Cover Photo courtesy of Prime Photography
Dane Rawlins entering the Odyssey Arena at the Northern Ireland International Horse Show for the
Dressage to music display
primephotography@msn.com
i
Conference Proceedings
ISES Dublin 2008
International Society for Equitation Science
4th International Conference
www.equitationscience.com
ii
School of Agriculture, Food Science and Veterinary Medicine
University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4 – Ireland
ISES Dublin 2008
International Society for Equitation Science
4th International Conference
August 1st – 4th 2008
RDS, Ballsbridge, Dublin 4.
Conference Proceedings
Editors:
Jack Murphy, Karen Hennessy, Patrick Wall, Pat Hanly
iii
iv
Contents
CONTENTS
1
CREDITS
6
ISES DUBLIN 2008
7
LOCAL ORGANISING COMMITTEE
SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE
ISES COUNCIL MEMBERS
WEBSITE COORDINATORS
ORGANISING SECRETARIAT
T
7
7
7
7
7
WELCOME
8
MEMO FROM PRESIDENT, RDS
9
TIMETABLE – DAY 1
10
TIMETABLE – DAY 2
13
TIMETABLE – DAY 3
16
DAY 1
18
The horse-human dyad: Practise PERFECT to PERFECT practice
Eric Smiley
An investigation into personality correlates of elite and amateur riders and their horses
Inga A Wolframm1,2, Dominic Micklewright2
19
19
20
20
Horse sense: social status of horses (Equus caballus) affects their likelihood of copying other horses’
behaviour
21
Konstanze Krueger, Juergen Heinze
Visual memory and rider experience in a show-jumping context
Carol Hall1, Charlotte Liley1, Jack Murphy2, David Crundall3
21
22
22
The use of vignette methodology to maintain engagement by respondents, in a Delphi study exploring
the perception and heightening the awareness of equine welfare
23
Joe Collins, Alison Hanlon, Simon J. More, Patrick Wall, Vivienne Duggan
Evaluating learning theory in horses and donkeys when presented with a novel task
Camie Heleski, Amy McLean, Laura Bauson
Rider asymmetry within equitation: Preliminary observations
Debbie Symes, Robert Ellis
23
24
24
25
25
Changes in heart rate during road transport of horses for one, 3.5 and 8 hours
26
The additive effect of stress and genotype on learning systems; implications for equine training
27
Christiane Wehnert1, Alice Schmidt1, Jörg Aurich2, Jürgen Müller1, Christine Aurich1,2
SD McBride
Horse Sport Ireland Coaching Programme
Alison Corbally
26
27
28
28
The use of training aids (gadgets) within equitation: Meritorious or detrimental?
29
Para Equestrian: extraordinary people, special horses and unequivocal equitation
30
SMART: Sensitivity Models for Animals in Response to Training
31
Jack Murphy1, Andrew McLean2, Paul McGreevy3, Fiona Sheridan4, Pat Hanly4
Eilish Byrne1, Niall Quirke1, Jack Murphy2
PD. McGreevy1, AN. McLean2, K Keay3, PC. Thomson1
29
30
31
Estimating actual and minimum trajectories of the performance horse when jumping fences of given
dimensions
32
Robert L Wood
Stretching regime effects on stride length and range of motion in equine trot
Rose, N. S., Northrop, A. J., Brigden, C. V., Martin, J. H.
Weighted boots alter the jump stride kinematics in the performance horse
Jack Murphy
32
33
33
34
34
1
DAY 2
35
The horse-human dyad: Does physical training of horses have to be attritional and can we ever
resolve performance and welfare?
David J Marlin
Stimulus' perception in horses: Using Heart Rate (HR) as an appropriate indicator
Paolo Baragli, Chiara Mariti, Francesco De Giorgio, Claudio Sighieri
36
36
37
37
Changes in heart rate during the initial training period of three-year-old warmblood sport horse
stallions
38
Alice Schmidt1, Stefanie Neuhauser2, Jörg Aurich2, Jürgen Müller1, Christine Aurich1,2
Horse owners’ experiences of (horses) going barefoot
Emma Creighton, Kiran Jones
Exercise during training affects racing performance in Thoroughbreds
Kristien L P Verheyen1, Joanna S Price2, James L N Wood3
38
39
39
40
40
The effect of two different training methods on the behaviour, heart rate and performance of horses
41
Kathalijne Visser1, Lotte Rijksen2, Andrea Ellis3, Kees Van Reenen1, Machteld Van Dierendonck4
41
Preliminary investigations of horses' (Equus caballus) responses to bitted and bitless bridles during
foundation training
42
Jessica S Quick1, Amanda K Warren-Smith2
42
Colour vision in the horse
43
The effects of goal-setting on self-efficacy and performance in the showjumping rider
44
Effects on behaviour and rein tension in horses ridden with/without martingales and rein inserts
45
Roth, L.S.V1., Balkenius, A2., Kelber, A1
Pepijn Ott1,2, Mari Zetterqvist Blokhuis2, Inga A Wolframm1
N.L. Smith1, C.R. Heleski1, P.D. McGreevy2, L. Kaiser3, N. Bello4, H.M. Clayton3
43
44
45
The effects of a treeless and treed saddle on stride length, neck length and shoulder range of motion
in the horse
46
Brigden, C. V., Burton, K. J., Northrop, A. J.
46
The horse-human dyad: Improving rider stability and biomechanics through coaching with sensoryspecific-language
47
Mary Wanless
47
Overcoming hidden pain in the ridden horse: Predictable patterns of myofascial dysfunction in the
equine body
48
Dianne Y Jenkins
Movement and reflex responses of the horse’s neck, withers and back
Mary Bromiley
Horse communication: A practical demonstration
Kateřina Santarová
Horsemanship: Conventional, Natural and Equitation Science
Deborah Goodwin1, Paul McGreevy2, Natalie Waran3, Andrew McLean4
What is Ethical Horse Training?
Natalie Waran
48
49
49
50
50
51
51
52
52
Vendor and purchaser expectations: Differential market segment requirements for sport horses
53
Habituation and object generalisation in horses
54
Building a scale of behavioural indicators of stress in domestic horses
55
Karen Hennessy1, Katherine Quinn2, Mary Lambkin3, Jack Murphy2
Janne Winther Christensen1, Tatjana Zharkikh2, Jan Ladewig3
Tamsin Hughes, Emma Creighton, Rob Coleman
53
54
55
An investigation of the health and welfare of horses transported long distances for slaughter in the
European Union
56
David J Marlin1, Keith Meldrum2, Peter Kettlewell3, Tim Parkin4, Mark Kennedy5, Jo White2, Caroline
Heard2, James Wood6
DAY 3
56
57
The horse-human dyad: Can we align horse training and handling activities with the equid
ethogram?
58
Breeding value estimation in Hungarian Sport Horse populations
59
Paul McGreevy1, Francis Burton2 , Andrew McLean3
58
2
János Posta, István Komlósi, Sándor Mihók
59
The prevalence of ridden behaviour problems in the UK leisure horse population and associated risk
factors
60
Jo Hockenhull, Emma Creighton
Comparison of the effects of positive and negative reinforcement during training on the humanequine relationship
Carol Sankey, Marie-Annick Richard-Yris, Martine Hausberger
Human/horse relationship quality: Similar equine perception of humans reflected in different
situations
C. Fureix, P. Jego, M. Hausberger
Investigating horse-human interactions
Linda J Keeling, Lovisa Lanneborn, Liv Jonare
Can a simple problem-solving task be used to assess Learned Helplessness in horses?
Hayley Randle
60
61
61
62
62
63
63
64
64
Equine Chronobiology – An emerging scientific field with implications for health and performance in
the horse
65
Barbara A. Murphy
Equine influenza epidemics in immunologically naïve and partially immune horse populations
Ann Cullinane, Michelle Quinlivan, Maura Nelly, Sarah Gildea, Pamela Lyons
65
66
66
Completion and treatment rates in modern endurance racing
67
Can we improve short-term memory in the horse?
68
David J Marlin1, John McEwen2, Frits Sluyter3
Jack Murphy
POSTER SECTION
Initial acceptance of novel flavours in diets offered to stabled horses
Elaine Hart1, Deborah Goodwin1, Pat Harris2
67
68
69
70
70
Does the provision of creep feed post-weaning affect the development of oral stereotypies in foals
(Equus caballus)?
71
T. Parnell, D. Goodwin
Husbandry factors and the incidence of stereotypy in Irish Racehorses
Noelle Carroll, Sean Arkins
Are there ‘optimal timeframes’ for handling the foal (Equus caballus)?
Figueiredo, I¹; Costa, H²; Meireles J¹, Rosa, I¹.
71
72
72
73
73
An investigation into personality traits of elite, amateur and non-riders
74
Anxiety and self-confidence among elite and non-elite equestrian riders
75
Inga A Wolframm1,2, Dominic Micklewright2
Inga A Wolframm1,2, Dominic Micklewright2
74
75
An investigation into personality traits of equestrian riders, grooms and managers of equine
businesses
76
Behavioural repertoires of Irish thoroughbred (TB) yearling horses
77
Inga A Wolframm1,2, Dominic Micklewright2
Jack Murphy
The extent of abnormal behaviours observed in a cohort of Irish thoroughbred (TB) weanlingyearling horses
Jack Murphy
The incidence of stereotypy in Irish thoroughbred (TB) horses sold at auction
Jack Murphy
A preliminary investigation into the effectiveness of different halter types used on horses
Belinda J. McDonald, Amanda K. Warren-Smith
76
77
78
78
79
79
80
80
Keeping riding horses in groups – a descriptive study on the common procedure of separating a
horse from the group for riding or training purposes
81
Effects of diet on learning and responsive behaviour of young foals
82
Grete Helen Meisfjord Jørgensen1, Kjersti Elisabeth Fremstad1, Cecilie Marie Mejdell2, Knut Egil Bøe1
Becky C Hothersall1, Christine J Nicol1, Ailison Kelland2, Patricia A Harris3
81
82
Using a treadmill to normalize different physiological parameters in the Spanish Pure Bred Horse 83
María Dolores Rubio, Estrella I. Agüera, Rafael Santisteban, Pura Tovar, Rafael Vivo, Fernando Arroyo,
Begoña M. Escribano
83
3
Relationship between stifle-hock-fetlock angulation in free-jumping and jumping capacity of horses
84
Sándor Jónás1, István Komlósi2, János Posta2, Sándor Mihók2
84
Balance performance in showjumping versus dressage riders
85
Victoria Leisk, Jenni Johnson
85
The effectiveness of equine assisted activities on positive and negative behaviours of children with
learning disabilities
86
Olga J M Braat, Inga A Wolframm
Can standardised behaviour tests predict suitability for use in horses?
Rachel Flentje, Emma Creighton
Goal-related educational staircase in show jumping
Morgan, K., Pettersson, A-C., Berggren, E., Zetterqvist Blokhuis, M.
Relationship between rider’s aerobic fitness and heart rate during a show jumping course
Rachel S McCarthy, Jenni Johnson
Behavioural reactions of horses ridden by beginner riders
Michela Minero, Serena De Moliner, Elisabetta Canali
Equestrian Coaching: An action research approach to equitation teaching and learning
Lisa Beard
Preferences of riders for selected dimensions of horses’ traits – preliminary results
86
87
87
88
88
89
89
90
90
91
91
92
Aleksandra Górecka1, Michał H Chruszczewski2, Zbigniew Jaworski3, Małgorzata Golonka4, Magdalena
Pieszka5, Bogusława Długosz5, Marta Walczak1
92
Consequences of fluctuations in density and group composition on social behaviour of group housed
horses
93
Marc Pierard
Information wanted: where do horse owners seek advice about issues affecting their horses?
Jo Hockenhull, Emma Creighton
The influence of filler pole layout on jumping technique of horses
Albert Bracun, Carol A Hall, Andrea D Ellis
The effects of gender on learning ability in the horse
E.L. Blundell, A.J. Northrop, J.H. Martin
93
94
94
95
95
96
96
Weight of the reins technique is most appropriate for both horse and rider in equitation
97
Changing attitudes towards horses’ defensive aggression body language communication
98
Nelly Valère1, Francis Desbrosse2
Anneliese Durant, Emma Creighton
Communicating research findings on behavioural enrichment of stables
Helen Messer, Emma Creighton
Investigating training surfaces as a risk factor for injury in UK dressage horses
Hannah Snart1, Tim Parkin2, Rachel Murray3
The role of alternative forages in satisfying both physiological and psychological demands of
domesticated equidae
Catherine E Hale1, Andrew J Hemmings2
97
98
99
99
100
100
101
101
The effects of prior handling experiences on the stress responses of semi-feral foals presented at
auction
102
C.E. Hale1, G. Laycock1, A. J. Hemmings2
Fulfilling the educational aims of the International Society for Equitation Science (ISES)
Hayley Randle, Lorna Button
102
103
103
Association of facial hair whorl direction and motor laterality during grazing in the domestic horse
(Equus caballus)
104
Hayley Randle1, Liz Francis2, Paul McGreevy3
Factors affecting prices of Thoroughbred (TB) foals in the Irish market
Julia Luehr, Sean Arkins
Analysis of peri-parturient and postnatal behaviours in TB mares and foals on Irish Farms
Soraya Morscher, Sean Arkins
A comparison of coarse and pelleted compound feed for horses
B. Younge, G. O’Neill, S. Arkins
104
105
105
106
106
107
107
Detection of emotionality in horses during physical activity
108
Factors influencing gastric ulceration in Irish racehorses
109
F Jansen1, J Van der Krogt1, K Van Loon1, V Avezzù2, M Guarino2, S Quanten1, D Berckmans1
Niamh K. Morrissey1, Maureen Prendergast1, Christopher R. Bellenger2
108
109
4
The contribution of craniosacral therapy to the rehabilitation of problem horses
110
Point-to-Point Racing in Ireland – A Critical Review 2000-2007
111
Mike Harrison1, Johanna Macarthur2, Alison Wakelin2
Carol Quish, Sean Arkins
The effect of forage nonstructural carbohydrate on glycemic response
Lindsay A Perry1, Bridget A Younge1, Catherine S Ballard2
110
111
112
112
Merits of an automated system in determining and implementing optimal feeding schedules for the
stabled horse
113
J.P. Monahan1, Jack Murphy2
An Evaluation of a Trickle Feeding System for Horses
Siobhan Hardman1, JP Monahan2, Bridget Younge1
113
114
114
Are there advantages to a cantilevered saddle over traditional English and western type saddles? 115
Martin Ryan1, Jack Murphy2
Horse trials: Fence design and cross-country falls
Emma Ponsonby, Karen Hennessy
115
116
116
Equestrian participation: A case study of the Irish Sport Horse Industry
117
The changing nature of Sport horse ownership: A case study of the Irish Sport Horse Industry
118
Karen Hennessy1, Katherine Quinn2
Karen Hennessy1, Katherine Quinn2
117
118
A comparison of Linear versus Traditional Scoring Models for assessment of conformation traits in
Irish Draught Horses
119
Elaine Breen, Sean Arkins
Conformation traits of Irish Draught (ID) horses: changes over time
Elaine Breen, Sean Arkins
NOTES
119
120
120
121
5
Credits
The ISES Dublin 2008 Local Organising Committee and the Scientific Committee of
the International Society for Equitation Science gratefully acknowledge and sincerely
thank the following entities for their generous assistance in ensuring the success of
ISES Dublin 2008.
