Spanish colonization of the Americas
1
Spanish colonization of the Americas
The Spanish Colonization of America was the exploration, conquest,
settlement and political rule over much of the western hemisphere by
the Spanish Empire. It was initiated by the Spanish conquistadors and
developed by the Monarchy of Spain through its administrators and
missionaries. The motivations for colonial expansion were trade and
the spread of the Christian faith through indigenous conversions. It
lasted for over four hundred years, from 1492 to 1898.
Beginning with the 1492 arrival of Christopher Columbus, over nearly
four centuries the Spanish Empire would expand across: most of
present day Central America, the Caribbean islands, and Mexico; much
of the rest of North America including the Southwestern, Southern
coastal, and California Pacific Coast regions of the United States; and
though inactive, with claimed territory in present day British Columbia
Canada; and U.S. states of Alaska, Washington, and Oregon; and the
western half of South America.[1] [2] [3] In the early 19th century the
revolutionary movements resulted in the independence of most Spanish
colonies in America, except for Cuba and Puerto Rico, given up in
1898 following the Spanish-American War, together with Guam and
the Philippines in the Pacific. Spain's loss of these last territories
politically ended Spanish colonization in America. The cultural
influences, though, still remain.
Farthest extent of Spanish colonization in
America.
Red: Farthest extent of Spanish colonies under
the House of Bourbon in the 1790s.
Pink: Disputed claims of Spanish colonial
administration.
Purple: Portuguese colonies under dual Spanish
colonial administration during 1580-1640.
Exploration
Christopher Columbus
Since the early 15th century, Portuguese explorers sailing caravels established new southward routes along the coast
of West Africa. In 1488 they rounded the Cape of Good Hope and explored parts of East Africa. They discovered
rich trading regions in the Indonesian continent and established several trading ports along the West Indonesia coast,
and later India.
In 1485 Christopher Columbus unsuccessfully tried to persuade King John II of Portugal (João II) to sponsor an
expedition to Asia by sailing west across the Atlantic Ocean. This alternative route, different from the theoretical
eastward route, was based on the conviction that the earth was round. His proposal was rejected by the Portuguese,
who thought the distance to Asia was much greater than Columbus had assured. In 1488 again he presented his plan
to the Portuguese King, who refused based on the recent discovery by Bartholomeu Dias of the eastward route along
the African coast and across the Indian Ocean.
Columbus was more persuasive with the Catholic Monarchs of Spain: recently crowned Isabella I Queen of Castile
and her husband Ferdinand II King of Aragon. Although he presented his plan as early as 1486, his arguments for
reaching Asian trade centers by sailing West across the Atlantic Ocean did not convince the Spanish Monarchs until
1491. Queen Isabella played a decisive role in the decision of supporting Colombus' plans.
Finally, in August 1492 Colombus sailed from the Andalusian port of Palos de la Frontera in Southern Spain.
Columbus arrived on the island of Guanahani in the Bahamas on October 12, 1492. On this first voyage, Columbus
and his sailors were greeted by the Arawak people of the Bahamas. They were kind and curious people who brought
Spanish colonization of the Americas
them food, water and gifts. Columbus later wrote in his log: ....They would make fine servants.... With fifty men we
could subjugate them all and make them do whatever we want. In the year of 1495, Columbus and his sailors
rounded up fifteen hundred Arawak men, women and children. Out of those fifteen hundred, they picked five
hundred of the best specimens and out of those five hundred, two hundred died en route.[4] He presented the Spanish
monarchs with small items of gold, parrots, and other 'exotic' things. They commissioned Columbus for a second
voyage, providing him with seventeen ships, nearly 1,500 men, cannons, crossbows, guns, cavalry, and attack dogs.
He returned to claim the island of Hispaniola, present day Haiti and the Dominican Republic, from the indigenous
Taíno people in 1493.
Columbus was granted governorship of the new territories and made more journeys across the Atlantic Ocean. While
generally regarded as an excellent navigator, during this first stay in the New World, Columbus wrecked his
flagship, the Santa Maria. He was a poor administrator and was stripped of the governorship in 1500, and in fact was
jailed for six weeks once he returned to Spain. Spain then agreed to fund a fourth voyage, but Columbus could not be
governor again.
