preliminary biology

PRELIMINARY BIOLOGY Kerri Humphreys © Science Press 2007 First published 2007 Reprinted 2008, 2010 Science Press Private Bag 7023 Marrickville NSW 1475 Australia Tel: (02) 9516 1122 Fax: (02) 9550 1915 sales@sciencepress.com.au www.sciencepress.com.au All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of Science Press. ABN 98 000 073 861 Contents Introduction v Verbs to Watch vi Dot Points A Local Ecosystem vii Patterns in Nature ix Life on Earth xi Evolution of Australian Biota xiii Questions A Local Ecosystem 1 Patterns in Nature 21 Life on Earth 55 Evolution of Australian Biota 81 Answers A Local Ecosystem 109 Patterns in Nature 117 Life on Earth 129 Evolution of Australian Biota 137 Science Press Dot Point Preliminary Biology iii Contents Notes ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 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Science Press Contents iv Dot Point Preliminary Biology Introduction What the book includes ,QWKLVERRN\RXZLOO¿QGW\SLFDOH[DPLQDWLRQTXHVWLRQVDQGDQVZHUVIRUHDFKGRWSRLQWLQWKH%RDUGRI6WXGLHV syllabus for each topic in the Year 11 Biology course: $/RFDO(FRV\VWHP 3DWWHUQVLQ1DWXUH /LIHRQ(DUWK (YROXWLRQRI$XVWUDOLDQ%LRWD Also included are typical experimental results for students to analyse if the third column of the syllabus indicates WKDWVWXGHQWVVKRXOGFDUU\RXWµ¿UVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQV¶ Format of the book The book has been formatted in the following way: 1. Main topic statement (column 1 of syllabus) 1.1etc Syllabus requirement from columns 2 and 3. 1RWHWKDWWKHQXPEHULQJRIWKHVHUHTXLUHPHQWVLVWKHDXWKRU¶VFKRLFHDQGKDVEHHQXVHGWRPDNHUHIHUHQFLQJ TXHVWLRQVDQGDQVZHUVFOHDUHU7KHLQGLYLGXDOUHTXLUHPHQWVDUHQRWQXPEHUHGLQWKHV\OODEXVWKH\DUHVLPSO\ EXOOHWHG±KHQFHRXUXVHRIµGRWSRLQWV¶ZKHQZHUHIHUWRWKHP 1.1.1 )LUVWW\SLFDOTXHVWLRQZKLFKFRXOGEHDVNHGLQDQH[DPLQDWLRQIRUWKLVV\OODEXV UHTXLUHPHQW 1.1.2 6HFRQGW\SLFDOTXHVWLRQZKLFKFRXOGEHDVNHGLQDQH[DPLQDWLRQIRUWKLVV\OODEXV UHTXLUHPHQWHWF 7KHQXPEHURIOLQHVSURYLGHGIRUHDFKDQVZHUJLYHVDQLQGLFDWLRQRIKRZPDQ\PDUNVWKHTXHVWLRQPLJKWEH worth in an examination. As a rough rule, every two lines of answer might be worth one mark. Note that in PDQ\DQVZHUVWKUHHOLQHVKDYHEHHQSURYLGHGDVWKHDPRXQWRIZULWLQJUHTXLUHGH[FHHGVWZROLQHVEXWWKH biology involved is worth only one mark. How to use the book &RPSOHWLQJDOOTXHVWLRQVZLOOSURYLGH\RXZLWKDVXPPDU\RIDOOWKHZRUN\RXQHHGWRNQRZIURPWKHV\OODEXV You may have done work in addition to this with your teacher as extension work. Obviously this is not covered, but you may need to know this additional work for your school exams. :KHQZRUNLQJWKURXJKWKHTXHVWLRQVZULWHWKHDQVZHUV\RXKDYHWRORRNXSLQDGLIIHUHQWFRORXUWRWKRVH\RX NQRZZLWKRXWKDYLQJWRUHVHDUFKWKHZRUN7KLVZLOOSURYLGH\RXZLWKDTXLFNUHIHUHQFHWRZRUN\RXVKRXOG spend more time revising later, and allow you to spend your study time more productively. $WWKHHQGRIHDFKVHFWLRQLVDQµ$SSOLHG4XHVWLRQ¶7KLVTXHVWLRQOLQNVVHYHUDOGRWSRLQWVUHTXLULQJ\RXWR DQDO\VHLQIRUPDWLRQDQGVKRZUHODWLRQVKLSVEHWZHHQFRQFHSWV+LJKHURUGHUTXHVWLRQVLQWKH+6&H[DPLQDWLRQ UHTXLUHVWXGHQWVWRDQDO\VHDVVHVVHYDOXDWHDQGOLQNFRQFHSWVIURPGLIIHUHQWVHFWLRQVRIWKHV\OODEXV Science Press Dot Point Preliminary Biology v Introduction Verbs to Watch account, account for State reasons for, report on, give an account of, narrate a series of events or transactions. distinguish Recognise or note/indicate as being distinct or different from, note difference between things. analyse Identify components and the relationships among them, draw out and relate implications. evaluate Make a judgement based on criteria. examine ,QTXLUHLQWR apply Use, utilise, employ in a particular situation. explain Relate cause and effect, make the relationship between things evident, provide why and/or how. appreciate Make a judgement about the value of something. extract Choose relevant and/or appropriate details. assess 0DNHDMXGJHPHQWRIYDOXHTXDOLW\RXWFRPHV results or size. extrapolate Infer from what is known. calculate 'HWHUPLQHIURPJLYHQIDFWV¿JXUHVRULQIRUPDWLRQ identify Recognise and name. clarify Make clear or plain. interpret Draw meaning from. classify Arrange into classes, groups or categories. investigate 3ODQLQTXLUHLQWRDQGGUDZFRQFOXVLRQVDERXW compare Show how things are similar or different. justify Support an argument or conclusion. construct Make, build, put together items or arguments. outline Sketch in general terms; indicate the main features. contrast Show how things are different or opposite. predict Suggest what may happen based on available data. critically (analyse/evaluate) Add a degree or level of accuracy, depth, knowledge DQGXQGHUVWDQGLQJORJLFTXHVWLRQLQJUHÀHFWLRQDQG TXDOLW\WRDQDQDO\VLVRUHYDOXDWLRQ propose Put forward (a point of view, idea, argument, suggestion etc) for consideration or action. deduce Draw conclusions. recall Present remembered ideas, facts or experiences. GH¿QH 6WDWHWKHPHDQLQJRIDQGLGHQWLI\HVVHQWLDOTXDOLWLHV recommend Provide reasons in favour. demonstrate Show by example. recount Retell a series of events. describe Provide characteristics and features. summarise Express concisely the relevant details. discuss Identify issues and provide points for and against. synthesise Put together various elements to make a whole. Science Press Verbs to Watch vi Dot Point Preliminary Biology A Local Ecosystem Dot Point 1. Page Distribution, diversity and numbers determined by abiotic and biotic factors 2 1.1 Abiotic characteristics 2 1.2 Factors determining distribution and abundance 3 1.3 Photosynthesis and respiration 3 1.4 Uses of energy 3 5HVSLUDWLRQHTXDWLRQ ,QYHVWLJDWLRQ6DPSOLQJWHFKQLTXHV 1.7 Applied Question Section 1 6 2. Each ecosystem is unique 7 2.1 Population trends 7 3UHGDWRUSUH\QXPEHUV 2.3 Allelopathy, parasitism, mutualism and commensalism 9 Role of decomposers 9 2.4 Dot Point 2.5 Page Trophic interactions, food chains, webs, pyramids 10 Adaptation and problems inferring reason for adaptation 11 Examples of adaptations to factors in environment 11 2.8 Adaptations in local ecosystem 11 6KRUWWHUPDQGORQJWHUPLPSDFWV of competition 12 2.6 2.7 2.10 Human impact 12 2.11 Investigation: Field study 13 2.12 Food chains and webs 17 2.13 Analysis of ecosystem report 17 2.14 Applied Question Section 2 19 Answers to A Local Ecosystem 109 Science Press Dot Point Preliminary Biology vii A Local Ecosystem Notes ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 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Science Press A Local Ecosystem viii Dot Point Preliminary Biology Patterns in Nature Dot Point Page Dot Point Page 1. Organisms are made of cells 22 3.6 Shape and structure of leaves 39 1.1 Historical development cell theory 22 3.7 Teeth 40 1.2 Evidence to support cell