• School of Agriculture, Food Science and Veterinary Medicine, University
College Dublin (UCD)
~ http://www.ucd.ie/agfoodvet/index.html
• Royal Dublin Society (RDS) ~ http://www.rds.ie
• RED MILLS ~ http://www.redmills.ie/
• Irish Sport Horse ~ http://www.irishsporthorse.com
• Horse Sport Ireland (HSI) ~ http://www.horsesportireland.ie/
• Irish Army Equitation School ~
http://www.military.ie/army/specialists/equit/index.htm
• World Horse Welfare (WHW) ~ http://www.worldhorsewelfare.org/
• Fáilte Ireland, ~ http://www.failteireland.ie/
• IRCSET ~ http://www.ircset.ie/
© School of Agriculture, Food Science and Veterinary Medicine, University
College Dublin, (UCD) ~ http://www.ucd.ie/agfoodvet/index.html
6
ISES Dublin 2008
Local Organising Committee
Jack Murphy, Karen Hennessy, Patrick Wall, Joe Collins, Pat Hanly, Fiona
Sheridan, Anne Murphy, Emma Murphy, Elke Hartmann
Scientific Committee
Deborah Goodwin, Jack Murphy, Andrew McLean, Camie Heleski, Hayley
Randle, Patrick Wall, Natalie Waran, Paul McGreevy
ISES Council Members
Deborah Goodwin, Andrew McLean, Natalie Waran, Hayley Randle,
Machteld van Dierendonck, Elke Hartmann, Lisa Beard, Kathalijne VisserRiedstra, Amanda Warren-Smith, Jack Murphy
Website coordinators
Elke Hartmann, Jack Murphy
Organising Secretariat
Dr Jack Murphy
School of Agriculture, Food Science and Veterinary Medicine
University College Dublin
Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland.
Tel: 00353 87 2843070
Email: Jack.Murphy@ucd.ie
7
Welcome
Dear Delegates
As Chair of the Local Organising Committee, it gives me great pleasure to welcome
you to Ireland for ISES Dublin 2008. This annual meeting of the International
Society for Equitation Science is both timely and appropriate as the horse holds a
special place in the social and economic fabric of Irish culture and Ireland is (per
capita) presently the most densely equine populated country in Europe.
The theme for ISES Dublin 2008 is 'The Horse-human dyad: How can we improve
our understanding of equine training, performance and welfare simultaneously'. I
believe that this theme is extremely appropriate in view of ever-increasing demands
for athleticism and performance within equestrian sports and equine production
systems.
I look forward to the presentations of the latest research in the field of equitation
science. I also look forward to lively debate given the anticipated full attendance at
the conference. This gathering of equitation scientists, industry leaders and policy
makers will provide an opportunity to exchange experiences and ideas and to help
plot a course for the future of equitation science within the global equine community.
I would like to thank all those people sincerely, who have contributed in any way to
the organisation of this much anticipated meeting. We have an exciting scientific
programme and I am very confident that the meeting arrangements and social
programme will ensure a successful and enjoyable ISES Dublin 2008.
Céad Míle Fáilte – One Hundred Thousand Welcomes.
Dr Jack Murphy
Chair, Local Organising Committee, ISES Dublin 2008
8
Memo from President, RDS
Dear ISES Dublin 2008 delegates
The RDS is pleased to welcome delegates to the 4th International Equitation Science
Conference.
Founded in 1731, the Society has always interested itself in equine matters. In 1744,
the RDS offered a ‘premium’ for the importation of stallions with the clear aim to
improve the quality of the Irish horse.
The need for continued improvement has always been a central theme in our work at
the RDS. The first Horse Show, held in 1868, had showing classes, which included
‘thoroughbred sires’, hunters, brood mares, weight carrying cobs and roadsters,
‘officer’s chargers’ and ‘agricultural stallions’ (the forerunner of the Irish draught
stallion).
To-day, our equitation programme aims to support the Irish Sport Horse breeder and
producer with unique opportunity to showcase the best Irish bred horses, and by
developing a market place for such horses, and setting equitation standards and
rewarding improvements in equine breeding and performance.
I hope that the ISES Dublin 2008 conference will be fruitful with far reaching
scientific developments in an area, which clearly links the aims of the International
Society for Equitation Science with ours in the RDS.
Dr Tony Scott
President, RDS
9
Timetable – Day 1
Friday 1st August
19.00
Welcome Reception
Registration – Members Club RDS
Saturday 2nd August
07.45
Registration, loading PowerPoint Presentations and Poster set-ups
08.25
Welcome to ISES Dublin 2008
Introductory remarks & general housekeeping issues
Chair, ISES Dublin 2008 LOC: Dr Jack Murphy
President RDS: Dr Tony Scott
RDS Show Director: Mr Pat Hanly
08.45
09.35
Plenary 1
Chair: Mr Damian McDonald Eric Smiley: The horse-human dyad: Practise PERFECT to
PERFECT practice
Oral 1
Chair: Dr Debbie Goodwin
Inga A Wolframm, Dominic Micklewright: An investigation into
personality correlates of elite and amateur riders and their horses
09.55
Konstanze Krueger, Juergen Heinze: Horse sense: social status of
horses (Equus caballus) affects their likelihood of copying other
horses’ behaviour
10.15
Carol Hall, Charlotte Liley, Jack Murphy, David Crundall: Visual
memory and rider experience in a show-jumping context
10.35
Joe Collins, Alison Hanlon, Simon J. More, Patrick Wall, Vivienne
Duggan: The use of vignette methodology to maintain engagement
by respondents, in a Delphi study exploring the perception and
heightening the awareness of equine welfare
10.55
Coffee break and poster viewing
Facilitator: Joe Collins
10
11.30
Oral 2
Chair: Prof Natalie Waran
Camie Heleski, Amy McLean, Laura Bauson: Evaluating learning
theory in horses and donkeys when presented with a novel task
11.50
Debbie Symes, Robert Ellis: Rider asymmetry within equitation:
Preliminary observations
12.10
Christiane Wehnert, Alice Schmidt, Jörg Aurich, Jürgen Müller,
Christine Aurich: Changes in heart rate during road transport of
horses for one, 3.5 and 8 hours
12.30
Sebastian D McBride: The additive effect of stress and genotype on
learning systems; implications for equine training
13.00
Lunch break
Practical Session 1
14.10
Co-Chairs: Dr Andrew McLean & Karen Hennessy
Introduction to Practical Session
Lt. Col. Gerry O Gorman and the Irish Army Equitation School
Alison Corbally: Horse Sport Ireland Coaching Programme
Jack Murphy, Andrew McLean, Paul McGreevy, Fiona Sheridan,
Pat Hanly: The use of training aids (gadgets) within equitation:
Meritorious or detrimental?
Eilish Byrne, Niall Quirke, Jack Murphy: Para Equestrian:
extraordinary people, special horses and unequivocal equitation
16.00
16.40
Coffee break and poster viewing
Facilitator: Elke Hartmann
Oral 3
Chair: Dr Hayley Randle
PD. McGreevy, AN. McLean, K Keay, PC. Thomson: SMART:
Sensitivity Models for Animals in Response to Training
11
17.00
Robert L Wood: Estimating actual and minimum trajectories of the
performance horse when jumping fences of given dimensions
17.20
Rose, N. S., Northrop, A. J., Brigden, C. V., Martin, J. H:
Stretching regime effects on stride length and range of motion in
equine trot
17.40
Jack Murphy: Weighted boots alter the jump stride kinematics in the
performance horse
19.30
ISES Dublin 2008 Dinner
Venue: O’ Connell’s Restaurant, Bewley’s Ballsbridge
12
Timetable – Day 2
Sunday 3rd August
07.50
Registration, loading PowerPoint Presentations
08.15
Welcome to ISES Dublin 2008 (day 2)
Introductory remarks & general housekeeping issues
Chair: Dr Jack Murphy
08.25
Plenary 2
Chair: Prof Patrick Wall
David J Marlin: The horse-human dyad: Does physical training of
horses have to be attritional and can we ever resolve performance and
welfare?
09.00
Oral 4
Chair: Dr Camie Heleski
Paolo Baragli, Chiara Mariti, Francesco De Giorgio, Claudio
Sighieri: Stimulus' perception in horses: Using Heart Rate (HR) as an
appropriate indicator
09.20
Alice Schmidt, Stefanie Neuhauser, Jörg Aurich, Jürgen Müller,
Christine Aurich: Changes in heart rate during the initial training
period of three-year-old warmblood sport horse stallions
09.40
Emma Creighton and Kiran Jones: Horse owners’ experiences of
(horses) going barefoot
10.00
Kristien L P Verheyen, Joanna S Price, James L N Wood: Exercise
during training affects racing performance in Thoroughbreds
10.20
Kathalijne Visser, Lotte Rijksen, Andrea Ellis, Kees Van Reenen,
Machteld Van Dierendonck: The effect of two different training
methods on the behaviour, heart rate and performance of horses
10.40
Coffee break and poster viewing
Facilitator: Lisa Beard
13
11.20
Oral 5
Chair: Dr Carol Hall
Jessica S Quick, Amanda K Warren-Smith: Preliminary
investigations of horses' (Equus caballus) responses to bitted and
bitless bridles during foundation training
11.40
Roth, L.S.V., Balkenius, A., Kelber, A: Colour vision in the horse
12.00
Pepijn Ott, Mari Zetterqvist Blokhuis, Inga A Wolframm: The
effects of goal-setting on self-efficacy and performance in the
showjumping rider
12.20
N.L. Smith, C.R. Heleski, P.D. McGreevy, L. Kaiser, N. Bello,
H.M. Clayton: Effects on behaviour and rein tension in horses ridden
with/without martingales and rein inserts
12.40
Brigden, C. V., Burton, K. J., Northrop, A. J: The effects of a
treeless and treed saddle on stride length, neck length and shoulder
range of motion in the horse
13.00
Lunch break
14.10
Practical Session 2
Co-Chairs: Dr Andrew McLean & Karen Hennessy
Mary Wanless: The horse-human dyad: Improving rider stability and
biomechanics through coaching with sensory-specific-language
Dianne Y Jenkins: Overcoming hidden pain in the ridden horse:
Predictable patterns of myofascial dysfunction in the equine body
Mary Bromily: Movement and reflex responses of the horses neck,
withers and back
Kateřina Santarová:
demonstration
15.40
Horse
communication:
A
practical
Coffee break
14
16.00
Discussion Forum
Chair: Prof Frank Ödberg
Deborah Goodwin, Paul McGreevy, Natalie Waran, Andrew
McLean: Horsemanship: Conventional, Natural and Equitation
Science
Natalie Waran: What is Ethical Horse Training?
17.00
Oral 6
Chair: Dr Amanda Warren-Smith
Karen Hennessy, Katherine Quinn, Mary Lambkin, Jack
Murphy: Vendor and purchaser expectations: Differential market
segment requirements for sport horses
17.20
Janne Winther Christensen, Tatjana Zharkikh, Jan Ladewig:
Habituation and object generalisation in horses
17.40
Tamsin Hughes, Emma Creighton, Rob Coleman: Building a scale
of behavioural indicators of stress in domestic horses
18.00
David J Marlin, Keith Meldrum, Peter Kettlewell, Tim Parkin,
Mark Kennedy, Jo White, Caroline Heard, James Wood: An
investigation of the health and welfare of horses transported long
distances for slaughter in the European Union
15
Timetable – Day 3
Monday 4th August
07.50
Registration, loading PowerPoint Presentations
08.10
Welcome to ISES Dublin 2008 (day 3)
Introductory remarks
Chair: Dr Jack Murphy
08.20
09.00
Plenary 3
Chair: Dr Kathalijne Visser-Riedstra
Paul McGreevy, Francis Burton, Andrew McLean: The horsehuman dyad: Can we align horse training and handling activities
with the equid ethogram?
Oral 7
Dr Machteld van Dierendonck
János Posta, István Komlósi, Sándor Mihók: Breeding value
estimation in Hungarian Sport Horse populations
09.20
Jo Hockenhull, Emma Creighton: The prevalence of ridden
behaviour problems in the UK leisure horse population and
associated risk factors
09.40
Carol
Sankey,
Marie-Annick
Richard-Yris,
Martine
Hausberger: Comparison of the effects of positive and negative
reinforcement during training on the human-equine relationship
10.00
C. Fureix, P. Jego, M. Hausberger: Human/horse relationship
quality: Similar equine perception of humans reflected in different
situations
10.20
Linda J Keeling, Lovisa Lanneborn, Liv Jonare: Investigating
horse-human interactions
16
10.40
11.10
Coffee break and Final Poster viewing
Oral 8
Chair: Prof Jan Ladewig
Hayley Randle: Can a simple problem-solving task be used to
assess Learned Helplessness in horses?
11.30
Barbara A. Murphy: Equine Chronobiology – An emerging
scientific field with implications for health and performance in the
horse
11.50
Ann Cullinane, Michelle Quinlivan, Maura Nelly, Sarah Gildea,
Pamela Lyons: Epidemics of equine influenza in immunologically
naïve and partially immune horse populations
12.10
David J Marlin, John McEwen, Frits Sluyter: The horse-human
dyad: Welfare in endurance racing
12.30
Jack Murphy: Can we improve short-term memory in the horse?
12.55
ISES AGM
Chair: Dr Debbie Goodwin
14.15
Close of ISES Dublin 2008
17
Day 1
www.equitationscience.com
18
The horse-human dyad: Practise PERFECT to PERFECT practice
Eric Smiley
Fir Tree Farm, Black's Lane, Ballynahinch, Co. Down, Northern Ireland. BT24 8UT
Every generation says “it wasn't like this in my day", which of course is true.
Times change and the world moves on. Sport changed irrevocably when the press
was full of those haunting pictures of the disgraced athlete Ben Johnson, who
having won the ultimate – Olympic Gold – then plummeted to the bottom of the
world order. All because he had to win at all costs. Sport was never going to
recover and is still trying to deal with the fall-out of people taking short cuts.
Equestrianism is no different. However, the short cuts in equestrianism are not just
drugs and the result is not disgrace – but it can be terminal. The ‘making’ of a
horse has always taken time and nothing has changed because, unlike the modern
world, the horse has not changed. He is still much the same as he has been for
thousands of years. Even with selective breeding he has not gone faster or higher.
His way of learning has not changed, yet we place increased expectation on his
abilities. We assume ‘intelligence’ beyond capabilities and blame him when he
fails to live up to expectations. He is without doubt a generous animal who, given
half a chance, tries to please. The question is – does the riding and training today
allow that chance? The riders are, of course, a product of today – always in a
hurry. Training is readily available but too eager to pamper to ‘sound bite’. It
sounds good but lacks substance or validity. It takes time and expertise to produce
riders and horses that are capable of going cross-country safely. It takes time to
ensure that a skill learnt by both horse and rider becomes a habit that is secure
even under the challenge of competition pressure. Pressure normally produces an
instinctive response – it is the function of good training to ensure that this
instinctive response is the correct reaction. We should aim to practise PERFECT
in order to PERFECT practice. Short-term methods fall apart when put under
pressure. The horse’s method of learning is ‘conditioned reflex’. This
conditioning requires a thoughtful regime that relates all activities of the horsehuman dyad to the ultimate way the horse behaves and performs. Isolated and
inconstant practise will produce an erratic and inconsistent performance. The sport
of Eventing is the ultimate test of Equestrianism, combining the grace and finesse
of Dressage, the accuracy and athleticism of Show Jumping and the courage and
endurance of Cross-Country. Eventing and the other equestrian sports present an
exciting future and we, as custodians, must ensure that they fulfil their promise on
merit and not just at all costs. We must always avoid short cuts and we must
always be fair to the horse.
19
An investigation into personality correlates of elite and amateur
riders and their horses
Inga A Wolframm1,2, Dominic Micklewright2
1
University of Applied Science, Van Hall Larenstein (Wageningen UR), Postbus
411
6700 AK Wageningen, NL
2
University of Essex, Wivenhoe Park, Colchester CO4 3SQ, UK
The compatibility of horse-rider relationships is considered an important factor in
effective performance. The purpose of this study was to identify compatibility
patterns between the personality traits of riders and their horses. Thirty-one riders
(8 elite and 23 amateur) completed the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (rider
personality) and a 15-item equine personality questionnaire (horse personality).