He profited by using the labour of native slaves for agriculture and to mine gold. He attempted to sell native people
as slaves in Spain, bringing five hundred people back. The Taínos began to resist the Spanish, refusing to plant and
abandoning captured native villages. Over time the rebellion grew violent. In the resulting conflict, the native
inhabitants used their extensive knowledge of the terrain and applied guerilla tactics such as booby traps, ambushes,
attrition, and forced marches to tire the Spanish columns. Although stone arrows couldn't penetrate the best of the
Spanish armor, they were somewhat effective if they were used as shrapnel, since they tended to shatter on impact;
stone and copper or bronze maces were used more effectively. However, the most crucial weapon the native
Americans used was the sling, which could hurl massive stones that easily crushed even the most heavily armoured
caballero.[5]
In 1522, a Taíno Cacique named Enriquillo waged a successful rebellion causing the Spaniards to sign a treaty
granting the Indian population the rights of Freedom and of Possession. It had little consequence however, as by then
the Taíno population was rapidly declining due to European diseases, forced labour, and ritual suicides. The Taíno
often refused to participate in activities forced upon them by the Spanish which resulted in suicide. Their children
were killed as a perceived escape from a terrible future.
On his fourth and final voyage to America in 1502, Columbus encountered a large canoe off the coast of what is now
Honduras filled with trade goods. He boarded the canoe and found cacao beans, copper and flint axes, copper bells,
pottery, and colorful cotton garments. This was the first contact of the Spanish with the civilizations of Central
America.
2
Spanish colonization of the Americas
3
First mainland explorations
In 1513, Vasco Núñez de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama, to find gold but instead led the first European
expedition to the Pacific Ocean and the west coast of the New World. In an action with enduring historical import,
Balboa claimed the Pacific Ocean and all the lands adjoining it for the Spanish Crown. It was 1517 before another
expedition from Cuba explored Central America. It landed on the coast of the Yucatán peninsula in search of slaves.
Conquests
First settlements in America
The first mainland explorations were followed by a
phase of inland expeditions and conquest. The Spanish
crown extended the Reconquista effort, completed in
Spain in 1492, to non-Catholic people in new
territories. In 1502 on the coast of present day
Colombia, near the Gulf of Urabá, Spanish explorers
led by Vasco Núñez de Balboa explored and conquered
the area near the Atrato River. The conquest was of the
Chibchan speaking nations, mainly the Muisca and
Tairona indigenous people that lived here. The Spanish
founded San Sebastian de Uraba in 1509—abandoned
within the year, and in 1510 the first permanent
Spanish mainland settlement in America, Santa María
la Antigua del Darién. [6] These were the first European
settlements in America. The conquistadors were truly
amazed by what they found — immense wealth in gold
and silver, complex cities rivaling or surpassing those
in Europe, and remarkable artistic and scientific
achievements. Spanish conquest in the New World was
driven by the three 'G's—gold, glory, and gospel. [7] [8]
[9]
The expansion of Spanish colonization of the Americas during the
18th century.
Spanish colonization of the Americas
4
Mexico
There is a difference in the 'Spanish conquest of
Mexico' between the Spanish conquest of the Aztec
Empire and the Spanish conquest of Yucatán. The
former is conquest of the campaign, led by Hernán
Cortés from 1519–21 and his Tlaxcala and other
'indigenous peoples' allied against the Mexica/Aztec
empire. The Spanish conquest of Yucatán is the much
longer campaign, from 1551–1697, against the Maya
peoples of the Maya civilization in the Yucatán
Peninsula of present day Mexico and northern Central
America. The day Hernán Cortés landed ashore at
present day Veracruz, April 22, 1519, marks the
beginning of 300 years of Spanish hegemony over the
region.
Spanish Conquest of Mexico
Map depicting Cortes' invasion route.
Spanish colonization of the Americas
Peru
In 1532 at the Battle of Cajamarca a group of Spanish
soldiers under Francisco Pizarro and their indigenous
Andean Indian auxiliaries native allies ambushed and
captured the Emperor Atahualpa of the Inca Empire. It
was the first step in a long campaign that took decades
of fighting to subdue the mightiest empire in the
Americas. In the following years Spain extended its rule
over the Empire of the Inca civilization.