theory 23 3.8 1.3 Technological advances and cell theory 23 Digestive systems of vertebrate herbivore and carnivore 40 1.4 Cell organelles and microscopes 23 1.5 Organelle structure and function 24 Investigation: Photosynthesis and light and chlorophyll 41 1.6 Investigation: Technology, the microscope and cell theory 1.7 1.8 Investigation: Cells under a light microscope 3.9 25 26 3.10 Investigation: Surface area and rate of reaction 42 3.11 Investigation: Digestive systems of herbivore, carnivore, nectar feeder 43 3.12 Applied Question Section 3 44 Investigation: Micrographs of organelles 27 4. Gas exchange and transport systems 45 1.9 Applied Question Section 1 28 4.1 2. Membranes separate and link cells with the environment Role of respiratory, circulatory, excretory systems 45 29 2.1 Major groups of substances in cells 29 *DVH[FKDQJHLQLQVHFW¿VKIURJ mammal 45 2.2 Movement into and out of cells 29 &HOOUHTXLUHPHQWVDQGWUDQVSRUWV\VWHPV 2.3 Current model of the cell membrane 30 4.4 Root hairs, xylem, phloem, stomates, lenticels 47 2.4 Diffusion and osmosis 30 4.5 Open and closed circulatory systems 48 2.5 Surface area to volume ratio and rate of reaction 31 4.6 ,QYHVWLJDWLRQ6XEVWDQFHLGHQWL¿FDWLRQ Investigation: Factors affecting rate of transpiration 48 2.7 Investigation: Cell membrane model 32 Investigation: Movement of materials in xylem or phloem 49 2.8 Investigation: Difference between osmosis and diffusion 33 Investigation: Technologies, radioisotopes and elements in plants and animals 49 2.9 Investigation: Surface area to volume ratio and rate of diffusion 2.10 Applied Question Section 2 3. 4.7 4.8 34 4.9 Applied Question Section 4 50 36 5. Growth and repair 51 5.1 Mitosis and its role 51 5.2 Sites of mitosis in plants, insects, mammals 51 51 Specialised structures to obtain nutrients 37 3.1 Cells, tissues, organs and systems 37 3.2 Autotrophs and heterotrophs 37 5.3 Cytokinesis 3.3 Materials for and role of photosynthesis 37 5.4 DNA in mitochondria, nuclei, chloroplasts 52 (TXDWLRQDQGVWHSVLQ photosynthesis reaction 5.5 Investigation: Mitosis in cells 52 38 5.6 Applied Question Section 5 54 Surface area of structures that obtain water 38 3.5 Answers to Patterns in Nature 117 Science Press Dot Point Preliminary Biology ix Patterns in Nature Notes ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 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Science Press Patterns in Nature x Dot Point Preliminary Biology Life on Earth Dot Point 1. Page Rocks provide evidence for origin of life on Earth 56 1.1 Early Earth and origin of molecules 56 1.2 Cosmos, organic chemicals and origin of life 56 Two theories of origin of organic chemicals 57 6LJQL¿FDQFHRI8UH\DQG0LOOHU experiment and primitive atmosphere 57 Changes in technology and increased understanding 58 Investigation: Urey and Miller experiment 59 1.7 Applied Question Section 1 60 2. The fossil record shows evolution of living things 61 1.3 1.5 1.6 2.2 Palaeontological and geological evidence 62 2.3 Anoxic to oxic atmosphere 63 6FLHQWL¿FNQRZOHGJHRULJLQRIOLIH and different cultures 64 Investigation: Timeline for evolution of life 64 2.6 Investigation: Plant and animal fossils 65 2.7 Investigation: Increased fossil record and new ideas on history of life 65 Applied Question Section 2 66 2.8 Further developments and discovery of new organisms increases understanding 67 3.1 Technology and procaryotes 67 3.2 Investigation: Environments past and present and procaryotes 67 Procaryotes and their role in their environment 69 Investigation: Diverse environments and alternatives for origin of life 70 3.5 Applied Question Section 3 72 4. Present-day organisms increase understanding of past 73 4.1 Need to classify 73 &ODVVL¿FDWLRQVHOHFWLRQFULWHULD 4.3 Levels of organisation 74 7HFKQRORJ\DQGFODVVL¿FDWLRQV\VWHPV 4.5 Binomial system 76 4.6 Classifying extinct organisms 76 &ODVVL¿FDWLRQDQGXQGHUVWDQGLQJOLIH on Earth 77 4.8 Investigation: Dichotomous keys 77 4.9 Applied Question Section 4 79 3.4 Major stages in evolution of living things 61 Page 3. 3.3 2.1 2.5 Dot Point Answers to Life on Earth 129 Science Press Dot Point Preliminary Biology xi Life on Earth Notes ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 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Science Press Life on Earth xii Dot Point Preliminary Biology Evolution of Australian Biota Dot Point Page 1. Continental drift and Australia 82 1.1 Australia, Gondwana and plate tectonics 82 1.2 Evolutionary relationships and megafauna 83 3UREOHPVDQGPLGRFHDQULGJHV 1.4 Investigation: The platypus 84 1.5 Applied Question Section 1 84 2. &KDQJHVLQ$XVWUDOLDQÀRUDDQGIDXQD 85 2.1 Variation in a species 85 2.2 Variation and survival of species 85 2.3 Evidence of changing Australian environments 86 2.4 Australia and temperature variation 86 2.5 Change from rainforest to grassland 86 2.6 Current theories for change 87 2.7 Darwin and Australian biota 87 2.8 Investigation: Timeline for formation of Australia 88 Investigation: Australian fossils and evolution of species 89 Dot Point 3.2 Page Investigation: Tabulate differences between mitosis and meiosis 93 3.3 External and internal fertilisation 94 3.4 Fertilisation and colonisation of water and land 95 Pollination, seed dispersal and asexual reproduction 95 Mechanisms for fertilisation and survival of embryo 97 Reproductive adaptations and continuity of species 98 3.8 Asexual reproduction advantages 99 3.9 Investigation: Internal and external fertilisation and colonisation of land 100 3.10 Investigation: Pollination and native ÀRZHUV 3.11 Applied Question Section 3 102 3.5 3.6 3.7 Palaeontology and past environments increase understanding of possible future 103 4.1 Human impact 103 90 4.2 Palaeontology and species distribution 103 ,QYHVWLJDWLRQ+X[OH\:LOEHUIRUFHGHEDWH 4.3 Maintaining biodiversity 104 2.12 Investigation: Variation in two living species 4.4 91 Investigation: Reason for evolution, survival, extinction 104 2.13 Applied Question Section 2 92 4.5 Investigation: Monitoring biodiversity 105 4.6 Applied Question Section 4 106 2.9 2.10 Investigation: Australian fossils and current life forms 3. 3.1 Reproductive adaptations of Australian plants and animals 93 Meiosis and mitosis 93 4. Answers to Evolution of Australian Biota 137 Science Press Dot Point Preliminary Biology xiii Evolution of Australian Biota Notes ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 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Science Press Evolution of Australian Biota xiv Dot Point Preliminary Biology DOT POINT A Local Ecosystem Science Press Dot Point Preliminary Biology 1 A Local Ecosystem 1. The distribution, diversity and numbers of plants and animals in ecosystems are determined by biotic and abiotic factors. 