Equine personality questionnaire responses were analysed using principal
component analysis with varimax rotation to determine the primary components of
horse personality. Two equine personality components were found, labelled
dependability and cleverness that accounted for 22.6% and 19.2% of the variance
in horse personality. The compatibility of horse-rider personality was investigated
by correlating horse dependability and cleverness against the various rider NEO
PI-R scores using Pearson’s product-moment correlations. There was a positive
correlation between elite rider gregariousness and horse cleverness (r=.74, p<.05).
Horse dependability was found to be negatively correlated with the amateur rider
trait of ideas (r=-.5, p<.05) and positively correlated with rider compliance (r=.42,
p<.05). Horse cleverness was found to be positively correlated with the amateur
rider trait of depression (r=.69, p<.001) and negatively correlated with rider
assertiveness (r=-.52, p<.05) and positive emotions (r=-.58, p<.01). Results
suggest that riders consider equine temperament to be largely determined by
aspects relating to dependability and cleverness. A strong relationship was found
between extroversion in elite riders and clever, spirited horses that may reflect the
higher degree of technical skills and demands required at this level. Less assertive
and more emotionally expressive amateur riders were associated with reliable but
less intelligent traits in horses. The findings indicate differences between the
relationships elite and amateur riders have with their horses.
20
Horse sense: social status of horses (Equus caballus) affects their
likelihood of copying other horses’ behaviour
Konstanze Krueger, Juergen Heinze
University of Regensburg, Department Biology 1, Zoology, Universitätsstraße 31,
93053 Regensburg, Germany
Animals that live in stable social groups need to gather information on their own
relative position in the groups’ social hierarchy. They achieve this by directly
threatening or challenging others, or in a less costly manner, by observing
interactions among others. Such indirect inference of dominance relationships has
previously been reported in primates, rats, birds, and fish. The objective of this
study was to investigate if horses were capable of similar social cognition. Using a
specific ‘following behaviour’ that horses can learn to show towards humans in a
riding arena, we investigated whether bystander horses adjust their response to an
experimenter according to the observed interaction and their own dominance
relationship with the horse whose reaction to the experimenter they had observed.
Potential influences of different age, sex, size, duration of residency in the social
group, duration of the chasing time of demonstrators, and previous experience of
bystanders in ‘‘round pen training’’ on the following behaviour of bystanders were
investigated, using Generalized Estimating Equations (GEEs), but there were no
significant associations between these valuables (all p>0.05). The change in the
behaviour of bystander horses was investigated using a Wilcoxon rank sum test
and a Fisher’s exact test for comparing the probability of following grades of
bystanders matching those of demonstrator horses in tests 1, 3, and 4. Horses
copied the following behaviour towards an experimenter after watching a
dominant horse following (Fisher’s exact test: N=12, p=0.003 and Wilcoxon rank
sum test: N=9, W=3.5, p=0.001), but did not follow after observing a subordinate
horse (Fisher’s exact test: N=14, P=0.210) or a horse from another social group
doing so (Fisher’s exact test: N=8, p=0.460). Therefore, the following behaviour,
which horses show towards an experimenter, appears to be affected by the
demonstrator horses` behaviour and social status relative to the observer.
21
Visual memory and rider experience in a show-jumping context
Carol Hall1, Charlotte Liley1, Jack Murphy2, David Crundall3
1
School of Animal, Rural and Environmental Sciences, Nottingham Trent
University, Brackenhurst Campus, Southwell, Nottinghamshire, NG25 0QF, UK
2
School of Agriculture, Food Science and Veterinary Medicine, UCD, Dublin,
Ireland
3
Accident Research Unit, School of Psychology, University of Nottingham, NG7
2RD, UK
Experience within sport develops the skill of visual attention. While attempting to
jump fences optimally, showjumping riders should direct attention towards the
point that determines clearance of the obstacle – typically the highest central point.
Subsequent recall of visual information will depend upon this focus of attention.
The aim of this study was to assess the effect of reported riding experience on the
recall of visual information relating to showjumping fences. We identified two
points of focus (F1 & F2) in a series of 22 photographs of showjumping fences.
F1 was the relevant point of focus when riding towards the fence while F2 was an
irrelevant alternative. We constructed a multiple-choice slide for each of the 22
photographs, which displayed four comparable sections, one of which was from
the original photograph (F1s from 11 photographs and F2s from the other 11
photographs). Students (n = 40) with varying levels of horse riding experience
participated in the study. They formed one of four groups following completion of
a questionnaire: non-riders, novice riders, intermediate riders and advanced riders.
The task was to identify the section that had appeared in the original slide (A, B, C
or D). The photographs were shown to the participants for four seconds then the
multiple-choice slide was displayed for ten seconds. F1s were recalled
significantly more often than F2s (p<0.001). Riding experience did not affect
overall recall but there was a significant interaction between experience group and
relevance (p<0.05). Only the intermediate and advanced riders recalled the F1s
significantly better than the F2s (p<0.05 and p<0.001 respectively). Recall of F1s
was significantly correlated with reported riding experience (p<0.05). Training in
visual attention techniques (both on and off the horse) would improve ridden
performance and could reduce the number of accidents associated with lack of
experience and/or rider error.
22
The use of vignette methodology to maintain engagement by
respondents, in a Delphi study exploring the perception and
heightening the awareness of equine welfare
Joe Collins, Alison Hanlon, Simon J. More, Patrick Wall, Vivienne Duggan
UCD Veterinary Sciences Centre, School of Agriculture, Food Science and
Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
The iterative Delphi method allows invited respondents to communicate their
opinions anonymously, and refine their stance between rounds. Maintaining the
participation of key personnel within stakeholder groups is critical: to achieve
goals of gathering informed views, heightening awareness, disseminating
information effectively and formulating workable policy initiatives. A three round
web-based Policy Delphi, with inter-round feedback, was constructed to study the
perception of equine welfare in Ireland. In Round One, 44 respondents from
industry, government and charity sectors were presented with 29 vignettes
(narratives illustrating potential horse welfare issues) for grading on a nine point
Likert scale for “Acceptability” (0 = maximal to 8 = minimal) and ‘Frequency of
occurance’ (0 = never to 8 = commonly). Vignettes were grouped for analysis into
three categories, based on the Five Freedoms: ‘Essential basic needs’(6), ‘Physical
insult’ (14) and ‘Psychological injury’ (9). Respondents’ grade scores were
analysed for 25th, 50th and 75th percentiles. Twenty-six vignettes showed close
agreement (50th percentile between 6 and 8) for (un)acceptability. Percentiles for
vignettes depicting forward facing transport, stallions with 450 covers in a 5month period and the cosmetic enhancement of show ponies were 0.25, 2.5, 5.75;
1, 3, 7; and 1, 3, 6 respectively. ‘Frequency of occurance’ percentiles were used to
compile a list of situations where equine welfare might most likely be
compromised. These were presented in Round Two, for grading as before.
Percentile analysis of Round Two grades yielded a ranking of the agreed perceived
most significant issues: behaviour at unregulated/unlicenced gatherings (5, 6.5, 8
for sales; 4, 6, 7 for races) and during the disposal of horses (3, 5, 6 for slaughter
facilites; 2.25, 4, 6 for dealers; 2, 3.5, 6 for transport overseas). These were
illustrated by vignettes in Round Three for detailed exploration of the desireability
and feasibility of improving standards. All respondents completed all rounds.
(Supported by a WHW Fellowship)
23
Evaluating learning theory in horses and donkeys when presented with a
novel task
Camie Heleski, Amy McLean, Laura Bauson
Department of Animal Science, 1250 Anthony Hall, Michigan State University, East
Lansing, MI 48824, US
There are approximately 55 million horses and 44 million donkeys worldwide, yet few
studies have examined learning behaviour in donkeys, or compared learning across
Equidae. Anecdotal observations suggest that handlers frequently resort to harsh
treatment to get animals to cross novel surfaces. We recently evaluated learning theory
when adding positive reinforcement (PR) to negative reinforcement (NR) in horses
(n=34) and donkeys (n=36). The NR strategy was employed where the halter and lead
were pulled and pressure was released when the subjects stepped forward. PR followed
the same procedure, but the subjects were given grain for each step forward (NR + PR).
However, during a pre-trial with 10 donkeys, none of the subjects responded to PR.
Subsequently, PR was altered to luring (L); i.e. food was held in front of the donkey to
entice it. The donkey received food whenever it stepped forward. Horses were assigned
to NR or NR + PR. Donkeys were assigned to NR or NR + L. Subjects were observed
for 10 min and if they did not cross, were categorized as failures. The results were: 65%
crossed in NR (horse), 78% in NR (donkey); 82% in NR + PR (horse) and 72% in NR +
L (donkey) (n.s.d. between treatments – horses (p=0.07); n.s.d. between treatments –
donkeys (p=0.66); n.s.d. between NR only – horses to donkeys (p=0.11); PR and L were
not identical treatments, thus we could not make that comparison. Time to make the
first crossing, and total time to achieve calmness did not differ significantly between
horses and donkeys (p=0.75 and 0.87). In animals that crossed, time to second crossing
was significantly faster than first crossing (p=0.05 horses; p=0.04 donkeys). This study
provides evidence that alternatives to harsh treatment exist for getting most horses and
donkeys to cross novel surfaces, and those alternatives typically take less than 10 min.
24
Rider asymmetry within equitation: Preliminary observations
Debbie Symes, Robert Ellis
University Campus Suffolk, Ipswich, Suffolk, United Kingdom
Although there are anecdotal reports of rider asymmetry within equitation, there are few
data available as to the extent of this unevenness among riders. Anatomical and/or
functional asymmetry in the rider may lead to poor performance in the horse and/or
injury to horses and riders. The objective of this study was to examine anatomical and
functional asymmetry among a group of amateur equestrians. The methods included
video analysis to measure rider axial rotation (AR) and shoulder angle displacement
(SAD). We used a PALM meter to measure riders’ leg length inequality (LLI), a known
contributor to functional and anatomical asymmetry, to assess any correlation between
LLI, and AR and SAD. The riders (n=17) were females, aged 16-50 years, who each
rode their own horse in walk, sitting trot, and left and right canter. Skin markers
highlighted each horse’s cranio-caudal line and we placed additional skin markers on the
superior aspect of the riders’ shoulders. Riders were videoed by two cameras
simultaneously, (1) overhead capturing the transverse view and (2) capturing the lateral
view in the sagittal plane. SVHS video analysis facilitated measurement of the angle of
the riders’ shoulders relative to the horses’ cranio-caudal line at each limb impact for a
complete stride cycle in each gait. The riders’ right shoulder showed greater range of
movement (ROM) than the left shoulder in all gaits except right canter and all riders
exhibited left AR in all gaits. All riders had some degree of LLI, each one with shorter
right legs. However, there was no association between the degree of LLI and the degree
of AR or ROM. The method described here is a straightforward technique that permits
easy assessment of rider asymmetry. It could be incorporated into equitation easily and
lead to improved coaching/training techniques, and performance and welfare benefits for
the horse.
25
Changes in heart rate during road transport of horses for one, 3.5 and 8
hours
Christiane Wehnert1, Alice Schmidt1, Jörg Aurich2, Jürgen Müller1, Christine Aurich1,2
1
Graf Lehndorff Institute, Brandenburg State Stud, 16845 Neustadt (Dosse), Germany
2
Section for Reproduction, University of Veterinary Science, 1210 Vienna, Austria
Equestrian competitions lead to increased cortisol release. The competition itself but
also a new environment or transport to events can be considered as stressors. In this
study, warmblood sport horses (4-16 years, 4 mares, 2 stallions, 18 geldings) were
transported by road for one (t1), 3.5 (t3.5) and 8 hours (t8), (n=8 per group). Heart rate
(HR) is an indicator of stress and correlates with cortisol release. HR was recorded with
a mobile recording system (f810i, Polar, Kempele, Finland), fixed to a girth around the
thorax of the horse and was monitored the day before transport, during transport and 12
hours thereafter. In addition, cortisol concentrations were determined. Basal HR before
transport did not differ between groups (45±2 (SEM) beats/min). During the first 30
min of transport HR increased significantly (84±6, p<0.001, Kruskal-Wallis-H-test) but
did not differ between groups. During the remaining transport time, HR was 61±6
beats/min (p<0.001 vs. first 30 min). When HR was analysed for the last 30 min of
transport, values for groups t1 and t8 were significantly (p<0.05) higher than in group
t3.5. In group t1, this period was still close to the beginning of transport. Horses of
group t3.5 had adapted to transport, while the prolonged transport in group t8 again was
a stressor. HR decreased to baseline values within less than 30 min after transport and
did not differ between groups (30-60 min after transport: 44±3). Based on HR variation,
horses adapt well to transport after an initial increase in HR. Transport over medium
distances is not stressful and without negative impact on the performance of the horse.
If horses are transported for 8 hours, HR increases again during transport but recovery
occurs rapidly and did not differ from horses transported for shorter periods.
(Supported by Stiftung Forschung für das Pferd)
26
The additive effect of stress and genotype on learning systems;
implications for equine training
SD McBride
Royal Agricultural College, Stroud Road, Cirencester, GL7 6JS, United Kingdom
Stress, in the context of genotype, affects functioning of the basal ganglia region of the
brain in a range of species including the horse. The behavioural side effects of these
physiological changes include the manifestation of stereotypic behaviour and alterations
in learning behaviour. This paper outlines work-to-date on physiological and
behavioural data associated with the aforementioned phenotype and discusses the
implications that these data might have for the training of horses. The striatum is a
pivotal structure within the basal ganglia that filters and relays information to and from
cortical structures. Considered critical to the processes of motivation, action selection
and learning it is anatomically and functionally heterogenous with respect to the various
stages of instrumental task learning. The ventral striatum (nucleus accumbens) is crucial
for the initial stamping in of associations between stimulus and response during
instrumental conditioning (Pavlovian learning). The dorso-medial striatum (caudatus) is
responsible for the subsequent weighing up action versus outcome to establish policy for
future action (action-outcome). The dorso-lateral striatum (putamen) pertains to
stimulus-response associations, which are independent of outcome devaluation, are an
artefact of overtraining often referred to as habitual responding. Chronic stress in
rodents alters dopaminergic modulation of the striatum and similar physiological
changes appear to occur in the horse. For example, crib-biting horses have been
reported with significantly higher (p<0.05) D1 and D2 receptor subtypes in the nucleus
accumbens and significantly lower (p<0.05) D1 receptor sub-types in the caudatus
regions of the brain. These results suggest a down-regulation of transmission along the
dorso-medial striatum-prefrontal pathway with concurrent up-regulation of the
mesoaccumbens pathway (ventral tegmentum area-nucleus accumbens-prefrontal
cortex). Given the functionality of these regions (as previously discussed), the ‘learning’
consequences of these physiological changes are now being identified. For example,
when placed within an extinction paradigm, this phenotype required significantly more
unreinforced trials (p<0.01) and overall button presses (p<0.01) to reach extinction
criterion compared to control animals and under a concurrent schedule (responses to
each target matches the probability of positive outcome), the number of correct response
was significantly lower (p<0.05) compared to control animals. This altered behaviour
links very closely to the altered physiology (given the heterogenous functionality of the
striatum) and suggests that some horses may exhibit a condition of ‘perseveration’ when
exposed to chronic stress that can be explained either in terms of (a) enhanced rewardseeking behaviour or (b) poor assessment of outcome in relation to action. Assessing
these data from a training perspective would suggest that ‘perseveration’ might be
beneficial in maintaining the response rate of established learnt behaviours but may be
problematic when modification is required in a ‘successive approximation’ context.