The Spanish took advantage of a recent civil war
between the factions of the two brothers Emperor
Atahualpa and Huáscar, and the enmity of indigenous
nations the Incas had subjugated, such as the Huancas,
Chachapoyas, and Cañaris. In the following years the
conquistadors and indigenous allies extended control
over the greater Andes region. The Viceroyalty of Perú
was established in 1542.
Governing
Spain's administration of its colonies in the Americas
was divided into the Viceroyalty of New Spain 1535
(capital, México City), and the Viceroyalty of Peru
1542 (capital, Lima). In the 18th century the additional
Vasco Núñez de Balboa claiming possession of the South Sea
(Pacific Ocean)
Viceroyalty of New Granada 1717 (capital, Bogotá),
and Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata 1776 (capital, Buenos
Aires) were established from portions of the Viceroyalty of Peru.
This evolved from the Council of the Indies and Viceroyalties into an Intendant system, in an attempt for more
revenue and efficiency.
19th century
During the Peninsular War in Europe between France and Spain, assemblies called juntas were established to rule in
the name of Ferdinand VII of Spain. The Libertadores (Spanish and Portuguese for "Liberators") were the principal
leaders of the Latin American wars of independence from Spain. They were predominantly criollos (local-born
people of European, mostly of Spanish or Portuguese, ancestry), bourgeois and influenced by liberalism and in most
cases with military training in the mother country.
5
Spanish colonization of the Americas
6
In 1809 the first declarations of independence from Spanish
rule occurred in the Viceroyalty of New Granada. The first
two were in present day Bolivia at Sucre (May 25), and La
Paz ( July 16); and the third in present day Ecuador at Quito
(August 10). In 1810 Mexico declared independence, with
the Mexican War of Independence following for over a
decade. In 1821 Treaty of Córdoba established Mexican
independence from Spain and concluded the War. The Plan
of Iguala was part of the peace treaty to establish a
constitutional foundation for an independent Mexico.
These began a movement for colonial independence that
spread to Spain's other colonies in the Americas. The ideas
from the French and the American Revolution influenced the
efforts. All of the colonies, except Cuba and Puerto Rico,
attained independence by the 1820s. The British Empire
offered support, wanting to end the Spanish monopoly on
trade with its colonies in the Americas.
Map depicting the route of Pizarro from Panama to Cuzco
In 1898, the United States won victory in the Spanish-American War from Spain, ending the colonial era. The U.S.
took occupation of Cuba, the Philippines, and Puerto Rico. The latter continues as a self-governing unincorporated
territory of the United States.
Spanish possession and rule of colonies in the Americas ended in 1898.
Cultural impact
Indigenous peoples (Native Americans)
The cultures and populations of the indigenous peoples of the Americas were changed by the Spanish assumption
and colonization of their lands.
Before the arrival of Columbus, in Hispaniola the indigenous Taíno pre-contact population of several hundred
thousand declined to sixty thousand by 1509. Although population estimates vary, Father Bartolomé de las Casas,
the “Defender of the Indians” estimated there were 6 million (6,000,000) Taíno and Arawak in the Caribbean at the
time of Columbus's arrival in 1492.
The population of the Native Amerindian population in Mexico declined by an estimated 90% (reduced to 1 - 2.5
million people) by the early 17th century. In Peru the indigenous Amerindian pre-contact population of around 6.5
million declined to 1 million by the early 17th century.
Of the history of the indigenous population of California, Sherburne F. Cook (1896–1974) was the most
painstakingly careful researcher. From decades of research he made estimates for the pre-contact population and the
history of demographic decline during the Spanish and post-Spanish periods. According to Cook, the indigenous
Californian population at first contact, in 1769, was about 310,000 and had dropped to 25,000 by 1910. The vast
Spanish colonization of the Americas
majority of the decline happened after the Spanish period, in the Mexican and U.S. periods of Californian history
(1821–1910), with the most dramatic collapse (200,000 to 25,000) occurring in the U.S. period (1846–1910).[10] [11]
[12]
Missionary effort
The Spaniards were committed, by Vatican decree, to convert their New World indigenous subjects to Catholicism.