1.1 Compare the abiotic characteristics of aquatic and terrestrial environments. 1.1.1 List abiotic factors that affect the distribution, diversity and numbers of plants and animals in ecosystems. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1.1.2 &RQVWUXFWDWDEOHWRFRPSDUHWKHIROORZLQJDELRWLFIDFWRUVRIDTXDWLFDQGWHUUHVWULDO environments – availability of oxygen, temperature variation, pressure variation, viscosity, light penetration, buoyancy and availability of ions. 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Science Press A Local Ecosystem 2 Dot Point Preliminary Biology 1.2 Identify the factors determining the distribution and abundance of a species in each environment. 1.2.1 Identify factors which determine the distribution and abundance of a species in either a WHUUHVWULDORUDTXDWLFHQYLURQPHQW ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1.3 Describe the roles of photosynthesis and respiration in ecosystems. 1.3.1 Distinguish between photosynthesis and respiration. 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............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1.3.2 Discuss the roles of photosynthesis and respiration in ecosystems. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 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............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1.4 Identify uses of energy by organisms. 1.4.1 Describe THREE uses of energy by organisms. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 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Science Press Dot Point Preliminary Biology 3 A Local Ecosystem 1.5 Identify the general equation for aerobic cellular respiration and outline this as a summary of a chain of biochemical reactions. 1.5.1 :ULWHWKHJHQHUDOHTXDWLRQIRUDHURELFFHOOXODUUHVSLUDWLRQ ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1.5.2 Summarise the chemical reaction of aerobic cellular respiration. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1.6 Process and analyse information obtained from a variety of sampling studies to justify the use of different techniques to make population estimates when total counts cannot be performed. 1.6.1 RPH3UHOLPLQDU\%LRORJ\VWXGHQWV¿OOHGDEODFNJDUEDJHEDJZLWKZKLWHSRO\VW\UHQH 6 spheres. Thirty of these spheres had been coloured red with a highlighter pen. The bag was shaken by the students and then twenty spheres were taken out, without looking. The number coloured red was recorded and the twenty spheres were returned to the bag. The removal of twenty spheres and recording of the number coloured red was repeated until they had ten trials. D ,GHQWLI\WKHVDPSOLQJWHFKQLTXHEHLQJLQYHVWLJDWHGLQWKLVH[SHULPHQW ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... (b) What was the purpose of colouring thirty spheres red with a highlighter pen? ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... F , IWKHDYHUDJHQXPEHURIUHGVSKHUHVµUHFDSWXUHG¶RYHUWKHWHQWULDOVZDVVSKHUHVZRUNRXW WKHHVWLPDWHGQXPEHURIVSKHUHVLQWKHSRSXODWLRQXVLQJWKHIROORZLQJHTXDWLRQ Estimated population size = number tagged × number in recapture number of tagged in recapture ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... Science Press A Local Ecosystem 4 Dot Point Preliminary Biology 1.6.2 HVFULEHWKUHHVDPSOLQJWHFKQLTXHVIRUDEXQGDQFHDQGMXVWLI\ZK\HDFKSDUWLFXODUWHFKQLTXH ' is used when a total count cannot be performed. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 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Science Press Dot Point Preliminary Biology 5 A Local Ecosystem 1.7 Applied Question Section 1 The minke whale is the smallest baleen whale with two blowholes and a characteristic white band on HDFKÀLSSHUDQGDGDUNJUH\WRSFRORXU7KH\DUHFDUQLYRUHVDQGVHDVRQDOIHHGHUVHDWLQJSODQNWRQNULOO DQG¿VKLQFOXGLQJVDUGLQHDQFKRYLHVDQGKHUULQJ 0LQNHZKDOHVDUHWKHPRVWDEXQGDQWEDOHHQZKDOHDQGDUHIRXQGLQERWKWKH$WODQWLFDQG3DFL¿F Oceans. In the Southern Hemisphere they have a circumpolar distribution between Antarctica and Madagascar. Population sizes are much debated and concern for minke whales led to their protection by the ,QWHUQDWLRQDO:KDOLQJ&RPPLVVLRQ,:&-DSDQ1RUZD\DQG,FHODQGKXQWPLQNHVRQµVFLHQWL¿F JURXQGV¶DOWKRXJKVRPHEHOLHYHWKLVLVDFRYHUIRUFRPPHUFLDOZKDOLQJ %HWZHHQ-DQXDU\0DUFKWKH,QWHUQDWLRQDO:KDOLQJ&RPPLVVLRQDQG6RXWKHUQ2FHDQ:KDOH DQG(FRV\VWHP5HVHDUFK3URJUDP,:&62:(5FRQGXFWHGWKHWKFUXLVHWRHVWLPDWHSRSXODWLRQ size and distribution of minke whales. Methods used included a sighting survey, direct data DFTXLVLWLRQDQGDGDSWLYHOLQHWUDQVHFWVDPSOLQJ Describe the factors that determine the distribution and abundance of minke whales and how VDPSOLQJWHFKQLTXHVKDYHLPSDFWHGRQWKHVL]HRIWKHPLQNHSRSXODWLRQ ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... Science Press A Local Ecosystem 6 Dot Point Preliminary Biology 2. Each local aquatic or terrestrial ecosystem is unique. 2.1 Examine trends in population estimates for some plant and animal species within an ecosystem. 2.1.1 Outline why population numbers for plants and animals do not stay constant over time. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2.1.2 The Endangered Species Protection Act 1992 listed over 1100 native species as either HQGDQJHUHGRUYXOQHUDEOH*LOEHUW¶VSRWRURRLVOLVWHGDVDFULWLFDOO\HQGDQJHUHGPDPPDODQG the Canberra spider orchid is listed as a nationally endangered plant. Identify contributing factors that are causing this trend in declining numbers of native species. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2.2 Outline factors that affect numbers in predator and prey populations in the area studied. 2.2.1 'H¿QHSUHGDWRUDQGSUH\ ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2.2.2 , GHQWLI\DSUHGDWRUSUH\UHODWLRQVKLSLQDQDPHGHFRV\VWHPDQGGLVFXVVIDFWRUVWKDWLQÀXHQFH the population sizes. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... Science Press Dot Point Preliminary Biology 7 A Local Ecosystem 2.2.3 A group of Biology students studied the numbers of aphids and ladybird beetles on rose bushes in the ornamental garden of their school. Ladybird beetles eat aphids. Ladybird beetle Rose aphid Aphids on a rose The students collated their results and drew the following graph to summarise their data. Population size prey predator Time (t) Discuss the factors which lead to the shape of this graph and why there is this variation in the population size of aphids and ladybird beetles in the garden. Identify which curve is the aphid and which is the ladybird beetle. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... Science Press A Local Ecosystem 8 Dot Point Preliminary Biology 2.3 Identify examples of allelopathy, parasitism, mutualism and commensalism in an ecosystem and the role of organisms in each type of relationship. 