27
Horse Sport Ireland Coaching Programme
Alison Corbally
Horse Sport Ireland, 1st Floor Beech House, Millennium Park, Naas, Kildare, Ireland
Coaching is an important aspect of progressive training for, and participation in, all
sporting activities. The Irish National Coaching and Training Centre (NCTC)
established the National Coaching Development Plan (NCDP) in consultation with
various sporting national governing bodies. Equestrian sport contributed to this plan,
which led to the development of Horse Sport Ireland’s Coaching Programme.
Established in 1998 and now firmly embedded in the Irish equestrian environment, the
programme provides the highest standard coach education resource for Irish
equestrianism and is an accepted global model of excellence. In 2004, the world
governing body for equestrian sport, Fédération Equestre Internationale (FEI) adopted
the Irish coaching programme for use in Olympic Solidarity courses, which are now
available worldwide. The Scottish Equestrian Association employs the Irish system to
train coaches and Irish tutors frequently travel to Scotland to deliver courses. In Ireland,
over 600 coaches have qualified at the various levels through the HSI programme. The
programme is a progressive system through five incremental levels from Introduction to
Coaching, through Levels 1, 2 and 3, to Level 4 (Coaching International Competitors).
All levels up to Level 3 courses are operational and available in Ireland and Level 4 is
currently in development. The programme provides coaches with a thorough
understanding of coaching principles and hands-on experience with the application of
these principles in practice in the course of their training. The insistence on this
practical dimension (as an inherent element of the coach training) is crucial in the
formation of truly effective, well-rounded coaches. The programme’s tutors include
many of Ireland’s top ranking, high achieving riders and experienced coaches that
deliver a wealth of experience and knowledge. Specific criteria apply and tutors receive
ongoing training from the NCTC to enhance their communication skills and presentation
style to ensure uniformity in course delivery.
28
The use of training aids (gadgets) within equitation: Meritorious or
detrimental?
Jack Murphy1, Andrew McLean2, Paul McGreevy3, Fiona Sheridan4, Pat Hanly4
1
School of Agriculture, Food Science and Veterinary Medicine, UCD, Dublin, Ireland
2
Australian Equine Behaviour Centre, 730 Clonbinane Rd, Broadford, Vic. 3658
3
Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Sydney, NSW, 2800
4
Royal Dublin Society, (RDS) Ballsbridge, Dublin, Ireland
Draw-reins are one of the most common training aids (gadgets) used to set the horse's
head in the desired position. While almost ubiquitous in the training of showjumpers,
they are inappropriate when the horse is actually jumping. They provide additional
leverage in the rider's hands and allow the rider to ‘force’ the horse to lower its head and
flex its cervical vertebrae. Several other gadgets ‘fix’ head position, alter outline and
develop the ‘way of going’ of the horse on the lunge. Some examples include side-reins,
lungie-bungie, chambon, de Gogue and Pessoa training devices. Based on the premise
that the elastic properties encourage the horse to relax and take contact, the lungiebungie is supposed to aid the acceptance of the bit when the horse is being lunged. The
chambon is said to generate correct muscle development in the horse. Originally, it was
confined to lunging and free schooling exercises although some riders now use it during
ridden work. Incorrect usage could result in the horse leaning on the forehand and may
generate pain in neck muscles, denigrate the horse’s natural gaits and necessitate
retraining of the horse. The de Gogue emanated from French equitation and is closely
aligned (and occasionally used in conjunction) with the chambon. It applies pressure on
the bit (horse’s mouth) and poll while encouraging the horse to draw its nose caudally
and flex the neck. The Pessoa uses a system of ropes and pulleys to persuade the horse
to engage itself properly. Any gadget that applies pressure to the horse’s mouth could
diminish the deceleration effects of the bit through head lowering or neck shortening.
This might lead to an increase in confusion and conflict behaviours due to inconsistent
or unpredictable signal-response features of mouth pressure. In general, the reason for
using these training aids is to lighten the horse's forehand and make the horse more
sensitive and responsive when ridden. Gadgets may be effective when properly used,
but misuse occurs frequently and novice equestrians require appropriate supervision with
all items of training apparatus.
29
Para Equestrian: extraordinary people, special horses and unequivocal
equitation
Eilish Byrne1, Niall Quirke1, Jack Murphy2
1
Sleighduff High Performance Equestrian Centre, Johnstown, Arklow, Wicklow, Ireland
2
School of Agriculture, Food Science and Veterinary Medicine, UCD, Dublin, Ireland
Para Equestrian has officially become the eighth equestrian discipline under FEI
regulation. Consequently, the FEI has become the first International Federation that
actively governs and regulates a sport where both able bodied and disabled athletes
participate. This equestrian sport provides a unique form of physical activity based on
the affiliation of two finely tuned partners – one each of the horse-human dyad. The
Para Equestrians may choose to drive or ride the horse and individuals participate in
standardised competition Grades based upon their different levels/types of impairment or
disability. While graded with regard to their individual impairment, riders are judged on
their equitation skills and ability to compete. Classification ranges from Grade 1a (most
severely disabled athletes) who ride and compete their horses in walk only while Grade
30 (least disabled) compete at medium (M) standard. If and where necessary, Para
Equestrians may use compensating aids (FEI approved) such as specially modified
saddles, custom-made reins and the use of two riding whips and other bespoke
equipment. Above all else, participants require access to the most suitable horse and one
that has been trained correctly and to an appropriate standard. While temperament and
athletic ability of the horse is crucially important, training the horse for this discipline
exemplifies the importance of learning theory in equitation science. As at all other
times, the horse learns his responses by associative learning, where the trainer uses the
aids to reinforce (by their removal) the correct response. The demands of Para
Equestrian activity highlights the fact that if the horse has no operant or classically
conditioned basic responses, the horse will not perform as required – no matter how well
it is ridden. As in all other equestrian pursuits, Para Equestrian participation is typically
an interesting mixture of subtle but unequivocal training corrections as well as perfecting
riding skills.
30
SMART: Sensitivity Models for Animals in Response to Training
PD. McGreevy1, AN. McLean2, K Keay3, PC. Thomson1
1
Faculty of Veterinary Science (B19), University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
2
Australian Equine Behaviour Centre, Broadford, VIC 3658, Australia
3
Faculty of Medicine (F13), University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
Trained responses are said to be under stimulus control when they appear reliably and
exclusively on cue. With training, the probability of desirable responses increases and
the probability of undesirable responses reduce. With horses, conditioned responses to
the rider’s stimuli are desirable whereas undesirable responses are most notably those
that emerge in response to environmental stimuli. These include flight responses (such
as fast, forward locomotion that is not under stimulus control i.e., bolting) or more direct
counter-predator responses, such as bucking. We have developed a conceptual, threedimensional graphic system, SMART: Sensitivity Models for Animals in Response to
Training. The current plots have been designed for ridden horses and using four
quadrants to represent the sensitivity of the horse to cues from the two reins (Slow, Stop
and Step back and Turn signals) and the rider’s legs (Go and Move Hindquarters). The
models assume that the rider’s cues are equivalent unless the intention is to signal a turn
or a lateral movement (such as a leg yield or side pass). The extent to which go signals
manifest as straight, forward locomotion reflect the bilateral balance of the horse’s
reactions to the rider. The Z-axis shows the probability of a favourable response for the
specific strength of stimulus from the rider relative to competing stimuli from other
sources including internal and non-rider external causal factors. Positive values of Z
show that a given response being under stimulus control; i.e., that the external causal
factors for this response come from the rider. Where Z is zero for a particular value of X
and Y, the horse shows no desired response to the rider. The X-axis shows left versus
right movement; while the Y-axis shows Stop versus Go. SMART models can show the
schematic difference between unhandled, freshly broken and highly trained horses. The
peaks and troughs in the plots represent strengths and weaknesses (including
problematic responses) in each horse’s repertoire.
SMART models can also
conceptualise behavioural individual differences in reactivity and trainability. They may
prove useful in the training of other quadrupeds (e.g., guide dogs) but will be of
particular interest to equitation scientists since they have the potential to reduce
confusion in the horse-human dyad.
31
Estimating actual and minimum trajectories of the performance horse
when jumping fences of given dimensions
Robert L Wood
Wolfson School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Loughborough
University, Loughborough, Leicestershire, UK
Jumping is the attraction of several equestrian sports. The biomechanics and particularly
the jump stride kinematics (JSK) of performance horses have featured in several recent
studies. Sagittal plane SVHS video images provide the basis for assessment and
accurate analysis in both the horizontal and vertical planes. However, using the ballistic
equation in a kinematic model of horse jumping offers new insight into the general
biomechanics of jumping, along with objective assessment of individual horse and rider
jump performance. The model calculates the Centre of Mass (CoM) trajectory using the
2
ballistic equation in three forms: (a) Analytical { (x ' − A) = −4a(y ' − B ) }, (b) Distance:
{y
= x tan θ −
gx 2
2v 2 cos 2 θ
} and (c) Parametric: { x
= vt cos θ
and
y = vt sin θ −
gt 2
2
}.
When airborne during the jump stride (bascule), the horse’s CoM traverses only a small
upper section of the full trajectory that would be obtained if the CoM started from
ground level. Starting from experimental evidence of CoM location at end of takeoff,
along with maximum CoM height, the full trajectory can be calculated, including
‘effective’ CoM launch position, velocity and angle at ground level. These parameters
provide a sensitive indication of jump performance. Based upon the assumption that the
trajectory apex occurs above the fence, it is also possible to calculate the minimum
trajectory required by the horse in order to jump any fence. The model reported here has
been used to re-interpret a number of previously reported horse jumping experiments. A
notable aspect of these results is that the assumption of trajectory apex occurring above
the fence is inappropriate in one instance (when the horse jumped an upright-fence) but
is an accurate reflection of performance when the horse jumped a narrow oxer. The
findings suggest that apex location depends on horse height, fence shape, approach
velocity and the horse’s perception of where it is after assessing the fence in some way.
32
Stretching regime effects on stride length and range of motion in equine
trot
Rose, N. S., Northrop, A. J., Brigden, C. V., Martin, J. H.
Myerscough College, St. Michael’s Road, Bilsborrow, Preston, PR3 0RY
The aim was to quantify the effects of two different eight-week stretching regimes on
stride length (SL) and range of motion (ROM) in the equine trot. Investigation of
stretching regimes on the horse is limited. Equine trainers should be aiming to facilitate
movement that is natural and aesthetic for the horse and rider. Injury prevention is also
critical for equine welfare and career longevity. The use of stretching regimes is
becoming a widespread procedure for the performance horse; this is most likely due to
extrapolation of positive findings from human research. Eighteen horses were divided
into three matched groups according to age, conformation and breed. The groups were
assigned to a 6-day stretching regime (6DSR), 3-day stretching regime (3DSR) and a
control, no stretching regime (NSR). Baseline measurements of SL and ROM in trot (in
hand) were obtained prior to treatment using two-dimensional video analysis. The two
stretching regimes were applied for eight weeks. SL and ROM data were collected at
weeks 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10 and 11 for the trot in hand. Subjects were assessed in ridden
extended trot at week 8 and 16. Treatments were examined by general linear model
using covariates. There were no significant effects of stretching on in hand or ridden SL
(P>0.05). Some significant differences were found in joint ROM between treatments.
The 6DSR produced lower ROM than the 3DSR in the shoulder (F=10.73; P<0.0001)
and lower ROM than the 3DSR and control in the stifle (F=5.890; P<0.01) and hock
(F=10.73; P<0.0001). Evidence suggests some negative biomechanical effects for a
6DSR; it may be too intensive and cause delayed onset of muscle soreness. Further
examination of stretch frequency by assessing muscle activity, in addition to kinematic
investigation, may establish its potential as a tool to enhance performance and welfare.
33
Weighted boots alter the jump stride kinematics in the performance horse
Jack Murphy
School of Agriculture, Food Science and Veterinary Medicine, University College
Dublin, Ireland
Contemporary equestrian sports expose the elite performance horse to considerable
athletic challenge. Showjumping has been associated with a proliferation of innovative
gadgets, teaching aids and training techniques. Exponents continually strive to improve
the horse’s jump stride kinematics (JSK). Jumping fences ‘cleanly’ is a prerequisite to
success and the use of ‘weighted’ boots has become popular. This study investigated the
effects of weighted boots on performance horses (n = 6) jumping a 1.25m oxer fence.
The horses were equivalent in jumping ability and experience, formed two groups of
three subjects (G1 and G2) and they performed ten jumping efforts (loose jumping
without a rider). G1 horses performed attempts 1-5 without boots and attempts 6-10
with boots while G2 performed attempts 1-5 with and attempts 6-10 without boots. Data
were available via sagittal plane S-VHS recordings and t-test analyses focussed on limb
placements during final approach stride and actual jump stride. There was no difference
in JSK during the final approach stride among any of the horses in the horizontal plane –
leading forelimb placements were ~ 1110mm from the fence at take-off for all horses.
However, there were significant differences among the horses in the vertical plane in
terms of croup heights, height of hocks and heights achieved by the horses’ distal hind
limbs (DHL) during the jump phase. All horses achieved significantly greater elevation
over the fence when wearing the weighted boots (DHL = 1.60m) compared to when not
wearing boots (DHL = 1.46m; P < 0.05). The findings suggest that weighted boots
supplied the horses’ hind limbs with increased elastic potential energy that transferred to
greater kinetic energy during the jumping phase. It would appear that the boots
increased the centripetal force and kinetic energy of the horses’ DHL and produced
greater elevation during the flight phase of the jump stride.
.
34
Day 2
www.equitationscience.com
35
The horse-human dyad: Does physical training of horses have to be
attritional and can we ever resolve performance and welfare?
David J Marlin
Associate Dean for Research, Hartpury College, Hartpury, Gloucester, UK
The most common reasons why horses are not trained, not competed or are
eliminated during competition are related to musculoskeletal injury. In 1985, Peter
Rossdales’ study of wastage in the Thoroughbred industry (Rossdale et al. 1985)
identified musculoskeletal injury as the most common cause of wastage. Around
20 years later a similar study by Wilsher et al. (2006) identified similar findings,
despite changes in nutrition and training surfaces introduced in this period (e.g. allweather training tracks and watered canters and gallops). In young racehorses, the
types of injury commonly observed clearly indicate a failure of the
musculoskeletal system to accommodate training intensity and / or volume; for
example the high prevalence of dorsal metacarpal disease (sore shins). Verheyen et
al. (2005) identified that around one in five 2-year old racehorses will suffer sore
shins in their first year of training. High rates of musculoskeletal injury are not
only confined to the Thoroughbred racehorse, but are common in horses
competing in all disciplines (e.g. Murray et al. 2006). Conversely, studies of
training programmes used by riders and trainers suggest these are often only
moderately effective in terms of developing muscular and cardiovascular fitness
(e.g. Serrano et al. 2002). Exercise loads that are ideal for inducing an effect in
these systems are often excessive for the supporting structures and horses may find
it difficult to cope psychologically with certain types of training, such as interval
training. Other factors such as genetics and nutrition play an important role in
determining the risk of injury, but training clearly increases the risk of
musculoskeletal injury many fold. This presentation will cover the basic principles
of physical training, the differences between horses and humans in response to
exercise and common errors in training and alternative approaches that can reduce
injury and enhance welfare and performance.
36
Stimulus' perception in horses: Using Heart Rate (HR) as an
appropriate indicator
Paolo Baragli, Chiara Mariti, Francesco De Giorgio, Claudio Sighieri
Department of Veterinary Anatomy, Biochemistry and Physiology,
University of Pisa, viale delle Piagge 2, 56124, Pisa, Italy
Heart Rate (HR) is considered to be an effective tool for assessing animal
responses to human interaction. We investigated changes in HR during grooming
tests (GT) to evaluate how horses with different human interaction and training
perceived a series of standardised stimuli. We used 4 groups: grA (8 grazing
horses, 13±4 year old), grB (15 school horses, 14±3 year old), grC (6 ponies, 2
year old, traditionally trained) and grD (6 ponies, 2 year old, trained considering
stimulus intensity and horses' behavioural response). A HR monitor was applied
to each horse, which was left unattended in the box for 10 minutes. Then the
operator began the GT procedure, standardized at the following measuring points:
1) entering the box, 2) halter fastened, 3) start of grooming, 4) end of grooming, 5)
saddling, 6) inserting the bit. The whole procedure took 6 minutes and the HR
monitor was used to assess HR at each measuring point. GrA repeated the GT
twice: grA1 (known operator, horses' caretaker) and grA2 (unknown operator).