However, often initial efforts were questionably successful, as the indigenous people added Catholicism into their
longstanding traditional ceremonies and beliefs. The many native expressions, forms, practices, and items of art
could be considered idolatry and prohibited or destroyed by Spanish missionaries, military, and civilians. This
included religious items, sculptures, and jewelry made of gold or silver, which were melted down before shipment to
Spain.
Though the Spanish did not impose their language to the extent they did their religion, some indigenous languages of
the Americas evolved into replacement with Spanish, and lost to present day tribal members. When more efficient
they did evangelize in native languages. Introduced writing systems to the Quechua, Nahuatl and Guarani peoples
may have contributed to their expansion.
Spanish emigration
It has been estimated that in the 16th century about 240,000 Spaniards emigrated to America, and in the 17th century
about 500,000, predominantly to Mexico and Peru.[13] In the early 20th century impoverished Spaniards, and from
the 1930s-70s political exiles from the Spanish Civil War and the Franco government, immigrated to the countries
that were former colonies in America - predominantly Cuba, Mexico, Costa Rica and Argentina. After the 1970s, the
direction reversed as Hispanic Americans began settling in Spain.
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
http:/ / cvc. cervantes. es/ obref/ aih/ pdf/ 03/ aih_03_1_013. pdf Study of the Instituto Cervantes
http:/ / www. histocat. cat/ pdf/ catalans_al_canada. pdf Study of the Fundació d'Estudis Històrics de Catalunya
http:/ / cesarfrijol. tripod. com/ virreynato. html Source in Spanish
Zinn, Howard (2003). A People's History Of The United States. New York: The New Press. pp. 281. ISBN 978-1-56584-724-8.
Jane Penrose. Slings in the Iron Age (http:/ / books. google. ca/ books?id=99haLasvV3gC& pg=PA139& lpg=PA139& dq=iron+ helmet+
sling& source=bl& ots=2fyIqj6k1u& sig=YXnWKDeXFwg5nHVjvwcutVDbTlU& hl=en& ei=-9YqTKXFBcP-8AaLq8jUCA& sa=X&
oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=7& ved=0CCYQ6AEwBg#v=onepage& q& f=false). . Retrieved 30 June 2010.
[6] http:/ / museo. udea. edu. co/ codice/ codice2/ mayolicas2. html
[7] "Error: no |title= specified when using {{[[Template:Cite web|Cite web (http:/ / www. u-s-history. com/ pages/ h436. html)]}}"]. .
[8] http:/ / www. lablaa. org/ blaavirtual/ historia/ equinoccial_2_vivienda/ cap21. htm
[9] http:/ / www. teleantioquia. com. co/ TeleantioquiaensuRegion/ Uraba/ Historia. htm
[10] Baumhoff, Martin A. 1963. Ecological Determinants of Aboriginal California Populations. University of California Publications in
American Archaeology and Ethnology 49:155-236.
[11] Powers, Stephen. 1875. "California Indian Characteristics". Overland Monthly 14:297-309. on-line (http:/ / www. hti. umich. edu/ cgi/ t/
text/ pageviewer-idx?c=moajrnl& cc=moajrnl& idno=ahj1472. 1-14. 004& node=ahj1472. 1-14. 004:1& frm=frameset& view=image&
seq=293)
[12] Cook's judgement on the effects of U.S rule upon the native Californians is harsh: "The first (factor) was the food supply... The second
factor was disease. ...A third factor, which strongly intensified the effect of the other two, was the social and physical disruption visited upon
the Indian. He was driven from his home by the thousands, starved, beaten, raped, and murdered with impunity. He was not only given no
assistance in the struggle against foreign diseases, but was prevented from adopting even the most elementary measures to secure his food,
clothing, and shelter. The utter devastation caused by the white man was literally incredible, and not until the population figures are examined
does the extent of the havoc become evident."Cook, Sherburne F. 1976b. The Population of the California Indians, 1769-1970. University of
California Press, Berkeley|p. 200
[13] Migration to Latin America (http:/ / www. let. leidenuniv. nl/ history/ migration/ chapter53. html)
7
Spanish colonization of the Americas
Further reading
• David A. Brading, The First America: The Spanish Monarchy, Creole Patriots, and the Liberal State, I492-1867
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993
External links
• Spanish Exploration and Conquest of North America (http://www.vaca.com/)
• NPS/INAH: Spanish Colonial Missions Initiative (http://www.statemuseum.arizona.edu/oer/missionsini/
index.shtml)
• Spain in America (Edward Gaylord Bourne, 1904) 'Spain in America' (http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/
Gazetteer/Places/America/United_States/_Topics/history/_Texts/BOUSIA/home.html)
• The Spanish Borderlands (Herbert E. Bolton, 1921) 'The Spanish Borderlands' (http://penelope.uchicago.edu/
Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/America/United_States/_Topics/history/_Texts/BOLSPB/home.html)
• Indigenous Puerto Rico DNA evidence upsets established history (http://www.centrelink.org/KearnsDNA.