2.3.1 RPSOHWHWKHIROORZLQJWDEOHWRVKRZGH¿QLWLRQH[DPSOHDQGUROHRIHDFKRUJDQLVPIRUHDFK & of the named relationships. Relationship Definition Example Roles of organisms in relationship Allelopathy Parasitism Mutualism Commensalism 2.4 Describe the role of decomposers in ecosystems. 2.4.1 Name two groups of organisms which are decomposers and explain why they are important in maintaining the balance in an ecosystem. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... Science Press Dot Point Preliminary Biology 9 A Local Ecosystem 2.5 Explain trophic interactions between organisms in an ecosystem using food chains, food webs and pyramids of biomass and energy. 2.5.1 Trophic interactions show feeding relationships in food chains and food webs. Draw a food web including a third order consumer and at least one organism that occupies more than one trophic level. Then complete the table to identify the trophic level of each organism. Food Web Organism 2.5.2 Trophic level Organism Trophic level The energy pyramid below shows 100 000 joules of energy in a plant in an ecosystem. On the diagram identify the different trophic levels and the amount of energy passed to each level. Explain how energy moves through an ecosystem. 100 000 joules of energy in producer ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... Science Press A Local Ecosystem 10 Dot Point Preliminary Biology H¿QHWKHWHUPDGDSWDWLRQDQGGLVFXVVWKHSUREOHPVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKLQIHUULQJFKDUDFWHULVWLFVRI ' organisms as adaptations for living in a particular habitat. 2.6.1 'H¿QHDGDSWDWLRQ ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2.6.2 VHDVSHFL¿FH[DPSOHWRH[SODLQZK\WKHUHDUHSUREOHPVLQIHUULQJDFKDUDFWHULVWLFLVDQ 8 adaptation for living in a particular habitat. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2.7 Identify some adaptations of living things to factors in their environment. 2.7.1 Complete the following table to classify an adaptation as either physiological, structural or behavioural and the feature of the environment which this adaptation addresses. Adaptation Type of adaptation Feature of environment Layer of blubber in a whale Leaves in the shade are larger and a darker green Whales emit very low frequency sounds Lizards sunbake on rocks in the sun at sunset Goldfish release copious amounts of dilute urine Rate of photosynthesis increases in grass in spring 2.8 Identify and describe in detail adaptations of a plant and an animal from the local ecosystem. 2.8.1 Name an ecosystem and for this ecosystem detail three adaptations of an animal and three adaptations of a plant from that ecosystem. Name of ecosystem: Feature ................................................................................................................................................................................. Plant Animal Name of organism Adaptation 1 Adaptation 2 Adaptation 3 Science Press Dot Point Preliminary Biology 11 A Local Ecosystem 2.9 Describe and explain the short-term and long-term consequences on the ecosystem of species competing for resources. 2.9.1 [SODLQKRZFRPSHWLWLRQIRUUHVRXUFHVFDQKDYHVKRUWWHUPDQGORQJWHUPFRQVHTXHQFHVRQ ( an ecosystem. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2.10 Identify the impact of humans in the ecosystem studied. 2.10.1 & RPSOHWHWKHIROORZLQJWDEOHWRVXPPDULVH¿YHZD\VLQZKLFKKXPDQVFDQLPSDFWRQD named ecosystem. Human activity How activity impacts on named ecosystem Name of ecosystem Land clearing Burning fossil fuels Introduced species Use of fertilisers leading to eutrophication Salination of waterways Science Press A Local Ecosystem 12 Dot Point Preliminary Biology & KRRVHHTXLSPHQWRUUHVRXUFHVDQGXQGHUWDNHD¿HOGVWXG\RIDORFDOWHUUHVWULDORUDTXDWLF ecosystem to identify data sources and: measure abiotic variables, estimate population size and distribution, describe trophic interactions, tabulate data, graph data and evaluate variability in measurements. Complete the following table to summarise the instruments used to measure abiotic variables. Instrument Diagram of instrument Abiotic feature it measures Thermometer Aneroid barometer Anemometer pH meter Luxmeter Wet and dry bulb hygrometer Dissolved oxygen content kit Science Press Dot Point Preliminary Biology 13 A Local Ecosystem 2.11.2 ' HVFULEHKRZ\RXHVWLPDWHGWKHGLVWULEXWLRQRIDSODQWSRSXODWLRQ8VHDVFLHQWL¿FGLDJUDPWR show your results. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2.11.3 Describe how you estimated the size of a plant population. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2.11.4 Describe how you estimated the size of an animal population. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... Science Press A Local Ecosystem 14 Dot Point Preliminary Biology 2.11.5 ' HVFULEHKRZ\RXHVWLPDWHGWKHGLVWULEXWLRQRIDQDQLPDOSRSXODWLRQ8VHDVFLHQWL¿FGLDJUDP to show your results. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2.11.6 Describe three trophic interactions between organisms you could observe in a named ecosystem. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2.11.7 For one of your examples in estimating either distribution or abundance, evaluate variability LQPHDVXUHPHQWVPDGHGXULQJWKLVVFLHQWL¿FLQYHVWLJDWLRQ ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... Science Press Dot Point Preliminary Biology 15 A Local Ecosystem 2.11.8 ) RUGUDZLQJDVFLHQWL¿FJUDSKHJWRVKRZFKDQJHVZLWKWLPHLQPHDVXUHGDELRWLFGDWDZULWH a checklist you need to follow to make sure your graph is correct and contains all necessary components. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2.11.9 Draw a graph for the following data which shows changes in temperature in Sydney in 2005. Date Temperature (°C) Maximum Minimum Sun 13 Feb 05 27.8 19.4 Mon 14 Feb 05 26.2 Tues 15 Feb 05 Date Temperature (°C) Maximum Minimum Fri 18 Feb 05 27.6 19.2 16.6 Sat 19 Feb 05 28.4 21.4 32.3 19.0 Sun 20 Feb 05 26.1 20.5 Wed 16 Feb 05 25.3 21.2 Mon 21 Feb 05 28.5 21.0 Thurs 17 Feb 05 24.0 19.7 Tues 22 Feb 05 27.7 19.1 Science Press A Local Ecosystem 16 Dot Point Preliminary Biology * DWKHULQIRUPDWLRQIURP¿UVWKDQGDQGVHFRQGDU\VRXUFHVWRFRQVWUXFWIRRGFKDLQVDQGIRRG webs to illustrate the relationships between member species in an ecosystem. 2.12.1 Study the following food web from an open woodland. Owl Quoll Wedgetail eagle Magpie Blue-tongue lizard Tick Echidna Feather-tail glider Ringtail possum Leaf-eating beetle Termite Wallaby Banksia nectar Flowers/leaves/wood eucalypt Grasses )URPWKLVIRRGZHELGHQWLI\DSUHGDWRUSUH\UHODWLRQVKLSDSDUDVLWLFUHODWLRQVKLSDQGDFRPSHWLWRU relationship. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2.13 Process and analyse information and present a report of the investigation of an ecosystem in which the purpose is introduced, the methods described and the results shown graphically, and use available evidence to discuss their relevance. 2.13.1 : ULWHDFRPSOHWHVFLHQWL¿FUHSRUWIRUDQLQYHVWLJDWLRQZKLFK\RXFDUULHGRXWDERXWDORFDO ecosystem, including a graph in the results. 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Science Press Dot Point Preliminary Biology 17 A Local Ecosystem ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... Science Press A Local Ecosystem 18 Dot Point Preliminary Biology 2.14 Applied Question Section 2 The following notes were made by a Preliminary Biology student as he collected data about the local dry sclerophyll forest. 7KHUHZHUHPDQ\EHHVFROOHFWLQJSROOHQIURPWKHÀRZHULQJJUHYLOOHDV$ORQHPRWKZDVVHHQ FRPSHWLQJZLWKDKRQH\HDWHUIRUWKHJUHYLOOHDSROOHQ2QWKHJXOO\ÀRRUWKHUHZHUHVHYHUDODFDFLD trees which had stick insects eating the leaves. A parasitic mistletoe was in the acacia and a mistletoe bird was eating the mistletoe. The gully also had a lilli pilli tree and possums and magpies were seen eating the lilli pilli berries. The possum moved to the acacia and ate the fruit from the mistletoe. A kookaburra ate the lone moth and then ate one of the stick insects. Another kookaburra ate a mistletoe bird chick. (a) Construct a food web to show the trophic relationships observed by the Biology student. (b) Identify a major group of organisms which is not indicated in this food web and discuss why this group plays an important role in the ecosystem. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... (c) Name the highest order consumer in this food web and then draw a food chain to show this trophic level. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... (d) If humans removed the grevillea plants, describe how this would impact on other populations in the short term and long term. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... Science Press Dot Point Preliminary Biology 19 A Local Ecosystem Notes ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 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Science Press A Local Ecosystem 20 Dot Point Preliminary Biology DOT POINT Answers Science Press Dot Point Preliminary Biology 107 Answers Notes ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 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Science Press Answers 108 Dot Point Preliminary Biology A Local Ecosystem 1.1.1 $ ELRWLFIDFWRUVLQFOXGHDOOQRQOLYLQJFRPSRQHQWVRIWKHHQYLURQPHQWHJWHPSHUDWXUHUDLQIDOOZLQGOLJKWLQWHQVLW\GD\ length, humidity, pH of soil or water, availability of ions in soil or water, salinity in soil or water, buoyancy, viscosity, pressure, landforms, soil type and porosity of soil. 1.1.2 Abiotic characteristic Aquatic environment Terrestrial environment Availability of oxygen – oxygen is needed for aerobic respiration Oxygen is less available in water than in air. Warm water holds less oxygen than cold water. There is less oxygen available at greater depths. Oxygen is readily available in air making up approximately 20% of atmosphere. Diffusion is faster in air than in water. Temperature variation Temperature variation depends on depth of water and latitude. Very large bodies of water, e.g. oceans have relatively small variation in temperature, small bodies of water, e.g. small ponds may heat up and cool more quickly. Temperature variation depends on latitude and altitude. Very large variations can occur in some areas, e.g. inland desert with hot day and cold night, while less variations occur in tropical, seaside locations. Variations can be greater than aquatic environments. Pressure variation Water pressure increases with the depth of the water. Air pressure decreases with altitude. Viscosity Water is more viscous than air causing a higher resistance for the movement of organisms through the medium. Air is less viscous than water offering less resistance for the movement of organisms through the medium. Light penetration Light penetration depends on depth. Little light penetrates below 100 metres. Light penetration also depends on turbidity, pollutants, suspended particle content and abundance of organisms such as algae. Light is easily available. The amount of light can be limited by other vegetation or topographic features. Buoyancy Water provides more support for organisms than air. Air provides less support for organisms than water. Availability of ions Ions are readily available in salt water but less available in fresh water. Higher temperatures decrease solubility of ions. Ions are available in the soil but not in air. 1.2.1 The abundance of a species refers to the numbers of individuals in an area while the distribution of a species refers to the UHJLRQLQZKLFKWKHVSHFLHVLVIRXQG,QHLWKHUDWHUUHVWULDORUDTXDWLFHQYLURQPHQWWKHUHDUHPDQ\IDFWRUVZKLFKFDQGHWHUPLQH abundance and distribution of a species. Factors include the availability of the food source, the abundance and range of predators, competitors for food sources or resources, climate conditions such as temperature and rainfall, chemical conditions such as pH or availability of gases and ions, or prevalence of parasites and disease. 1.3.1 3KRWRV\QWKHVLVLVWKHFKHPLFDOSURFHVVXVHGE\FKORURSK\OOFRQWDLQLQJFHOOVWRFRQYHUWLQRUJDQLFUDZPDWHULDOVLQWRRUJDQLF compounds using light energy; while respiration is a series of chemical reactions which releases energy from complex carbohydrates. 1.3.2 Photosynthesis uses carbon dioxide and water to produce glucose and oxygen gas. The main roles of photosynthesis in ecosystems is related to each product – the formation of glucose enables the conversion of radiant energy into chemical energy to provide a form of energy to sustain life in the food chain and the production of oxygen gas provides a basic material for aerobic respiration. The main role of respiration in ecosystems is to use stored chemical energy to produce the energy needed WRPDLQWDLQOLIH3KRWRV\QWKHVLVDQGUHVSLUDWLRQDUHWKHFKHPLFDOSURFHVVHVLQWKHFDUERQR[\JHQF\FOHDQGDUHHVVHQWLDOIRU the existence of multicellular life forms on Earth. The roles of photosynthesis and respiration are vitally important for the existence of the current complex life forms on Earth. 1.4.1 Energy released by respiration can be used in many different ways depending on the needs of the organism. Endotherms, such as mammals and birds use the heat released by respiration as a means of maintaining body temperature. Energy from respiration can also be used in synthesis chemical reactions, e.g. the synthesis of polysaccharides from simple sugars. Energy can also be used for the active transport of materials across cell membranes, e.g. accumulation of inorganic ions against a concentration gradient. 