All groups showed a statistically significant increase in HR (ANOVA for repeated
measures, P<0.05) at point 2 compared with the baseline, except grD. Significant
differences (ANOVA one-way, P<0.05) were also found at all points between
grA1 and grA2, grA2 and grB, grA1 and grC, grB and grC and at points 5 and 6
between grA2 and grC, grC and grD. Data suggest that modality of training and
familiarity with a single person are important for a positive perception of the
stimulus ‘person’ while generalisation (grB) appears to be ineffective for a positive
characterisation of the ‘halter fastened’ stimulus, which seems to be a critical
moment in horses’ perception of human actions.
37
Changes in heart rate during the initial training period of three-yearold warmblood sport horse stallions
Alice Schmidt1, Stefanie Neuhauser2, Jörg Aurich2, Jürgen Müller1, Christine
Aurich1,2
1Graf
Lehndorff Institute, Brandenburg State Stud, 16845 Neustadt (Dosse),
Germany
2Section for Reproduction, University of Veterinary Science, 1210 Vienna, Austria
The first weeks of training have been suggested to represent a stressful period for
young horses. In general, training practises for horses have been questioned
recently. Heart rate (HR) provides information on fitness of the horse but is also
an indicator of stress or pain correlating with plasma cortisol concentrations. In
this study, three-year-old warmblood stallions (n=8) were followed through a
standardised 10-week classical training programme from lunging to first mounting
of a rider and progressing to moderate work. Feed and management was similar
for all horses. HR was recorded with a mobile recording System (Polar, Finland)
fixed to a girth around the thorax of the horse and was monitored twice weekly
from 30 min before to 30 min after training. In addition, cortisol concentrations
were determined in saliva and faeces. Overall basal HR before daily training was
39±2 (SEM) beats/min and did not change over the study period. Average HR
during initial lunging (week 1) was 119±14 beats min and decreased to 95±5
beats/min in week 2. Due to individual variations this decrease did not reach
statistical significance. Neither first mounting of a rider (89±10) nor an increasing
workload (e.g. week 8: 111±4) were associated with prolonged increases in mean
HR, but transient increases were recorded and the response to mounting of the
rider differed markedly between stallions. After daily training, HR decreased
rapidly but was slightly, although significantly (p<0.05, Friedman-test) higher than
pre-work values (46±2 beats/min). In conclusion, based on HR, the initial training
of sport horse stallions in the classical German training system is not associated
with major stress for the horse. The increase in HR during training is due to
physical exercise itself and not associated with specific situations of training
programme.
(Supported by a Fellowship from Stiftung Forschung für das Pferd to AS)
38
Horse owners’ experiences of (horses) going barefoot
Emma Creighton, Kiran Jones
Anthrozoology Unit, Chester Centre for Stress Research, University of Chester,
UK
A number of equine professionals have recently highlighted the damaging effects
that traditional shoeing methods may have upon horse hoof health. This has
prompted the philosophy that shoeing is unnecessary, even for working horses; and
that with a combination of gradual acclimatisation and specialist hoof care, it is
possible to restore natural functioning of the hoof. This has sparked heated debate
within the equestrian world, but to date there is very little empirical research to
inform these opinions. This study aimed to quantify the experiences of owners
who had chosen to transition their horses to barefoot and to test some of the claims
and counterclaims made in the grey literature. Data were collected via an online
survey targeted at barefoot horse owners via specialist Internet forums.
Respondents (N=109) were in transition or had successfully transitioned their
horses to barefoot soundness, and so did not reflect the experiences of owners who
had abandoned going barefoot. The majority (62%) had gone barefoot to promote
hoof health, with 19% aiming to treat specific hoof problems. Ninety percent
reported an improvement in hoof health and 83% had made no changes to the
amount or type of work they did with their horse. Median transition time was 6-12
months, with the majority of horses showing hoof soreness, though little evidence
of more serious problems. Transition time increased with number of years of prior
shoeing (P=0.035) and continuous shoeing (P=0.009). Trimming frequency
matched farriery standards, but the type of trim and training of the trimmer varied,
reflecting different schools of the barefoot movement. Collectively, the data
suggest that barefoot horses can work successfully, that shoeing may have longterm pathological effects on hoof health that can be corrected by going barefoot,
but that a consistent industry with established methods and trained professionals
has yet to emerge.
39
Exercise during training affects racing performance in
Thoroughbreds
Kristien L P Verheyen1, Joanna S Price2, James L N Wood3
1
Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College,
Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms, Hatfield, Hertfordshire AL9 7TA, UK
2
Department of Veterinary Basic Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Royal
College Street, London NW1 0TU, UK
3
Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Madingley Road,
Cambridge CB3 0ES, UK
Epidemiological studies have shown significant effects of canter and high-speed
exercise on skeletal injury risk in Thoroughbreds in training. However,
recommendations for modification of training regimes to reduce injury risk should
take into account potential effects on racing performance. The aim of this study
was to estimate the effect of exercise during training on racing performance. Race
records were obtained for horses participating in a large epidemiological study of
injuries in flat racehorses in training in England. Distances exercised at canter and
gallop during training, and distance raced in the 30 days prior to a ‘case race’, were
calculated. Multivariable mixed effects logistic and linear regression were used to
relate exercise distances in 30 days to the odds of winning a race, earning any prize
money and the amount of prize money won. Other variables studied were number
of races run in 30 days, trainer and horse. During the study period, 860 horses ran
5,210 flat races in total. Trainer and horse were significantly associated with all
measures of race performance. Higher cumulative high-speed exercise distances
(training gallop + raced) in 30 days were associated with increased odds of
winning a race or earning any prize money. Having raced in the previous 30 days
also increased the odds of winning. The amount of prize money won was affected
by distances cantered and galloped during training as well as race distance in a 30day period. Higher canter distances were associated with higher average amounts
of prize money won, but only if gallop distance remained below 25 furlongs (f) in
a 30-day period. Horses that galloped more than 25f won on average more prize
money when concurrent canter distances decreased. These findings indicate that
training regimens for young Thoroughbreds can be modified to reduce skeletal
injury without compromising racing performance.
40
The effect of two different training methods on the behaviour, heart
rate and performance of horses
Kathalijne Visser1, Lotte Rijksen2, Andrea Ellis3, Kees Van Reenen1, Machteld
Van Dierendonck4
1
Animal Sciences Group, Wageningen University and Research Centres, PO Box
65, 8200 AB Lelystad, the Netherlands
2
HAS Den Bosch, HAS Kennistransfer, PO Box 90108, 5200 MA Den Bosch, NL
3
Nottingham Trent University, School of Animal Rural and Environmental
Sciences, Southwell, NG25 0DS Nottinghamshire, United Kingdom
4
Department of Animals, Science and Society, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine,
Utrecht University, PO Box 80168, 3508 TD Utrecht, the Netherlands
The commencement of work under saddle and rider can be a stressful period for
horses. Together with the increasing popularity of ‘sympathetic’ training methods
in the last decades, the concern about welfare during early training is increasing.
This study addressed two questions: Firstly, how do parameters measured during
this period relate to each other? Secondly, how do parameters scored for two
different training methods compare? Twenty-eight horses, three years of age, were
started according to two training methods (14 horses per method): a traditional
training method and a ‘sympathetic’ training method. During training, behavioural
observations were made at predefined and standardized moments, comparable
across methods. During a final assessment at a neutral location, all horses
performed a basic dressage test. Compared to the ‘sympathetic’ method, horses
were more tense during the traditional training method (23.9% versus 5.3% of
observation time, p<0.001), displayed a higher head carriage for a longer time
(17.4% versus 9.9% of time, p<0.001), showed more lip movements (16.6 versus
3.4 times, p<0.008) and ground their teeth more frequently (12.8 versus 1.7 times,
p=0.03). Correspondingly, a principal component analysis demonstrated that
horses trained differently show consistent differences in a range of correlated
behavioural and heart rate parameters. In the final assessment horses that received
a high score for general impression by the judges tended to carry their head low
(Rs=0.32, p=0.07) and tended to exhibit a low frequency of lip movements (Rs=0.35, p=0.07). Behavioural parameters and technical performance during the final
assessment did not differ significantly between treatment groups, but mean heart
rate was higher for horses trained according to the traditional method (98 bpm
versus 82 bpm, p<0.001). In conclusion, our results suggest that both prevailing
training methods may be experienced by horses, but in a different way, without
affecting the level of technical performance ultimately achieved.
41
Preliminary investigations of horses' (Equus caballus) responses to
bitted and bitless bridles during foundation training
Jessica S Quick1, Amanda K Warren-Smith2
1
Faculty of Rural Management, University of Sydney, PO Box 883, Orange, NSW,
2800, Australia
2
Faculty of Science, Charles Stuart University, PO Box 883, Orange, NSW, 2800,
Australia
Traditionally, bridles have been the primary mechanism for controlling the ridden
horse. Normally, these bridles will contain a metal bit, designed to apply pressure
to various locations within the horse's mouth, which is a highly sensitive site.
Despite the near universal use and acceptance of bitted bridles by riders, debate
continues as to whether the presence of the bit is required for the effective training
of horses. In response, bridles that do not require a bit have been made available,
although the effectiveness of bitless bridles on horses has not been previously
examined scientifically. Therefore, the current study measured behavioural and
cardiac responses of horses (n=8) undergoing foundation training wearing either a
bitted or bitless bridle. Measures were recorded during three stages of training;
bridling, long-reining and riding. There was no difference in heart rate between
the groups during any of the training stages. However, the horses wearing the
bitless bridle had lower heart rate variability when long-reining (P=0.035),
indicating that they were experiencing less stress than those wearing the bitted
bridle. During all stages of training the horses wearing a bitted bridle exhibited
more chewing (P<0.001), head nodding (P<0.001), opening of the mouth
(P<0.001), pawing the ground (P=0.009) and rubbing their noses on the ground
(P<0.001) than those horses wearing a bitless bridle. The horses that had the
bitless bridle were more likely to maintain a steady head carriage, a desirable
response in most performance horses. Accordingly, the data indicate that there
may be some benefits to both horse and rider in terms of communication, safety,
performance and welfare in using bitless bridles and that further work with larger
numbers of horses using bitless bridles in a range of disciplines should be
conducted to establish further advantages.
42
Colour vision in the horse
Roth, L.S.V1., Balkenius, A2., Kelber, A1
1
Department of Cell and Organism Biology, Vision Group, Lund University,
Helgonavägen 3, S-22362 Lund, Sweden
2
Department of Plant Protection Biology, The Swedish University of Agricultural
Sciences, Sundsvägen 14, S-230 53 Alnarp, Sweden
Dichromats, such as the horse, have a retina with two types of cone to use for
colour vision during the day and one type of rod that operates at night. Even
though many behavioural studies have been performed, it has never been
established how dichromats perceive their colour space nor has their colour vision
threshold been recognised. The cones of dichromatic mammals are usually most
sensitive for short wavelengths (blue colours) and long wavelengths (green
colours), respectively. The comparison of the two cone signals gives rise to a onedimensional colour space when brightness cues are excluded. In our first
experiment, horses learned to choose colour in a relative manner. We used a dual
choice apparatus wall with two lockable doors on either side of a divider, to force
the horse to make choices. Two horses were trained to associate a reward of
carrots with grey and yellow colours (corresponding to middle and long
wavelengths, respectively), with blue as negative colour. In tests with grey and a
novel green colour they chose green at frequencies of 77% and 82%, respectively
(P<0.01).
Hence, they preferred green that corresponded to the longer
wavelengths. This is different from the way we trichromatic humans (with three
cone types) perceive and learn colours, which is often in absolute colour terms. A
colour signal is more trustworthy than brightness cues. Given that horses have
large and very light sensitive eyes we wondered whether colour is an important cue
at night for them. We performed dual choice experiments and our results showed
that one horse discriminated colours at intensities comparable to moonlight
intensities (0.02 Cd/m2) with a choice frequency of 78% (P<0.01). With our
research, we hope to deepen our knowledge about the visual world of horses, and
thereby achieve a better understanding about horse behaviour.
43
The effects of goal-setting on self-efficacy and performance in the
showjumping rider
Pepijn Ott1,2, Mari Zetterqvist Blokhuis2, Inga A Wolframm1
1
University of Applied Science, Van Hall Larenstein (Wageningen UR), Postbus
4116700 AK Wageningen, NL
2
Ridskolan Strömsholm, 730 40 Kolbäck, SW
Goal-setting has been used in industrial settings and sports to increase selfconfidence and ultimately performance. Performance in equestrian sports depends
on appropriate horse-rider interaction which may be influenced by levels of selfconfidence experienced by the rider. Using principles of goal-setting may be more
effective in increasing levels of self-confidence and performance in equestrian
riders than traditional teaching methods. Following informed consent, 45 riders
(27 goal-setting, 18 controls; mean age 26 ± 10.6) were recruited to participate in a
10-week showjumping training study. All participants were tested prior and post
training on levels of cognitive anxiety (CA), somatic anxiety (SA) and selfconfidence (SC) using the Revised Competitive Anxiety Inventory 2.
Showjumping performance was scored blindly pre-and post intervention using two
independent judges both on showjumping penalty points, and riding style using a
scoring system from 1 to 10. Data was analysed using a Mann-Whitney U Test.
All groups showed a significant difference between pre-and post-intervention for
CA (16.4 vs. 14.7; p<0.05) and SA (19 vs. 15.4; p<0.001). There were significant
differences between test and control subjects post-intervention for SA (19.5 vs.
28.1; p<.05) and for SC (27.9 vs. 15.5; p<.01). No significant differences were
found for showjumping penalty points nor riding style. The findings support the
existing notion that regular showjumping lessons lead to a decrease in somatic and
cognitive aspects of anxiety. More importantly, showjumping lessons based
around principles of goal setting compared to traditional training methods may
lead to an even greater decrease in levels of somatic anxiety and improve levels of
confidence further. This might lead to horses that are more relaxed and obedient to
the rider’s aids when showjumping, resulting in fewer riding-related accidents and
ultimately improving equine welfare. Long-term intervention programmes using
goal-setting training techniques may provide additional support to the overall aims
of equitation science leading to improved horse-rider interaction and
improvements in showjumping performance.
44
Effects on behaviour and rein tension in horses ridden with/without
martingales and rein inserts
N.L. Smith1, C.R. Heleski1, P.D. McGreevy2, L. Kaiser3, N. Bello4, H.M. Clayton3
1
Dept of Animal Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824 US
2
Animal Behavior, University of Sydney, Australia
3
McPhail Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University
4
Statistical Consulting Ctr, College of Agriculture & Natural Resources, Michigan
State University
Novice riders lack postural control and are often observed using the reins to
stabilize their balance. This can result in unpredictable changes in the
magnitude/direction of rein tension that may cause discomfort to the horse and
may be associated with behaviours that indicate conflict or stress (CB); e.g. head
tossing, chomping at the bit, tail lashing. Some instructors feel that properly fitted
martingales or elastic rein inserts can reduce this discomfort, thereby enhancing
horse welfare. Our hypothesis was that martingales would contribute to less CB
and more consistent rein tension than the control situation and rein inserts would
show intermediate values. Five horses and nine riders were assigned to a repeated
measures design. Each horse-rider combination completed all 3 treatments
(control, martingale, inserts) in random order. Riders performed trials at a sitting
trot using a dressage saddle and snaffle bridle. Rein tension data were collected
for 7 s and behavioural data for 30 s in each direction. Rein tension data were
collected via strain gauge transducers. Behavioural data were collected live using
an ethogram of 8 defined behaviours. Data were also video recorded to allow
calculations of inter-observer reliability. Behavioural data were fitted to a
generalized linear mixed model using a Poisson distribution with GLIMMIX, SAS.