html)
8
Article Sources and Contributors
Article Sources and Contributors
Spanish colonization of the Americas Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=440436178 Contributors: .marc., ABF, Adornix, Afabbro, Againme, Aksi great, Alai, Alamawi,
Alansohn, AlasdairGreen27, Albrecht, Ale jrb, AlexiusHoratius, Ali, AllGloryToTheHypnotoad, Andonic, Andre Engels, Anetode, Angelic Wraith, Antandrus, Aocom teh spritar, Arthena, Arthur
Rubin, Ashdod, Asocall, AusJeb, Babuddha, Balajisriram, Baloo rch, BashBrannigan, Beano, Belissette, Belligero, BigDunc, Bill Thayer, Bk0, Bkonrad, Bluemask, Bogey97, Bolivian Unicyclist,
BrianGV, Brianpetersn, Brion VIBBER, Brunnock, Bsadowski1, C.Kent87, CGarland356, CO, Cajamarca express, Calmer Waters, Caltas, CanadianLinuxUser, Capit, Capricorn42,
Captain-n00dle, Cchardman, Cesar Tort, Chnou, Chowchowstupids, Chris G, Chrishmt0423, ChristineStoddard, Christopher Parham, Ciaramsamuelson, Closedmouth, ClovisPt, Cmdrjameson,
Coffee, ColdShine, Corriebertus, Cotoco, Crazycomputers, Cremepuff222, Cureden, D'lin, D6, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DBaba, DO'Neil, DPdH, DSRH, DTMGO, DaltinWentsworth,
DarkStudent666, Darkwind, DavidLevinson, Dawn Bard, Decumanus, Deltabeignet, Dentren, Dhp1080, DocendoDiscimus, Download, Dr Zak, Draeco, Drfryer, Dynamax, EdJohnston,
Eluchil404, Epbr123, Eric119, Error, EspanaViva, Eugene-elgato, Euyyn, Everyking, Excirial, Fabs1, Farquaadhnchmn, Fartherred, Fatius21v2, Feeltheoffbeat, Feinoha, Feťour, Fingers-of-Pyrex,
Foant, Foobaz, Fox Mccloud, Freako441, Fredbauder, Funnyhat, GCarty, Gabrielzorz, Gail, Gary King, GenQuest, Gerardo Campos, Gimferrer, Gomm, Grafen, Grimhelm, Gsd97jks, Gurch,
Gustavobernhardt, Gzkn, Hajor, Hbent, Headbomb, Helixblue, Hephaestos, HiDrNick, Hmains, IANVS, Igoldste, IllGoWiki, Immunize, Infrogmation, InternetHero, Iridescent, It Is Me Here,
Itai, Ixfd64, J.delanoy, JASpencer, JCRB, JMejia7704, JMilty, JNW, JPMcGrath, JW1805, JaGa, Jam01, Jano, Javert, Jcmenal, Jengod, Jennavecia, Jfdontigny, JimWae, Joe Kress, Johan
Magnus, John Doe42, John of Reading, Jolivio, Jorge Stolfi, Joseanfigueroa, Joseph Solis in Australia, Just H, Kaare, KapilTagore, Karl-Henner, Kbh3rd, Kcowolf, Keilana, Kemet, Kikos,
Killiondude, Kimbly, Kingturtle, Kman543210, KnowledgeOfSelf, Koven.rm, Krawi, Kwiki, L Kensington, Latka, Law, Lazar Taxon, Lcawte, Ldemery, Legion fi, Leszek Jańczuk, Lightmouse,
Local hero, Look2See1, Lowe4091, Luka Jačov, Luwilt, Lyc. cooperi, Lynnegolach, MC10, MER-C, MaCRoEco, Magister Mathematicae, MarshalN20, Matt Yeager, Maunus, MichaelSH,
Mike6271, Mikm, Mild Bill Hiccup, Mimihitam, Miranda, Movera, Mwilso24, My76Strat, Mythdon, NawlinWiki, Ndyguy, NewEnglandYankee, NightMare079, Nihiltres, Nik42, Nishkid64,
Nlu, No Guru, NoIdeaNick, NoSeptember, NorCalHistory, NoraBG, North Shoreman, Nothingofwater, Now2blue, Nuninho Martins, O, Ocaasi, Olivier, Omicronpersei8, Onofre Bouvila,