1.5.1 7KHJHQHUDOHTXDWLRQIRUDHURELFFHOOXODUUHVSLUDWLRQLV*OXFRVHR[\JHQĺFDUERQGLR[LGHZDWHU 1.5.2 $ HURELFFHOOXODUUHVSLUDWLRQLVDVHULHVRIELRFKHPLFDOUHDFWLRQV7KHJHQHUDOHTXDWLRQVKRZVWKHUHDFWDQWVDQGWKH¿QDO products, however, the process does not occur in one step. There are about 50 different stages, each catalysed by a different enzyme. 1.6.1 D E 6WXGHQWVZHUHLQYHVWLJDWLQJWKHFDSWXUHPDUNUHFDSWXUHVDPSOLQJPHWKRG RORXULQJVSKHUHVUHGZDVWRVLPXODWHµWDJJLQJ¶WKHDQLPDO:KHQFDUU\LQJRXWDFDSWXUHPDUNUHFDSWXUH & H[SHULPHQWWKHDQLPDOLVµWDJJHG¶LQVXFKDZD\WKDWLWGRHVQRWDIIHFWWKHOLIHH[SHFWDQF\RIWKHDQLPDO Science Press Dot Point Preliminary Biology 109 A Local Ecosystem (c) Estimated population size = number tagged × number in recapture number of tagged in recapture Number tagged = 30 Number in recapture = 20 Number of tagged in recapture = 3.2 Estimated population size = 30 × 20 = 162.16 = 162 spheres in population 3.7 1.6.2 FLHQWLVWVKDYHGHYHORSHGGLIIHUHQWVDPSOLQJWHFKQLTXHVWRPHDVXUHDEXQGDQFHDFFRUGLQJWRWKHIHDWXUHVRIWKHVSHFLHVWKH\ 6 are investigating. If the organism is found over a wide area or if the numbers are too great to count individuals scientists use TXDGUDWVWRFRXQWWKHQXPEHURILQGLYLGXDOVLQDVSHFL¿HGDUHD7KHVL]HRIWKHTXDGUDWGHSHQGVRQWKHWRWDODUHDLQYROYHG WKHSDUWLFXODUVSHFLHVLQYROYHGDQGWKHGHQVLW\RIRUJDQLVPVLQWKHDUHD7KHFKRLFHRIORFDWLRQRIHDFKTXDGUDWFDQJUHDWO\ LQÀXHQFHWKHUHVXOWV5DQGRPTXDGUDWVQHHGWREHUHSUHVHQWDWLYHRIWKHZKROHDUHDDQGWKHKLJKHUQXPEHURITXDGUDWVVWXGLHG the greater the statistical accuracy of the results. Quadrats can also be placed along a transect of the area to show how distribution and abundance changes across the area. Quadrats are useful for estimating vegetation abundance or for studying DQLPDOVWKDWOLYHLQDUHVWULFWHGDUHD)RULPPRELOHVSHFLHVWKDWFRYHUDQDUHDPDNLQJWKHFRXQWLQJRILQGLYLGXDOVGLI¿FXOW VFLHQWLVWVXVHWKHµSHUFHQWDJHFRYHU¶PHWKRG7KLVPHWKRGXVHVDSRLQWJULGDQGWKHHVWLPDWHLVJLYHQDVDSHUFHQWDJHHJ RIDUHDFRYHUHGZLWKJUDVV7KHSHUFHQWDJHFRYHUPHWKRGFDQEHXVHGLQFRQMXQFWLRQZLWKTXDGUDWVVRWKDWWKHSHUFHQWDJH FRYHULQPDQ\TXDGUDWVLVDQDO\VHGDQGDWRWDOHVWLPDWHG)RUPRELOHVSHFLHVFDSWXUHPDUNUHFDSWXUHPHWKRGLVXVHGZKHUH an animal is caught, tagged and then released to wander freely and mix with the rest of the population. At a later date another group is caught and the number of tagged individuals can be used in the formula below to estimate the abundance of that animal in the area. Abundance = Number tagged in first capture × Number caught in second caapture Number of tagged in second capture Thus, there are several methods which can be used to estimate abundance and the method used depends on the species involved, e.g. mobile or immobile. 1.7 Applied Question Section 1 The distribution and abundance of minke whales is determined by such factors as food supply, e.g. location and numbers of NULOOSODQNWRQVPDOO¿VKZDWHUWHPSHUDWXUHHJPLJUDWRU\SDWWHUQDQGKXPDQFRPPHUFLDOZKDOLQJ$EXQGDQFHVDPSOLQJ WHFKQLTXHVKDYHKDGDKXJHLPSDFWRQWKHDEXQGDQFHRIPLQNHZKDOHV0LQNHZKDOHVKDYHWUDGLWLRQDOO\EHHQKXQWHGE\ PDQ\FRXQWULHVHJ5XVVLD-DSDQ1RUZD\2YHUKXQWLQJRIWKHODUJHUZKDOHVOHGWRWKHZKDOLQJRIPLQNHVXQWLODJHQHUDO PRUDWRULXPRQZKDOLQJLQ7KHSURWHFWLRQRIPLQNHVDOORZVQXPEHUVWRLQFUHDVHDOWKRXJKQXPEHUVDUHLQÀXHQFHGE\ WKHKXQWLQJRIPLQNHVIRUµVFLHQWL¿FUHVHDUFK¶E\VRPHFRXQWULHV7KHVDPSOLQJWHFKQLTXHVXVHGWRHVWLPDWHWKHDEXQGDQFHRI PLQNHVKDYHOHGWRFRQÀLFWLQJGDWDDERXWDFWXDOQXPEHUV)RUH[DPSOHWKHUHLVDSUREOHPZLWKVSHFLHVLGHQWL¿FDWLRQLIWKH whale is over 2.4 km distant, and adaptive line sampling and sighting surveys depend on weather conditions. Poor conditions can give less accurate estimates. Thus there are several factors that contribute to minke whale abundance and data can only give estimates of abundance. 2.1.1 YHQLIDSRSXODWLRQLVFRQVLGHUHGµVWDEOH¶WKHQXPEHUVRILQGLYLGXDOVLVQRWFRQVWDQW,QDµVWDEOH¶SRSXODWLRQQXPEHUV ( RVFLOODWHDURXQGWKHµVWDEOH¶QXPEHU6RPHSRSXODWLRQVDUHGHFUHDVLQJLQQXPEHUHJGXHWRWKHLQWURGXFWLRQRIDPRUH competitive species, predation, disease or the activities of humans, while other populations may be increasing in number, e.g. due to increase in food, resources or activities of humans. 2.1.2 The trend of declining numbers of native species is due to a variety of factors and each species has particular problems threatening its survival. Competition and land degradation caused by introduced animals, e.g. rabbits and goats is a major factor for many native species. Land clearance for farms and towns has removed the habitat for many species and predation by feral cats and foxes have also had a large impact on the numbers of native species. 2.2.1 A predator eats the prey. 2.2.2 The kookaburra preys on rodents such as the marsupial mouse in woodland ecosystems. The size of the populations of each depends on the size of the ecosystem in which they live. There are usually more mice than kookaburras. Seasonal changes in ZHDWKHUDQGIRRGIRUWKHPLFHFDQLQÀXHQFHQXPEHUVDQGPLJUDWLRQVFDQDOVRFDXVHVHDVRQDOFKDQJHV7KHUHSURGXFWLYHF\FOHV RIHDFKFDXVHÀXFWXDWLRQVDQGGLVHDVHFDQFDXVHDQQXDOGLIIHUHQFHV1DWXUDOGLVDVWHUVVXFKDVEXVK¿UHVDQGÀRRGVFDXVH\HDUO\ differences in numbers. Science Press A Local Ecosystem 110 Dot Point Preliminary Biology 2.2.3 $ SKLGVDUHWKHSUH\DQGODG\ELUGEHHWOHVDUHWKHSUHGDWRU$SKLGVIHHGPDLQO\RQWKHVWHPDQGÀRZHURIWKHURVHEXVKXVLQJ PRXWKSDUWVWRSLHUFHDQGVXFNVDSIURPWKHSKORHP:KHQWKHURVHEXVKLVJURZLQJDQGSUHSDULQJWRÀRZHUWKHQXPEHURI DSKLGVFDQGUDPDWLFDOO\LQFUHDVH7KHµSUH\FXUYH¶VKRZVWKHKLJKSRSXODWLRQQXPEHUVRIDSKLGV7KLVDWWUDFWVWKHODG\ELUG beetles which increase in numbers. Note that the crest of the predator curve is after the crest of the prey curve. As the beetles eat the aphids, the number of aphids decreases. This means the number of beetles will fall as their food source is depleted. :LWKIHZHUEHHWOHVWKHDSKLGSRSXODWLRQLQFUHDVHVDJDLQDQGWKXVWKHSUHGDWRUSUH\FXUYHLQWKHJUDSKVKRZVPRUHSUH\WKDQ predators and the predator curves follows the prey curve with crests and troughs. 2.3.1 Relationship Definition Example Roles of organisms in relationship Allelopathy Release of chemical substances by one species to inhibit the growth of another. Penicillin mould Penicillin produces a chemical that prevents bacterial growth. Parasitism One species benefits and the other species is harmed. Tick and human Human is host and is harmed; tick is the parasite. Mutualism Both partners benefit. Lichen Cyanobacteria photosynthesises and provides food; fungi protects and allows survival in dry area. Commensalism One species benefits and the other is neither harmed or receives any benefit. Shark and remora fish Remora attaches to shark and eats remains of shark’s food and parasites on shark and uses less energy to move around; shark may benefit if parasites are removed. 