Martingales resulted in less CB than control (p=0.013); n.s.d. was identified
between control and inserts (p=0.074). Rein tension data supported these findings
in that trials ridden with martingales showed more consistent rein tension (max and
min values were closer together than the range for control trials and rein insert
trials). Tensions ranged from 4-35 N. This study demonstrates the potential value
in combining biomechanical analysis with behavioural assessments to evaluate
training devices and to begin making assessments on how those training devices
impact equine welfare.
45
The effects of a treeless and treed saddle on stride length, neck length
and shoulder range of motion in the horse
Brigden, C. V., Burton, K. J., Northrop, A. J.
Myerscough College, St. Michael’s Road, Bilsborrow, Preston, PR3 0RY
Saddles influence horses’ movement and can contribute to development of
behavioural and physical problems. Treeless saddles are promoted within the
equestrian industry to improve horse movement, but the benefits are not proven
scientifically. The objective of this study was to compare horse movement when
ridden in a treed (TD) saddle and a treeless (TLS) saddle. Ten horses formed two
treatment groups. The horses were videoed while ridden in walk and trot on a free
rein in both a treeless and treed saddle – twice over the two-day experimental
period. The treatment sequence was alternated between groups (and rotated
between days) to minimise the effect of running order. Two-dimensional motion
analysis software was used to measure stride length, neck length and shoulder
range of motion (ROM). General linear model was used to investigate interactions
between measurements, horses, day and saddle type. Neck length was longer with
the treeless saddle (TLS=0.746±0.013m TD=0.730±0.013m, F=5.31 P<0.05),
significantly different between horses (F=29.08 P<0.001) and days
(Day1=0.759±0.013m, Day2=0.717±0.011m, F=33.81 P<0.001). A significant
reduction in stride length occurred on day two ((Day1=1.952±0.042m,
Day2=1.860±0.042m, F=29.90 P<0.001), irrespective of saddle type (F=0.64
P>0.05). No other significant differences occurred in any of the measured
parameters. The treeless saddle appeared to increase neck length, which may help
relaxation of the back muscles according to the accepted ‘bow-and-string’
biomechanical concept of the back. The short-term effects of the treeless saddle
on stride length and shoulder ROM were no different to those of a properly fitted
treed saddle, suggesting that the treeless saddle may be a viable alternative to a
treed saddle. Individual horses show marked differences in movement and this
varied between days, possibly related to previous workload or weather conditions.
Research into long term effects of treeless saddles are necessary to form reliable
conclusions regarding the proposed benefits of the saddles.
46
The horse-human dyad: Improving rider stability and biomechanics
through coaching with sensory-specific-language
Mary Wanless
Overdale Equestrian Centre, Nether Westcote, Oxon OX7 6SE
The most talented and elite equestrians make riding seem effortless. These gifted
riders appear to possess an ‘in-built’ natural talent that comprises the phenomena
of balance and ‘feel’. The aids produced from this ‘in-built’ skill-set maximise
equine associative learning and classical conditioning during basic cue-response
training. These implicit skills of talented riders are not ‘cognitively penetrable’ so
they cannot be expressed in language. Since skilled riders cannot always explain
their skills, they commonly presuppose them when teaching. However, empirical
research has shown that these implicit skill-sets can be defined, and broken down
into ‘chunks’ of information that can be learnt explicitly and sequentially. The
primary biomechanical challenge facing the rider is that of stabilising his/her body
on top of a moving medium. The skills of isometric muscle use and spinal
stabilisation enable the rider to mirror the forces that the horse’s movement exerts
on his/her body. The practical workshop associated with this paper will
demonstrate that rider skills such as these can be taught through an approach that
encompasses the use of sensory-specific-language, hands-on input, and the skills
of process coaching. The resulting reduction of extraneous movement reduces the
‘noise to signal’ ratio within the rider’s sitting, enabling the transmission of much
clearer (accurate and timely) cues to the ridden horse, and avoiding unintentional
conflict within the aids. Under optimal conditions, the ensuing changes in the
rider’s biomechanics, and the appropriate placing of his/her centre of gravity, will
often lead to a profound and instant change in the horse’s way of going. As the
rider develops body-awareness, this will facilitate development of balance and
‘feel’ and enable progressive refinement of these responses through classical
conditioning – provided that the horse has had basic operant or classically
conditioned response training. This approach also provides a conceptual
framework through which the rider can understand the rider/horse interaction more
fully to create repeatable and predictable results similar to the effortless
performance of elite equestrians.
47
Overcoming hidden pain in the ridden horse: Predictable patterns of
myofascial dysfunction in the equine body
Dianne Y Jenkins
P.O. Box 6104, Conder, Canberra, Australia
Connective tissue damage often predisposes physiological and performance
deficiencies through chronic low grade pain in the ridden horse. Even with the
technological advances of ultrasonography and infrared thermography as location
testing tools, assessment of these palpable issues have been inconsistent.
However, learned manual assessment techniques can define the presence of these
soft tissue injuries without the use of scientific equipment. This study reports on
soft tissue injury record keeping over a 12 year period between Jan 2006 & Dec
2007 and reveals that 99% of 1285 horses at initial consultation, presented with
myofascial distortions in one or both shoulders and all suffered varying degrees of
back pain. The horses were a cross section from the thoroughbred racing, harness
racing and pleasure horse industries. Several of the horses had previous veterinary
treatment, but still displayed persistent unresolved pain and compromised
movement. The use of innovative neuro-muscular release techniques during as
few as one to three treatments over a one-month period, together with owner
administrated rehabilitation exercises, usually resolved the problems completely.
Palpable myofascial distortions located near the scapulo-humeral joint resolved
almost all cases of back pain where the horses demonstrated inefficient movement
or were out of work for long periods. Further research will determine which form
of known treatment eliminates the problem in the shortest period while at the same
time manual techniques are being developed and refined to facilitate these
treatments. This study opens up important new avenues for dealing with health,
training, behavioural and welfare issues/problems in horses. This new treatment
has important implications for all involved in the horse industry from owners and
riders to veterinarians, trainers and therapists because it demonstrates it is now
possible to locate and address the cause of most postural inefficiencies before they,
in turn, cause inevitable debilitating pathology.
48
Movement and reflex responses of the horse’s neck, withers and back
Mary Bromiley
Comberleigh Farm, Wheddon Cross, Minehead, Somerset, TA24 7AT
There is considerable confusion regarding the horses back amongst the riding
fraternity. The horses back should be considered as comprising the entire vertebral
column stretching from poll to tail – and not just the saddle area. The vertebral
column of the horse is multi-jointed; rod placed centrally and acts as the main
‘scaffold-beam’ of the skeleton. While there are pads of fibro cartilage (discs)
lying between the individual bones, they bear little resemblance to those of the
human model. Under normal living conditions, horses do not slip their discs nor
do they displace vertebrae. Anatomically the structure is divided into the neck,
(cervical vertebrae 7) and back (thoracic vertebrae to whom the ribs attach 18), the
loins (lumber vertebrae 6, 5 or 7) and the croup (sacrum 5 fused vertebrae). The
withers are formed by the tips of spines arising from the 4th, 5th, 6th and 7th thoracic
vertebrae. Each section of the column enjoys a differing range of movement
dependant upon architectural design. The ball and socket joints of the neck ensure
mobility, then within the body mass, the opposing surfaces of adjacent bones
become flat plates, allowing ‘give’ rather than movement. It is not until the last
bone of the loins, L6, joins to the sacrum, S1, that the opposing joint surfaces are
designed to allow an increased movement range. The horses back muscles present
as two interwoven cables – their function is to create a stable centre for the body
frame and suspend the abdominal contents, not to achieve active movement.
When the horse is ridden (and as weight needs to be both suspended and carried),
the muscles must change (subtly) the way they were designed to work and utilise
the position of the head and neck to help counteract extra lode. The nuchal
ligament spans the natural gap, created by bone enlargement between poll and
withers – continuing centrally along the back to the tail and renamed the supra
spinous ligament. An even break-over in the neck, creates traction throughout the
structure, which enables the muscles and ligaments to suspend the back against the
combined forces of abdominal contents, gravity and rider weight. During a short
practical exhibition, highlighting (with paint) the bone position of the vertebral
column, nuchal and supra spinous ligaments on the horse’s body will facilitate the
demonstration (using reflex responses) of the very small amount of movement in
the central back compared to mobility of the neck.
49
Horse communication: A practical demonstration
Kateřina Santarová
Farm Petrovice, Petrovice 11, 368 01 Strakonice, Czech Republic
Historically, man and horse have been closely associated with each other for
thousands of years. Horses have fulfilled several roles for man including the
provision of a food source, a mode of transport, providing a source of power in
industry, work and war and more recently, as an active partner in sport, equitation
and leisure. Within this partnership however, many people have had a tendency
(unfortunately) to separate their relationship with the horse from the rest of horse's
interaction with other aspects of its environment. When the human enters the
realm of the horses' world, it might be more appropriate for the individual to
endeavour to adapt to the horse’s needs rather than (continually) attempting to
‘adapt’ the horse to human demands. The objective of this practical demonstration
is to outline how man and horse can embark on a working relationship – but
devoid of any force – based on an understanding of the horse's mind and its effort
to communicate. During this practical session, the aim is to demonstrate the subtle
signals that the horse emits toward human handlers and the importance of
recognising and interpreting these signals in a timely manner as the appropriate
response. Indeed, it should then become apparent (almost instantly) as the horse
takes notice of the handler that a relationship will begin to evolve based upon trust
of mutual communication. This particular demo will attempt to achieve this aim,
even while working with two horses simultaneously – and under different
circumstances (in hand and under saddle) and despite differences in their degrees
of training. This demo is not so much about training the horse for a specific
purpose but more to identify the direction to take in order to achieve a mutual and
harmonious horse-human bond. Essentially, horses are communicative animals
and when trainers themselves improve their attempts to commune, training for
both parties of the horse-human dyad will benefit from this inclusive approach.
50
Horsemanship: Conventional, Natural and Equitation Science
Deborah Goodwin1, Paul McGreevy2, Natalie Waran3, Andrew McLean4
1
School of Psychology, University of Southampton, Southampton, SO17 1BJ, UK
Faculty of Veterinary Science (B19), University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
3
Animal Welfare Group, Unitec New Zealand, Private Bag 92025, Auckland, NZ
4
Australian Equine Behaviour Centre, Clonbinane Road, Broadford, VIC 3658,
Australia
2
Many cultures have trained horses using conventional approaches and
acknowledged a talent for working with horses as natural horsemanship. The
current popularity of ‘Natural Horsemanship’ has prompted change in the
equestrian industry. These changes extend from individuals to conventional
training organizations.
Academic ethologists were interested in these
developments, but expressed concern at the way some Natural Horsemanship
trainers presented ‘Equine Ethology’. Often personal opinions present as facts,
without any associated objective study of horse behaviour in the natural or
domestic environment. Enlightened Natural Horsemanship trainers are talented
observers of horse behaviour and respond precisely to subtle cues during training.
They have demonstrated their ability to utilize the marketplace and teach their
methods for commercial reward. Unfortunately, not all followers of these methods
are as effective as the trainers that were the originators of Natural Horsemanship.
Poor technique can lead to disappointing result, frustration and reduced safety in
practitioners, and result in abuse, confusion and conflict behaviour in horses. The
success of Natural Horsemanship trainers encouraged scientists studying horse
behaviour and training to be more active in communicating their work to horse
owners and trainers. Science has much to offer in advancing techniques in horse
training and reducing wastage by objectively assessing what does and does not
work, and most importantly, why? Calibrated rein tension gauges and pressure
sensitive pads can measure the strength and frequency of rider’s signals to the
horse. Riders and trainers can integrate technology into their training methods to
measure contact and lightness objectively.
Assessment of welfare and
performance is increasingly possible via a range of physiological and behavioural
measures. Equitation scientists, conventional and Natural Horsemanship trainers
aim to help people train horses more effectively. It is critical that we share our
knowledge to achieve these goals because, when training fails, horses suffer and
may pay the ultimate price with their lives.
51
What is Ethical Horse Training?
Natalie Waran
School of Natural Sciences, Unitec New Zealand, Carrington road, 92025,
Auckland, New Zealand
Until relatively recently, although there were a variety of horse training approaches
utilised worldwide, there were few claims made about which of them were better
in terms of improved performance or humaneness – rather they were considered as
different training protocols to suit the different nature of the performance expected
from the animal. More recently, there has been a plethora of, so called ‘new’
training methods disseminated and promoted by trainers and their supporters, aided
by improved access to information via the World Wide Web. Often these training
approaches or training devices are advertised as being more effective and/or more
ethical than others are. The UK Police have committed to using only ethical
training methods for their horses, which suggests that some methods might be
more ethical than others are. As do statements like ‘Clicker training is an ethical
and effective way to allow trainers to tap in to good horsemanship skills, which
may have eluded them in the past’. Therefore, what does ‘ethical horse training’
mean – and how can we assess it? There appears to be a need to produce a
structured framework to enable standardised ethical assessments of the various
training protocols, equipment and methods to be undertaken. These assessment
criteria should take into account that successful and humane training relies upon
the use of good understanding of the application of learning theory, horse ethology
and a clear awareness of the goals and the limitations of the training
approach/device/protocol currently used. Examples of the criteria to be used as
well as their relative weighting, will be presented to the ISES audience to produce
a ‘first–cut’ assessment framework to enable us to move forward in relation to
what is or is not acceptable for use in the training of horses.
52
Vendor and purchaser expectations: Differential market segment
requirements for sport horses
Karen Hennessy1, Katherine Quinn2, Mary Lambkin3, Jack Murphy2
1
2
Centre for Sports Studies, University College Dublin, Ireland
School of Agriculture, Food Science and Veterinary Medicine, UCD, Ireland
3
School of Business, University College Dublin, Ireland
Sport horses are traded for various purposes including (a) elite competition, (b)
leisure riding and (c) breeding and the purchasers may be end consumers or
resellers. We sought to investigate the different requirements of these various
market segments.
This study involved both quantitative and qualitative
methodologies. We conducted a questionnaire-based survey of active purchasers
(n= 585) within various market segments. The participants rated specific equine
attributes including conformation, movement, presence, height, colour, gender,
soundness, pedigree, temperament, trainability, performance history and
competition experience in terms of importance. The study reported here also
included eight in-depth interviews with large volume, international sport horse
buyers to tease out further the specific or subtle differences between market
requirements. We employed a Likert psychometric response scale and data
underwent analysis for statistical significance using the Kruskal-Wallis nonparametric test within the SAS statistical package. The findings indicated that
there were significant differences in the rating of market requirements across the
various market segments for a number of attributes including, soundness,
conformation, movement, presence and trainability. Curiously, although it is taken
as a given by producers that training and competition experience will always add
value – it appears that this may not be exclusively so. In fact, the findings
indicated that the level of training, competition experience, competition
performance and placement in young horse competitions ranked quite low across
all market segments including the competition market. The in-depth interview
findings also supported this unexpected result. Clearly, producers need to
understand the market requirements of their target market segment to avoid
wastage. Most sport horses enter the leisure market where temperament and
trainability are highly important. The perception of adding value to young horses
through competition exposure at a young age is misplaced and damage may occur
from by rushed or inappropriate training practices to achieve this misplaced
perception.