Oxymoron83, PFHLai, Pablo-flores, Pablo2, Pacaro, Pacific Coast Highway, Pearle, Pedant, Pepper, Perkeleperkele, Persian Poet Gal, Peruvianllama, Pfly, Pgk, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Philip
Trueman, Philippe, Pigman, Pilgab, Pinethicket, Pinkadelica, Provocateur, Pseudo-Richard, Qaddosh, Quazgaa, R'n'B, Radak, Raidon Kane, Ramirez72, RandyUang, Raven in Orbit, Rhopkins8,
Rich Farmbrough, Richc80, Rid1982, Rmhermen, RobertG, Robertico, Robyvecchio, Ronbarak, Roy da Vinci, Ruddyjohn, S3000, SMcCandlish, Sannse, Sciurinæ, Seraphael, Serein (renamed
because of SUL), Shadowjams, Shahid.ki.mom.ka.yar, Shoessss, Simon Burchell, Sintaku, Skysmith, Snowolf, Spellcast, SpiceMan, Sportyhypergirl, StaticGull, Stbalbach, Super wiki editor,
Sverdrup, Swid, Synchronism, TShilo12, Tarret, Tcncv, Template namespace initialisation script, Tgator19, That Guy, From That Show!, The Epopt, The Ogre, The Random Editor, The
Rationalist, The Thing That Should Not Be, The monkeyhate, Thecidsound, Thesissylard, Thiseye, Tiddly Tom, Tide rolls, Tinton5, Tommy2010, TopazSun, Trasamundo, TriniMuñoz, Tt 225,
Twinkie eater91, Twinsday, UBn x Hellfire, UDScott, Uncle Dick, Unless 68, Uyvsdi, Vald, VandalCruncher, Vassili Nikolaev, Velho, Venu62, Versus22, Verumest, Victor falk, Vrenator,
Vsmith, Wadefrazier, Wdflake, Wenli, Wetman, Whiner01, Who then was a gentleman?, Wiki alf, Wikipelli, Wingedsubmariner, Witan, Woohookitty, XPTO, Xiaphias, Yussef90, Zello,
Zleitzen, 986 anonymous edits
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
File:Spanish colonization of the Americas.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas.png License: Public Domain Contributors:
Users Albrecht, Arthur Wellesley, XGustaX on en.wikipedia
File:Spanish America XVIII Century (Most Expansion).png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Spanish_America_XVIII_Century_(Most_Expansion).png License: Public
Domain Contributors: Jluisrs
File:Spanish Colonization of Mexico.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Spanish_Colonization_of_Mexico.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Thomas
Townsend, Esq., London.
Image:Ruta de Cortés.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ruta_de_Cortés.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Yavidaxiu
Image:Balboa südsee.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Balboa_südsee.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Bryan, Calliopejen1, Cbrown1023, Polarlys,
Siebrand, Victor falk, 2 anonymous edits
Image:Conquest peru 1531.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Conquest_peru_1531.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: ALE!, Maksim, Man vyi, Searchme,
Trainthh
License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported
http:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/
9