2.4.1 The two main groups of organisms which are decomposers are fungi and bacteria. Decomposers cause decay and are very important in the cycling of nutrients returning materials to the soil so they can be used again. 2.5.1 Food web: Leaves aphid willy-wagtail ladybird beetle Organism feral cat feral fox eagle Trophic level Organism Trophic level Leaves producer Eagle 3rd order consumer Aphid 1st order consumer Feral fox 4th order consumer Willy-wagtail 2nd and 3rd order consumer Ladybird beetle 2nd order consumer Feral cat 3rd order consumer 2.5.2 3rd order consumer 100 J 2nd order consumer 1000 J 1st order consumer 10 000 J Producer 100 000 J Only 10% of energy moves to the next trophic level. The rest of the energy is used at each step for life processes and is eventually lost as heat to the atmosphere. 2.6.1 An adaptation is any feature or characteristic which helps the organism survive in its environment. 2.6.2 Sometimes features are interpreted as adaptations for a particular environment but further investigation shows problems with these inferences. For example, fossils show that 3.5 million years ago humans became upright, with the change in posture causing a changed positioning of the head and neck. This in turn caused a new position of the tongue, throat and vocal cords enabling speech. Thus early inferences on the reason for the evolution of speech needed to be revised. Science Press Dot Point Preliminary Biology 111 A Local Ecosystem 2.7.1 Adaptation 2.8.1 Feature of environment Layer of blubber in a whale Structural Heat is easily lost by conduction in water Leaves in the shade are larger and a darker green Structural Light intensity is lower in the shade Whales emit very low frequency sounds Behavioural Very low frequency sounds travel a long way under water Lizards sunbake on rocks in the sun at sunset Behavioural Temperatures on land can drop rapidly at night Goldfish release copious amounts of dilute urine Physiological In fresh water osmosis causes water to enter organisms Rate of photosynthesis increases in grass in spring Physiological Light intensity and water availability increase in spring Name of ecosystem – rainforest. Feature 2.9.1 Type of adaptation Plant Animal Organism Cymbidium orchid Musky rat-kangaroo Adaptation 1 Extensive root system – as an epiphyte they need to collect as much water as possible First toe on hind leg allows climbing on branches and fallen logs Adaptation 2 Third petal developed into labellum and points down to act as a landing place for a pollinating insect Diurnal – at first light it begins to search for seeds, fruit, fleshy flowers easier to see in daylight Adaptation 3 Style and stigma joined together with sticky pollen so the column deposits the pollen on the back of the pollinating insect Seasonal breeders in response to food supplies Competition for resources can lead to changes in an ecosystem. The introduction of many species into Australia has led to FRPSHWLWLRQIRUIRRGVKHOWHUZDWHUDQGRWKHUUHVRXUFHV6KRUWWHUPHIIHFWVLQYROYHDFKDQJHLQWKHDEXQGDQFHDQGGLVWULEXWLRQ of native species, for example, the introduction of rabbits. 2.10.1 Human activity How activity impacts on named ecosystem Name of ecosystem Dry sclerophyll forest. Land clearing Many habitats are destroyed to provide land for farms, roads and towns. Cleared land is more susceptible to erosion and land degradation. Burning fossil fuels Many air pollutants are produced by burning fossil fuels, e.g. carbon monoxide, ash, soot and increased carbon dioxide levels. The higher carbon dioxide levels in turn contribute to the greenhouse effect and global warming. Introduced species Many species have been introduced into Australia leading to the extinction and endangering of many native species, e.g. rabbits, goats, compete with many native herbivores, and cats, foxes prey on native animals. Use of fertilisers leading to eutrophication Soil infertility has meant fertilisers, e.g. nitrates and phosphates are used on farms and these fertilisers leach into the waterways causing a buildup of excess nutrients. Excessive sewage also increases nutrient levels leading to an algal bloom as the algae thrive in the nutrient-rich water. During the night the algae and bacteria decomposers deplete the oxygen levels eventually causing the lake or body of water to become ‘dead’ as fish and other life cannot survive at such low oxygen levels. Salination of waterways Increased irrigation and the removal of native plants has caused a rise in watertables which in turn has brought salts closer to the surface. The salt kills crops or forms a salt flat and continued salination could mean water will become unsuitable for either irrigation or drinking. Science Press A Local Ecosystem 112 Dot Point Preliminary Biology 2.11.1 Instrument 2.11.2 Diagram of instrument Abiotic feature it measures Thermometer Measures temperature in degrees Celsius Aneroid barometer Measures air pressure in hpa Anemometer Measures wind speed in km/h pH meter Measures pH of water or soil on a scale of: 1 (acidic) to 14 (basic) Luxmeter Measures light intensity in lux Wet and dry bulb hygrometer Measures temperature of wet and dry bulbs and the temperature difference allows humidity to be read from the table as a percentage Dissolved oxygen content kit Following instructions of the kit measures dissolved oxygen content in mg/L To estimate the distribution of the rose population in the school front garden we used a metre ruler and a 30 metre tape measure to measure the ornamental school rose garden and front lawn and then recorded the location of the different plant populations. The following distribution map shows roses at the end of the science block, on the sides of the steps to the administration block and in the central circular garden in the lawn. N Walkway Walkway End of science block Steps Walkway Walkway Administration block Walkway Walkway 2 metres Rose garden Grass/weed lawn 2.11.3 The school lawn in front of the administration block is mainly common couch grass, with some white clover weeds. The couch grass is matted and it is hard to count individuals, however the clover is kept under control by the gardeners applying weed killers and individuals can be easily counted. To estimate the size of the white clover population we used 20 random TXDGUDWVHDFKVL]HGFP×FPDQGFRXQWHGWKHQXPEHURIZKLWHFORYHUSODQWVLQHDFKTXDGUDW7KHDYHUDJHQXPEHURI FORYHUTXDGUDWZDVFDOFXODWHGDQGWKLVFRQYHUWHGWRFORYHUP2. Knowing the total area of the lawn we then estimated the total number of clover plants in the lawn. Science Press Dot Point Preliminary Biology 113 A Local Ecosystem Common couch grass White clover 2.11.4 $ SKLGVZHUHIRXQGRQWKHVWHPVSHWLROHVEXGVDQGÀRZHUVRIWKHURVHEXVKHV7RHVWLPDWHWKHVL]HRIWKHDSKLGSRSXODWLRQ ZHXVHGDSDLQWEUXVKWRFROOHFWWKHDSKLGVIURPRQHURVHLQDVSHFLPHQYLDO(DFKURVHZDVFRQVLGHUHGWREHDµTXDGUDW¶ 7ZHQW\UDQGRPµTXDGUDWV¶ZHUHFKRVHQDQGWKHQXPEHURIDSKLGVRQHDFKZHUHFRXQWHG7KHDYHUDJHQXPEHURIDSKLGVURVH was calculated. The number of roses in the garden was counted and then the total number of aphids in the whole area was estimated. 