53
Habituation and object generalisation in horses
Janne Winther Christensen1, Tatjana Zharkikh2, Jan Ladewig3
1
Dept. of Animal Health, Welfare and Nutrition, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences,
University of Aarhus, P.O. Box 50, 8830 Tjele, Denmark
2
Biosphere Reserve Askania-Nova, Chaplinskii r-n, Khersonskaya obl. 75230,
Ukraine
3
Dept. of Large Animal Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of
Copenhagen, 1870 Frederiksberg C., Denmark
Habituation to novel stimuli plays an important role in horse training, and we
aimed to investigate the extent to which horses generalise between different visual
objects. Twenty-four, 2-year-old stallions were habituated to feeding from a
container placed inside a test arena and assigned as TEST (n=12) or CONTROL
horses (n=12). In Experiment 1, TEST horses were habituated to six differently
coloured objects (ball, barrel, board, box, cone, and cylinder) presented in
sequence in a balanced order. Each object was placed 0.5 m in front of the feed
container, forcing the horses to pass the object to get to the food. TEST horses
received as many 2 min. exposures to each object as required to meet a habituation
criterion. We recorded behavioural reactions to the object, latency to feed, total
eating time, and heart rate (HR) during all exposures. There was no significant
decrease in initial responses towards a novel object with increasing object number
(Mixed Models, e.g. HR: P=0.33; latency: P=0.81), indicating that habituation was
stimulus specific. CONTROL horses were exposed to the test arena without
objects in the same period, and reactions of TEST and CONTROL horses were
subsequently compared in a fear-test (exposure to a rubber mat on the ground), but
there were no significant differences between the treatment groups. Due to the
lack of generalisation in Experiment 1, we designed a supplemental experiment
(Experiment 2), in which CONTROL horses were exposed to the same six objects
except that object colour was kept constant. We found a significant reduction in
responses to novel objects with increasing object number (Mixed Models, e.g. HR:
P=0.012; latency: P<0.001), indicating that horses generalise between similarly
coloured objects of varying shape. We conclude that when habituating horses to
objects, only one feature should be altered at a time for generalisation to occur.
54
Building a scale of behavioural indicators of stress in domestic horses
Tamsin Hughes, Emma Creighton, Rob Coleman
Anthrozoology Unit, Chester Centre for Stress Research, University of Chester,
UK
Stabled domestic horses are required to adapt to conditions far removed from their
ethology and this may cause varying degrees of stress to individuals. An
immediate behavioural measure of stress would be useful in identifying stressors
so that management practices can be altered to alleviate sources of poor welfare.
Crossbred stabled mares and geldings (N=28) in similar management and exercise
regimes underwent 10 minute stress tests that manipulated their physiological
stress response using routine husbandry or environmental stressors such as the
sound of clippers. Physiological stress was measured by changes from rest in
salivary cortisol assessed by immunological assay or heart rate recorded with a
heart-rate monitor (Polar S610i); and associated behaviour was videoed and coded
using The Observer package v5. The stress tests produced statistical increases in
heart rate (t12=3.328, P=0.003, inverse transformed) and there was a trend towards
a similar increase in salivary cortisol, but measures were confounded by the short
duration of the stress tests and large between-subjects effects swamping treatment
effects. The behavioural stress score, ranging from 0 (rest) to 10 (panic), was
derived from the correspondence between three sources of data: 1) differences in
coded behaviour that showed statistically significant changes across categories of
increase in physiological stress measures in the stress tests (Kruskal-Wallis
ANOVAs P<0.05); 2) a subjective scale of behavioural descriptions devised by a
panel of N=13 equestrian professionals who scored the videos of the horses’
behavioural reactions to the stress tests; and 3) descriptions of behavioural
indicators of stress found in the literature. The scores derived from the stress tests
ranged from zero to seven (average 3.9) with the panel agreeing 4 and above to be
the onset of stress. For ethical reasons, the upper-end of the scale (above 7) was
inferred from descriptions in the literature.
55
An investigation of the health and welfare of horses transported long
distances for slaughter in the European Union
David J Marlin1, Keith Meldrum2, Peter Kettlewell3, Tim Parkin4, Mark Kennedy5,
Jo White2, Caroline Heard2, James Wood6
1
Hartpury College, Hartpury, Gloucester, GL19 3BE, UK
2
World Horse Welfare, Anne Colvin House, Snetterton, Norfolk, NR16 2LR, UK
3
ADAS, Ceres House, 2 Searby Road, Lincoln LN2 4DW
4
Inst. of Comp. Medicine, Faculty of Vet. Med, University of Glasgow, G61 1QH
5
Anglia Ruskin University, East Road, Cambridge, CB1 1PT, UK
6
Cambridge Infectious Diseases Consortium, Dept. of Veterinary Medicine,
Madingley Road, Cambridge, CB3 0ES, UK
Consumption of horsemeat within particular European countries is still widespread
and is supported by a large trade in live horses. Large numbers of horses are
transported from Eastern European countries over long distances to be slaughtered.
The trade appears to consist of the movement of either young animals bred
specifically for human consumption or old animals that have reached the end of
their working life. Anecdotal reports exist of examples of poor health and welfare
of some animals during transport, but there are no objective data available. The
objectives of this study are to investigate the health and welfare of horses being
transported long distances for slaughter within the EU in accordance with EU
Regulation 1/2005 on the Welfare of Animals during Transport using an
epidemiological approach. The aim of the study is to provide objective
information allowing steps to be taken to improve the health and welfare of horses
transported long distances for slaughter. Data collection is taking place at
collecting centres in Romania (RO) and at slaughterhouses in Italy (IT). To date
(May 2008) 7 shipments of horses (total 193 horses) have been observed in RO
and 11 different shipments (total 211 horses) have been observed in IT. The
horses leaving RO were predominantly female (79%), less than 2.5 years of age
(72%) and body condition score of 4 or 5 (54%). The horses arriving in IT were a
mixture of females (34%), geldings (39%) and entire males (27%), were again
predominantly less than 2.5 years of age (79%) and with a body condition score of
3 or (84%). Twenty-two horses leaving RO (11%) were considered unfit to be
transported. External injuries were observed in 38% of horses. Of the horses
arriving in IT, 22 (10.4%) were considered unfit for travelling and the frequency of
external injuries observed was lower in IT (11.4%).
56
Day 3
www.equitationscience.com
57
The horse-human dyad: Can we align horse training and handling
activities with the equid ethogram?
Paul McGreevy1, Francis Burton2 , Andrew McLean3
1
Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
2
27 Grosvenor Lane, Glasgow, Scotland, G12 9AA
3
Australian Equine Behaviour Centre, 730 Clonbinane Road, Broadford, VIC,
3658
Various contemporary equestrian training systems advocate that humans occupy
roles as alphas, dominators and benign leaders. This paper examines the recently
completed equid ethogram and shows how analogues of social interactions
between horses may occur in various human-horse interactions. It illustrates how
some common analogues may be adaptive for the horse and show appropriate
correspondent behaviours while others may be unusual or even abnormal. It also
shows how correspondent behaviours sometimes become inappropriate because of
their duration, consistency or context. It argues that one analogue for all situations
is unlikely to hold true in all horse-human contexts. So, when applying any model
from horse-horse interactions to human-horse interactions, the limitations of the
model may eclipse the intended outcome of the intervention. These limitations are
especially likely in the ridden context. Our analysis may help to determine the
validity of extrapolating intra-specific interactions to the inter-specific setting and
highlight the subsequent limitations of role-playing in horse handling and training.
This analysis provides a constructive framework for further informed debate and
empirical investigation of the critical features of successful intra-specific
interactions. Equitation is an activity for which neither horses nor humans have
evolved and, given the casualties on both sides of this dyad, one could argue that it
is not an adaptive behaviour for either species. It relies on both species responding
to the cues of the other. Only those horses and humans with an aptitude for
interspecific communication will thrive in this context. Given the tremendous
breadth of horse-horse interactions, it is striking how few interactions are required
to train elegant responses in horses. The apparent gulf in our ability to integrate
the equid sociogram into riding technique explains some of the difficulties faced
by both species involved in equitation and has profound implications for rider
safety and horse welfare. Perhaps equestrians will become increasingly subtle and
sophisticated in their use of the analogues we describe here. In the meantime, we
hope that this paper provides a starting point for the debate over the extent to
which horses respond to these analogues as stimuli or recognise them as attempts
to communicate.
58
Breeding value estimation in Hungarian Sport Horse populations
János Posta, István Komlósi, Sándor Mihók
Institute for Animal Sciences, University of Debrecen, Böszörményi str. 138, H4032 Debrecen, Hungary
The Hungarian Sport Horse population has been continuously increasing in the
recent years. Breeders are interested in the development of a breeding value
prediction scheme. The aims of the research were to analyze the breeding value
estimation alternatives for the Hungarian Sport Horses. The analyses were based
on the Hungarian Sport Horse Studbook, results of 600 mares’ self-performance
tests and 22860 records show-jumping competition results.
The mares’
performance test includes judgement of conformational traits, movement analysis
traits and free jumping performance. Genetic structure of the population was
described with genetic distance among studs, generation interval and number of
ancestors explaining genetic variability. All parameters were estimated using
ENDOG software. The Nei-based genetic distance was between 0.012–0.039 for
the most important studs. Generation interval was 10.6 years. One ancestor with
the largest influence contributed 1.72% to the total genetic variability of the breed.
Judgement of type, saddle region and head traits amongst the conformational traits
were closely related, obtained by principal component analysis. Breeding values
of self performance test results were estimated with an animal model. Different
measurements of the competition performance were compared using the same
repeatability model. Variance and covariance components were estimated with
VCE-5 software package. Breeding value estimation for sport results with random
regression models was sufficient with first order Legendre polynomial.
Heritability continuously increased and variance proportion of permanent
environment effect continuously decreased with the increase of age. Breeding
values can be estimated at different ages and from these values, a composite
breeding value index can be computed. Using this index, it will be possible to
weight breeding values for the specific requirements of breeders. The authors are
among the firsts to apply random regression models for continuously measured
horse breeding data in equitation science.
59
The prevalence of ridden behaviour problems in the UK leisure horse
population and associated risk factors
Jo Hockenhull, Emma Creighton
Anthrozoology Unit, Chester Centre for Stress Research, University of Chester,
UK
In the UK, the number of people riding horses for leisure has increased over the
last decade. Problem behaviour from the horse under saddle is potentially
dangerous and may lead to poorer welfare from harsher training techniques.
Understanding the prevalence and risk factors for these behaviours is important if
riders are to address this issue. To answer this need, a large-scale internet survey
of 1326 leisure horse owners aimed to collect horse-level data regarding problem
behaviour and associated risk factors. Owners were asked to rate the frequency
their horse performed 15 problem behaviours (1-5 scale) during the last week it
was ridden; and to answer closed questions about potential risk factors for these
problems, spanning methods of training and types of equipment used with the
horse. Problem behaviour was reported in 86% of 869 horses, with shying (47%),
moving off when the rider mounts (43%), and pulling/leaning on the bit (42%)
being the most common. Given that problems were reported only for the
preceding week and some respondents reported active avoidance in their riding
(e.g. by not jumping or hacking out), these figures may be an underestimate.
Principle Components Analysis extracted four behaviour problem factors: FA1issues with jumping, FA2-buck/bolt/rear/stop, FA3-resistance to slowing, and
FA4-behaviours associated with pain. Associations between scores on these
factors and potential risk factors revealed effects due to type of training technique
used (e.g. FA1-jumping χ219=35.33, N=615, P=0.013; FA4-pain χ219=36.42,
P=0.009, N=619) and equipment used (e.g. FA3-resistance and use of running
martingale U=56467241,549 P=0.001; FA2-buck/bolt/rear/stop and use of whip
U=67567252,536 P=0.001). This research concludes that the prevalence of ridden
behaviour problems in the UK leisure horse population is high and has definable
risk factors. A better understanding of these problems may help to shape rider
education and improve the welfare of ridden horses.
60
Comparison of the effects of positive and negative reinforcement
during training on the human-equine relationship
Carol Sankey, Marie-Annick Richard-Yris, Martine Hausberger
UMR-CNRS 6552 Laboratoire d’ethologie animale et humaine (Ethos), Université
de Rennes 1, Campus de Beaulieu, F-35042 Rennes cedex, France
Equine trainers generally use either positive or negative reinforcement training
procedures to educate their animals and we suggest that these two strategies may
have a different impact on the Human-equine relationship (HER). The aim of this
study was to compare the effects of positive vs. negative reinforcement during
training on the HER. The experimental protocol was conducted in two riding
schools with a total of 21 ponies. All animals were trained to walk backwards on a
vocal command, using either positive (riding school 1 [RS1]: n=5; riding school 2
[RS2]: n=6) or negative (RS1: n=5; RS2: n=5) reinforcement techniques. Positive
reinforcement was a food reward: the experimenter stood in front of the pony, gave
the order and waited for the pony to walk backwards; never applying pressure on
the lead rope and negative reinforcement was applied by agitating a stick in front
of the animal’s head. On all training days, heart rate was measured (R-R Intervals)
and behaviour was recorded. HER was assessed by performing a ‘motionless
person test’ before and after the training period. Non-parametric Mann-Whitney
U-tests were used to compare experimental groups. There were no differences in
any of the variables before the training started. However, post training, ponies
trained with positive reinforcement were faster to approach a motionless person
than the ones trained with negative reinforcement (RS1: 14.6s.±8.9 vs.
146.2s.±65.37, p<0.05; RS2: 50.5s.±33 vs. 300s.±0, p<0.005, respectively). They
also spent more time close to this person (distance<1m.: RS1: 95.4% vs. 21.9%,
p<0.05; RS2: 70% vs. 0%, p<0.005, respectively) and displayed positive
behaviours such as sniffing (RS1: 55% vs. 6.4%, p<0.01; RS2: 20% vs. 0%,
p<0.005) and nibbling (RS2: 20.3% vs. 0%, p<0.005) the experimenter. The use
of positive reinforcement, contrarily to negative reinforcement, in equine training
programmes appears to have beneficial effects on the HER.
61
Human/horse relationship quality: Similar equine perception of
humans reflected in different situations
C. Fureix, P. Jego, M. Hausberger
Laboratoire Ethologie Animale et Humaine, Université de Rennes1, France
Human-horse relationship (HHR) is of major importance in both competition as
well as recreational horseback riding. A negative perception of humans by horses
can decrease performances, welfare of both horse and rider and safety for both
parties. Several behavioural tests have been used to evaluate HHR but no study
compare horses’ reactions between these tests. This study aimed to investigate if
horses generalize their reactions to humans from one to another context or if HHR
quality depends on context assessment. Four tests were performed on 60 horses in
riding centres including (a) ‘passive presence test’ (the experimenter entered the
box and remained motionless during 5 minutes), (b) ‘slow approach test’ (the
experimenter approached slowly and tried to touch the horse in the box), (c)
‘saddle-approach test’ (experimenter showing a saddle to the horse) and (d) ‘bridge
test’ (the experimenter led the horse and tried to make it cross a mattress). The
behaviour of the horse, and the time required by the horse to accept being touched
and the time required for the horse to cross the bridge were recorded. Nonparametric analyses were performed to compare the horses’ reactions between all
tests. The horses that were the most difficult to touch in their box also stayed the
furthest away from the motionless human (Spearman, ρ = -0.41, p = 0.002), were
the most aggressive when approached with a saddle (Fisher, p = 0.01) and were the
most reluctant to cross the bridge (MannWhitney, U = 74, p = 0.002). Similarly,
the most agressive horses when approached with a saddle were also the most
reluctant to cross the bridge (Fisher, p = 0.04) and the most threatening towards the
motionless human (MannWhitney, U = 169, p = 0.007). The findings suggest that
an altered HHR may be reflected in different contexts and daily perception of
humans may present as stressful for these horses, potentially leading to poor
welfare, performances and safety in some instances.
62
Investigating horse-human interactions
Linda J Keeling, Lovisa Lanneborn, Liv Jonare
Department of Animal Environment and Health, Swedish University of
Agricultural Sciences, Box 7038, SE 750 07 Uppsala, Sweden
We report two separate studies measuring heart rate (HR) and behaviour of
average riding horses ridden by hobby riders under controlled conditions. The aim
was to investigate horse-human interactions. In the first study, riders rode the
same horse (9 riders, 9 horses) three times in a 20-min standardised programme
and then another group (12 riders, 12 horses) each rode three different horses in the
same programme. The HR of riders and horses followed the same general pattern
with significant correlations (Pearson; r=0.73, r=0.47, r=0.43; all P<0.001). The
HR of horse and rider were recorded and the deviation of each horse/rider’s HR
ratio from a standard curve based on all pairs. Results showed large individual
variation between and within horses and riders. In the second study, people led a
horse (20 people, 10 horses) three times over a distance of 100m and people rode
(17 other people, 17 other horses) over the same distance. Just before the fourth
pass, the person leading or riding the horse learned that the person standing to the
side holding an umbrella would put up the umbrella as the horse went past. No
other information was available and in fact, the umbrella was not raised at any
time. There was an overall effect of pass on the HR of the human leading the
horse (F=3.66, p<0.001) or riding it (F=6.07, P<0.01). It decreased from pass 1-3
and tended to increase on pass four when leading (p=0.06) and significantly when
riding (P<0.05). Similar overall effects were found on the HR of the horse being
led (F=15.42, P<0.001) or ridden (F=12.7, P<0.001). The HR of the horse
increased for the fourth pass when being led (P<0.05) and when ridden (P<0.05).
The findings indicate that the horse’s HR increased when the person ‘thought’ the
horse may be frightened.
63
Can a simple problem-solving task be used to assess Learned
Helplessness in horses?
Hayley Randle
Duchy College, Stoke Climsland, Callington, Cornwall, UK, PL17 8PB
Learned helplessness (LH) is defined as a psychological condition in which
individuals learn that they have no control over unpleasant conditions and are
‘helpless’. Despite suggestions of LH in horses 20 years ago, objective data are
not available. This study investigated the possibility of LH in horses kept in an
educational establishment using a food-based problem-solving task. This study
had 39 equine subjects, 6-20 years old, of various breeds. The experimenter
entered the horse’s stable with an unused feed bucket and allowed it to sniff an
apple-quarter, which was then placed under the inverted bucket 1.5m directly in
front of the horse. Behaviours were recorded instantaneously using continuous
time sampling for a maximum of 300s. Observed behaviours were categorised into
task-related, human-directed and other non-task-directed. Behavioural Diversity
(BD), Behavioural Intensity (BI), time (s) until first contact (TC), Attention Span
(AS) and Solving Time (ST) scores were derived. The findings revealed 69% of
subjects solved the task in 114.5s±87.7s with AS of 78.9±76.8s. In terms of
latency, 25.5±35.7s passed until TC for solvers compared to 37.5±83.8 for nonsolvers. Only the frequency of human-directed activity and BI were normally
distributed (Anderson-Darling P>0.05).
The frequency of human-directed
behaviours differed significantly (t18=-2.27; P<0.05) between solvers (3.78±2.42)
and non-solvers (5.92±2.84). Solvers spent a significantly greater proportion of
their time engaging in task-related behaviours (median=0.5; Mann-Whitney W=
40.5; P<0.05) than non-solvers (median=0.25). PCA indicated that solvers focus
more clearly on the task. There does not appear to be direct evidence of LH (based
at least on this task) in this sample of horses which are kept in a system that might
easily predispose them to LH (individually housed for majority of their time with
limited turnout), although individual differences probably due to past experience
were evident. LH remains an important aspect of the human-horse dyad and must
be included in any consideration of horse welfare.
64
Equine Chronobiology – An emerging scientific field with
implications for health and performance in the horse
Barbara A. Murphy
School of Agriculture, Food Science and Veterinary Medicine, University College
Dublin, Belfield, Ireland
The sun and the constant rotation of the Earth influence all planetary life forms.
From the simplest algae to mammals, almost all organisms adapt their lifestyles
and organise activities into 24-hr cycles determined by sunrise and sunset. The
evolution of the circadian system permits alignment of physiological function with
the solar day. The master mammalian pacemaker, located in the suprachiasmatic
nucleus of the brain, receives light information from the retina and regulates
diverse physiological processes. Circadian rhythms of body temperature, heart
rate, locomotor activity, blood glucose and numerous serum hormones have been
described in the horse. However, the implications of these physiological rhythms
for training and performance remain unexplored. Timing-information transmits
from the master clock to peripheral tissues continually, synchronising molecular
clockwork mechanisms in each cell. The equine core molecular clock genes have
been identified and their expression profiles examined in peripheral blood and
adipose tissue. The findings revealed intriguing differences in peripheral circadian
regulation between the horse and other mammalian species. Circadian disruption
occurs due to rapid transmeridian travel and the associated physiological malaise
and performance deficits demonstrated in humans are equally relevant for the
equine athlete at international competition. The first study to investigate jet lag in
the horse has revealed that two important markers of circadian pacemaker phase,
the melatonin and body temperature rhythms, adjust almost immediately to an
abrupt 6-hr advance of the light/dark cycle in the horse. This is in stark contrast to
the slow re-adaptation times observed in similar studies in humans and rodents.
Further chronobiology studies are warranted to determine whether rapid reentrainment also occurs at the level of peripheral tissues and the impact, if any, on
performance parameters. Application of our knowledge of equine circadian
rhythms to their daily management and training routines will have long-term
benefits for health and performance.
65
Equine influenza epidemics in immunologically naïve and partially
immune horse populations
Ann Cullinane, Michelle Quinlivan, Maura Nelly, Sarah Gildea, Pamela Lyons
The Virology Unit, Irish Equine Centre, Johnstown, Naas, Co. Kildare, Ireland
Influenza viruses belong to the family Orthomyxoviridae and are classified into
subtypes because of differences in their surface glycoproteins, haemagglutinin
(HA) and neuraminidase (N). To-date 16 haemagglutinins and 9 neuraminidases
have been described, but only subtype H3N8 is currently circulating in horses.
Antigenic drift of the HA in the late 1980s resulted in the divergence of equine
H3N8 viruses into American and Eurasian lineages with the American lineage
evolving later into 3 sub-lineages designated Argentina, Kentucky and Florida.
Equine influenza is the most important cause of respiratory disease in horses and is
endemic in Europe and North America. In 1989, there was an influenza epidemic
in Ireland. The country had a mandatory vaccination policy for racehorses and
competition horses in operation for almost a decade at the time of the epizootic.
Horses received a primary course of three doses of vaccine followed by annual
booster vaccination. Antigenic variation reduces vaccine efficacy and the virus
that caused the 1989 epidemic was shown to be significantly different from those
contained in the vaccines at that time. Since the 1989 epidemic the vaccines have
been updated and improved and the FEI now require six monthly booster
vaccinations. However, sporadic outbreaks of influenza due to viruses of both
American and Eurasian lineages have continued to occur in Ireland. These have
varied in magnitude, some have been countrywide, but none has reached epidemic
proportions. In 2007, the introduction of equine influenza virus into Australia for
the first time resulted in the infection of over 70,000 horses and a cost to the horse
industry estimated to be hundreds of millions of dollars. The virus responsible
belongs to the Florida sub-lineage and is similar to viruses isolated in Japan and
America in 2007. Here we review the factors that lead to influenza epidemics,
examine exposure issues, pathogenicity of the virus and the ability of the horse to
counteract equine influenza virus.
66
Completion and treatment rates in modern endurance racing
David J Marlin1, John McEwen2, Frits Sluyter3
1
Hartpury College, Hartpury, Gloucester, UK
Cross-Country Equine Clinic, Devauden, Chepstow, Monmouthsire, UK
3
Veterinary Department, Fédération Equestre Internationale (FEI), Lausanne,
Switzerland
2
Endurance is the fastest growing discipline of the FEI. In recent years, the average
speed of rides has increased, while completion rates have fallen. This trend has
raised concerns over welfare of endurance horses but to date there has been no
formal analysis of race records. The present investigation used archive records
held by the Fédération Equestre International (FEI) and reviewed data from 120
and 160km race rides in the 8 global regions in the period 2005 to 2007. We
sought to determine if there is evidence of increasing rates of elimination and
whether this relates to increasing numbers of horses requiring veterinary treatment.
For each year and each region, two 120km and two 160km rides were randomly
selected. For each race the region, month, distance, number of starters, number of
finishers, number eliminated, reason for elimination (lameness, metabolic or other)
and number of horses receiving veterinary treatment were available. A total of
1651 horses’ starts were analysed for which the average completion rate was 57%.
Overall completion rates were not different between 160 (51%) and 120 km races
(55%) but did vary by region (range: 41% Middle East to 73% Eastern Europe).
Eliminations due to lameness and metabolic reasons were not different between
120 and 160km. The numbers of horses eliminated for lameness in all rides
increased from 2005 to 2007, whilst the rate of metabolic eliminations was
unchanged. The proportion of horses starting races that received invasive
veterinary treatment was almost twice as high in 160 (22%) versus 120km races
(12%). By region, treatment rates were highest in Western and Eastern Europe and
Africa and lowest in Asia, Australasia and the Middle East. There was a trend for
rides with the highest completion rates to have the highest treatment rates also.
The overall proportion of horses starting that were treated was 19.7% in 2005,
28.0% in 2006 and 8.8% in 2007 and in the same period, completion rates fell.
The finding that low completion rates may not be associated with high treatment
rates suggests that strict vetting procedures may protect horses in endurance and
reduce the rates of treatment and warrants further and more detailed investigation.
67
Can we improve short-term memory in the horse?
Jack Murphy
School of Agriculture, Food Science and Veterinary Medicine, University College
Dublin, Ireland
A previous study reported short-term memory limitations in horses during a twochoice feed trial when subjected to a 10-second delayed release to access a feed
resource. In the current study, eight horses performed individually using a Y-maze
apparatus where they had to choose either the left or the right arm of the apparatus
correctly to access the stimulus (feed). The experimental protocol required the
horses to stand at a starting gate and witness (visually and aurally) the feed
delivery into a container in one or other arm of the apparatus. Following stimulus
activation, each horse chose one or other location in five experimental contexts:
immediate release after feed delivery, release 3 seconds after feed delivery, release
6 seconds after feed delivery, release 9 seconds after feed delivery and release 12
seconds after feed delivery. Individual subjects performed five immediate-release
(IR) trials, followed by five three-second delayed release trials (3DR), five sixsecond delayed release trials (6DR), five nine-second delayed release trials (9DR)
and five twelve-second delayed release trials (12DR) during testing sessions on
one day. The protocol was repeated one week later to re-test the horses. Data
were analysed by log-linear analysis of frequencies. Results showed that the
horses were capable of achieving the correct stimulus location in the immediaterelease trials. They were also largely successful with the delayed release trials and
improved marginally during the re-test. The findings suggest that if there are
limitations in short-term memory recall abilities in horses when exposed to delays
of 10-seconds or more without prior training, incremental memory-training
exercise may ameliorate this shortcoming. Horses may have a limited but trainable
form of prospective memory. However, the danger still exists with overestimation
of equine cognitive ability during training and unnecessary delays in
reinforcements are likely to lead to welfare and training setbacks.
68
Poster Section
www.equitationscience.com
69
Initial acceptance of novel flavours in diets offered to stabled horses
Elaine Hart1, Deborah Goodwin1, Pat Harris2
1
Animal Behaviour Unit, School of Psychology, University of Southampton, UK
Equine Studies Group, WALTHAM Centre for Pet Nutrition, UK
Odour and taste are important factors in food selected and consumed by horses.
Published trials in stabled horses using fifteen flavours presented at 1% in standard
meals of 100 g cereal by-product showed flavour affected diet acceptance,
selection and consumption times in an otherwise identical base diet. The study
reported here aimed to investigate the effects of a lower concentration of flavour
i.e. 0.5% on initial acceptance in the same base diet. Eight novel flavours were
presented to eight Thoroughbred horses (1 mare, 7 geldings) according to a Latin
Square design to control for order effects. The flavours were presented at 0.5% in
the base diet (i.e. 0.5g by weight in 99.5g) and were fed dry. The meals were
presented to the horses in hanging door mangers, with a minimum of 24 hours
between trial days. No more than six meals were presented in any 24-hour period
and a minimum of one hour was allowed between meals to approximate standard
hunger levels. Quantity consumed, partial rejection, complete rejection and
consumption times were recorded. Two flavours, agrimony and horehound were
universally accepted and completely consumed by all participants. Although
acceptance varied between the remaining flavours none were universally rejected.
Burdock was rejected by two horses and orange by one individual. Variation in
amount consumed was compared for all eight flavours using Kendall’s coefficient
of concordance. This showed a significant difference existed between amount
consumed (W = 0.456, n = 8, p < 0.001). Mean consumption times were affected
by individual variation but were NS for the group overall (p = 0.2). This trial
showed flavour concentrations of 0.5% in a standard base diet significantly
affected diet selection and acceptance, but not consumption times. These results
may have practical implications in diet formulation for the equine feed industry.
70
Does the provision of creep feed post-weaning affect the development
of oral stereotypies in foals (Equus caballus)?
T. Parnell, D. Goodwin
School of Psychology, University of Southampton, Southampton, SO17 1BJ, UK
The treatment of stereotypies in horses (Equus caballus) commonly referred to as
‘stable vices’ has been addressed by a range of different methods. None, however,
has provided a ‘cure’ for these unwanted behaviours. This deficiency highlights
the need to identify the underlying mechanisms and to treat the behaviours
prophylactically; i.e. to address the causative agents using a preventative approach.
There appears to be a higher incidence of stereotypical behaviours in the
Thoroughbred (TB) than in other breeds of horse generally. One of the proffered
explanations for this has been the very different management practices involved in
producing and maintaining TB racehorses in a competitive market. The aim of this
study was to investigate if there is a correlation between the feeding of creep
feed/hard feed after weaning and the development of oral stereotypies in TB foals.
The methodology included a self-administered questionnaire distributed to twentyfive Irish stud farms in counties Kildare and Meath. Following a response rate of
88%, twenty-two responses were available, representing a cohort of six hundred
and seventy three foals. With the exception of sixteen foals, all the remaining
foals had access to some form of concentrated proprietary horse feed both before
and after weaning. All of the foals were at least four months of age prior to
weaning. All of the foals had access to grass paddocks post-weaning and they
were brought in once daily for feeding and checking for a short period before
returning to the field. Only three foals (0.004% of the test population) developed
oral stereotypies and all three foals were on different farms. In contrast to other
studies, the current study failed to provide any evidence of a correlation between
the feeding of creep feed post-weaning and the development of crib-biting
behaviour in TB foals.
71
Husbandry factors and the incidence of stereotypy in Irish
Racehorses
Noelle Carroll, Sean Arkins
Department of Life Sciences, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland
While several studies have documented the prevalence of stereotypies in horses,
there has been limited research of this nature in Ireland. The aims of this study
were twofold: (a) determine the prevalence of stereotypies in Irish racehorses (b)
document the management, environment and training regimes in Irish racing yards.
The study comprised of telephone interviews with a random sample of 105 trainers
(28.5% of all trainers) and involved 1368 racehorses (33.5% of TB horses in
training in Ireland). The results indicated that an average training yard consisted
of 21 horses on the farm, 13 horses in training, 42 hectares of available land and 4
employees working full-time. On average, each employee was charged with 3
horses. Most horses in the study (84%) were in training for National Hunt racing
and horses exercised on average 62 minutes (+ 23.0) per day. Mechanical walkers
were used in conjunction with ridden exercise by 48% of trainers. While 72% of
the trainers in this study allowed their horses independent time out in a paddock or
yard, only 42% of trainers allowed their horses time-out with other horses. The
bedding substrate used predominately was shavings (39%), straw (35%) and paper
(20%). