-a-boo 11 12 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Appendix 2 3 1 2 4 6 5 7 Part 6: Peek-a-boo 8 9 13 14 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Suggested answers Non–invasive medical techniques 1 Non–invasive medical techniques are those that can give information about the body without physically invading or entering the body. 2 X–ray detects irregularities in bones. Ultrasound detects irregularities in body tissue. MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) maps slices of the body to detect bone and tissue irregularities. Thermography detects irregularities in body temperature. Ultrasound transducer transmits sound waves to the body collected sound waves are converted to a computer image reflected sound waves are collected by the transducer knee Part 6: Peek-a-boo image of inside the knee computer structures inside the knee reflect sound waves 15 Minimally invasive medical techniques knee cap (patella) 1 5 arthrscopic instrument arthroscope 4 2 3 ligament 16 cartilage Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Exercises - Part 6 Exercises 6.1 to 6.3 Name: _________________________________ Exercise 6.1 Write the type of non–invasive medical technique above each of the images and record the advantages and disadvantages for each. Advantages Part 6: Peek-a-boo Disadvantages Image 17 Exercise 6.2 a) Define minimally invasive surgery. ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ b) Explain the process of keyhole surgery as opposed to open surgery. ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ c) Explain the advantages of minimally invasive surgery. ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ d) Explain the major disadvantage of keyhole surgery. ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ e) Provide three examples of medical procedures that can be achieved through minimally invasive keyhole surgery. ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ f) Give three examples of interesting things you learned from the Minimally invasive medical techniques section of the Bionics audiotape. ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ 18 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold Exercise 6.3 This exercise is an open book practice test for Medical technology – bionics. Use Parts 1 – 6 to complete this exercise. Part A Multiple choice. Circle the letter of the most correct answer. 1 Specialised cells in the right atrium of the heart sends an electrical impulse which causes the heart to beat. The group of specialised cells is called the: (A) tricuspid valve (B) AV junction (C) bicuspid valve (D) sinoatrial node. 2 Ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) is used in: (A) all artificial heart valves (B) replacement silicone joints (C) large replacement joints (D) pacemakers. 3 The above diagram demonstrates a medical technique used to restore blood flow in a hardened artery. The medical technique is: (A) balloon angioplasty (B) stenting (C) cardiac catheterisation (D) thrombectomy. Part 6: Peek-a-boo 19 4 Which type of synovial joints do elbow and knee joints classify as? (A) hinge joints (B) pivot joints (C) ball and socket joints (D) sliding joints 5 The cochlear implant is an invention which: (A) replaces joints in the fingers and toes (B) aids hearing (C) replaces diseased heart valves (D) aids heart beat. 6 The invention that allowed heart surgery to take place successfully was: (A) pacemakers (B) artificial heart valves (C) the heart lung machine (D) the artificial lung. 7 C B A The labels A, B and C on the above diagram of the heart are respectively: (A) pulmonary artery, bicuspid valve, right atrium (B) right ventricle, bicuspid valve, pulmonary artery (C) left ventricle, tricuspid valve, pulmonary artery (D) right atrium, tricuspid valve, aorta. 20 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold 8 Which of the following is not a non–invasive medical technique? (A) X–ray (B) Magnetic resonance imaging (C) Keyhole surgery (D) Ultrasound 9 Silicone, titanium and chromium are useful material for implants because: (A) they are all light weight (B) they are all biocompatible (C) they are all durable (D) all of the above. 10 The heart valve disease which results in reduced blood flow to the body is: (A) insufficiency (B) arhythmia (C) atherosclerosis (D) fibrillation. Part B Short answer questions 11 a) Explain the role of the skeletal system in humans. _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ b) What is the function of cartilage in synovial joints? _________________________________________________ c) What two structures are joined by ligaments? _________________________________________________ d) What two structures are joined by tendons? _________________________________________________ e) Give one reason why synovial joints may need replacing in humans. _________________________________________________ Part 6: Peek-a-boo 21 12 a) Explain the action of heart valves in the heart. __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ b) Draw an example of an artificial heart valve in the space below. c) Explain how the artificial heart valve you drew above acts in the same way as a heart valve. __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ 13 a) Explain the role of the circulatory system. __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ b) Explain how cardiopulmonary resuscitation can maintain life when the heart has stopped beating. __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ 14 a) Identify two life support systems used in hospitals. __________________________________________________ b) Choose and circle the name of one of the life support systems stated above. Explain the role of this life support system in maintaining human life. __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ c) Outline one surgical procedure which can take place successfully as a result of this life support system. __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ 22 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold 15 a) Define the term non–invasive with regards to diagnostic medical techniques. _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ b) Define the term minimally invasive in terms of medical techniques. _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ c) Outline the advantages and disadvantages of key hole surgery. _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ Part C Extended answer questions 16 a) Explain why the heart makes a double beat sound. _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ b) Explain two conditions which can cause abnormal heartbeat. _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ c) Explain how a pacemaker implant can help maintain a regular heartbeat. _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ Part 6: Peek-a-boo 23 17 B A a) What ball and socket joint does the above artificial joint replace in humans? __________________________________________________ b) What is the artificial thigh piece labelled ‘A’ above made of? __________________________________________________ c) What is the structure labelled ‘B’ in the above diagram made of? __________________________________________________ d) Explain why the structure labeled ‘B’ degrades faster than the structure labeled ‘A’ in the above diagram. __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ e) Explain how uncemented implants attach to bone for stability. __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ 24 Medical technology – bionics Gill Sans Bold 18 a) Explain the term atherosclerosis. _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ b) What causes atherosclerosis? _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ c) How can atherosclerosis be prevented? _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ d) Explain two medical procedures which restore blood flow to and from the heart through arteries affected by atherosclerosis. Accompany each explanation with a diagram demonstrating the procedure. i) ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ii) ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ Part 6: Peek-a-boo 25 Student evaluation Name: _______________________ Location: ______________________ We need your input! Can you please complete this short evaluation to provide us with information about this module. This information will help us to improve the design of these materials for future publications. 1 Did you find the information in the module clear and easy to understand? _____________________________________________________ 2 What did you most like learning about? Why? _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ 3 Which sort of learning activity did you enjoy the most? Why? _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ 4 Did you complete the module within 30 hours? (Please indicate the approximate length of time spent on the module.) _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ 5 Do you have access to the appropriate resources? eg. a computer, the internet, scientific equipment, chemicals, people that can provide information and help with understanding science _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ Please return this information to your teacher, who will pass it along to the materials developers at OTEN – DE. SSCHSC43169 Medical technologybionics Learning Materials Production Open Training and Education Network – Distance Education NSW Department of Education and Training