2.11.5 To estimate the distribution of the aphid poluation in the school front garden we used a metre ruler and a 30 metre tape measure to measure the ornamental school rose garden and front lawn and then recorded the location of any observed aphid. The following distribution map shows aphids were found on the roses which are in beds at the end of the science block, on the sides of the steps to the administration block and in the central circular garden in the lawn. N Walkway Walkway End of science block Steps Walkway Walkway Administration block Walkway Walkway 2 metres Rose garden Grass/weed lawn 2.11.6 7KUHHWURSKLFLQWHUDFWLRQVLQDZRRGODQGLQFOXGH±ULQJWDLOSRVVXPHDWLQJHXFDO\SWÀRZHUVZHGJHWDLOHDJOHHDWLQJDEOXH tongue lizard, and an echidna eating termites. 2.11.7 When estimating the number of aphids in the garden there were several aspects of the method which could lead to variability LQPHDVXUHPHQWV7KHFKRLFHRIVHDVRQZLOOLQÀXHQFHDSKLGQXPEHUVDVDSKLGVUDSLGO\SRSXODWHWKHDUHDZKHQFRQGLWLRQVDUH suitable. Measurements should be made over a period of time to detect cyclic trends. Sometimes anomalies occur in data. 0HDVXUHPHQWVVKRXOGEHUHSHDWHGPDQ\WLPHVVRDQRPDOLHVEHFRPHDSSDUHQW7KHUDQGRPQHVVRIFKRLFHRIµTXDGUDW¶FDQ LQÀXHQFHUHVXOWVVRLWLVLPSRUWDQWWKDWHQRXJKµTXDGUDWV¶DUHVWXGLHGDQGWKHµTXDGUDWV¶DUHUHSUHVHQWDWLYHRIWKHZKROHDUHD 7KXVWKHUHFDQEHYDULDELOLW\LQVFLHQWL¿FPHDVXUHPHQWVEXWVWHSVFDQEHWDNHQWRPLQLPLVHWKLVYDULDELOLW\ 2.11.8 Checklist for drawing a graph: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) K (i) M Does it have a title? Is the xD[LVWKHLQGHSHQGHQWYDULDEOH" Is the yD[LVWKHGHSHQGHQWYDULDEOH" Does the scale for the xD[LVLQFUHDVHE\HTXDOLQFUHPHQWV" Does the scale for the yD[LVLQFUHDVHE\HTXDOLQFUHPHQWV" Does the xD[LVKDYHDODEHOZLWKXQLWV" Does the yD[LVKDYHDODEHOZLWKXQLWV" $UHWKHSRLQWVSORWWHGFRUUHFWO\DQGPDUNHGZLWKDQµ[¶RUDGRWVXUURXQGHGE\DFLUFOHZULWWHQLQSHQFLO" For a line graph, are the points joined by a single line drawn in pencil? ,IWKHSRLQWVDUHVFDWWHUHGDURXQGDVWUDLJKWOLQHGLG\RXGUDZDOLQHRIEHVW¿W" Science Press A Local Ecosystem 114 Dot Point Preliminary Biology 2.11.9 Graph of maximum and minimum temperature for Sydney in 2005 34 Temperature (°C) 32 30 28 Maximum temperature 26 24 22 20 Minimum temperature 18 16 14 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 24 Date (February 2005) 2.12.1 3 UHGDWRUSUH\UHODWLRQVKLSLVRZOLVWKHSUHGDWRUDQGIHDWKHUWDLOJOLGHULVWKHSUH\3DUDVLWLFUHODWLRQVKLSLVDWLFNRQDZDOODE\ &RPSHWLWRUVDUHTXROODQGPDJSLHVIRUIRRGVRXUFHOHDIHDWLQJEHHWOHV 2.13.1 Ecosystem report: Aim:7RFRPSDUHWKHDEXQGDQFHRIIRXUDQLPDOSRSXODWLRQVLQXSSHUOLWWRUDOEDUQDFOH]RQHRIDURFNSODWIRUP Risk assessment::KHQLQYHVWLJDWLQJRUJDQLVPVLQFUHYLFHVDQGURFNSRROVEHDOHUWIRUGDQJHURXVVSHFLHVHJEOXHULQJHG RFWRSXVDQGLIELWWHQLPPHGLDWHO\DOHUWWKHTXDOL¿HG¿UVWDLGSHUVRQDQGULQJIRUDQDPEXODQFH:HDUDSSURSULDWHVWXUG\VKRHV to protect your feet from cuts and abrasions from shells and rocks. Wear a hat and put blockout suncreen on exposed areas such as face, arms and legs to reduce sunburn to skin. Method: A 30 m tape measure was used to measure the length and breadth of the barnacle zone and the total area of the EDUQDFOH]RQHZDVHVWLPDWHG7HQUDQGRPTXDGUDWVFPîFPZHUHSODFHGLQWKHEDUQDFOH]RQHDQGWKHQXPEHUVRI IRXUVHOHFWHGVSHFLHVLQHDFKTXDGUDWZHUHUHFRUGHGLQDWDEOH'HQVLW\ZDVLQLWLDOO\HVWLPDWHGDVWKHQXPEHURIHDFKVSHFLHV SHUTXDGUDWDQGWKHQFRQYHUWHGWRWKHQXPEHURIHDFKVSHFLHVSHUP2. The total number of each of these four species was then estimated for the barnacle zone. The results were graphed to compare the abundance of the four species in the barnacle zone. Data was analysed and conclusions drawn. Results Length barnacle zone = 9.6 metres Breadth barnacle zone = 22.4 metres Total area barnacle zone = 215.04 m2 Results Blue periwinkle Pink barnacle Morula Honeycomb barnacle Quadrat 1 1 4 0 2 Quadrat 2 0 1 0 5 Quadrat 3 2 2 0 3 Quadrat 4 0 3 1 1 Quadrat 5 0 2 1 0 Quadrat 6 1 3 0 6 Quadrat 7 0 2 0 4 Quadrat 8 0 1 0 2 Quadrat 9 0 5 0 3 Quadrat 10 1 1 0 3 Total 5 24 2 29 Density (number/quadrat) 0.5 2.4 0.2 2.9 Density (number/m2) 1.25 × 103 6 × 103 5 × 102 7.25 × 103 Estimated abundance in total area 2.7 × 105 1.3 × 106 1.1 × 105 1.6 × 106 Science Press Dot Point Preliminary Biology 115 A Local Ecosystem Abundance (x100 000) Species abundance in zone 20 16 13 15 10 5 2.7 1.1 0 Blue periwinkle Pink barnacle Morula Honeycomb barnacle Species Discussion:7KHUHVXOWVVKRZWKDWWKHUHLVDSSUR[LPDWHO\HTXDOQXPEHUVRIKRQH\FRPEEDUQDFOHVDQGSLQNEDUQDFOHVLQWKH barnacle zone and fewer numbers of blue periwinkles and Morula7KHVHUHVXOWVDUHFRQVLVWHQWZLWKWKHKDELWDWUHTXLUHPHQWV IRUHDFKVSHFLHV7KHEOXHSHULZLQNOHLVWKHLQGLFDWRUVSHFLHVIRUWKHVXSUDOLWWRUDO]RQHZKHUHLWLVDERYHWKHKLJKZDWHUPDUN and away from wave action. However, the periwinkle feeds on algae and will move to the upper littoral zone to feed. Thus some periwinkles are found in the upper littoral zone. MorulaLVIRXQGLQSURWHFWHGDUHDVLQWKHPLGWLGDO]RQH,WLVDSUHGDWRU and moves around to feed on oysters and shelled animals. Thus some are found in the upper littoral zone. The domination of EDUQDFOHVLQWKLV]RQHLVFRQVLVWHQWZLWKWKHQDPLQJRIWKLV]RQHDVWKHµEDUQDFOH]RQH¶ Conclusion: Two species of barnacles – the pink barnacle and honeycomb barnacle have a greater abundance than Morula and the blue periwinkle in the upper littoral zone. 2.14 Applied Question Section 2 (a) Food web: Kookaburra Mistletoe bird Possum Bee Moth Grevillea pollen (b) (c) (d) Honeyeater Stick insect Acacia Magpie Mistletoe Lilly pilly Decomposers, e.g. bacteria and fungi are a major group not mentioned in the food web. Decomposers play a major role in recycling nutrients in the ecosystem. They break down bodies and other organic matter in decay. Highest order consumer is the kookaburra and it is both a 2nd order consumer and a 3rd order consumer in this food ZHE:KHQLWLVDUGRUGHUFRQVXPHUWKHIRRGFKDLQLV$FDFLDĺPLVWOHWRHĺPLVWOHWRHELUGĺNRRNDEXUUD The removal of the Grevillea plants from the food web will cause a decrease in the bee population and a decrease in the honeyeater population in the short term as their food source has been removed. If they have no other food source they will become extinct in this area in the long term. Science Press A Local Ecosystem 116 Dot Point Preliminary Biology

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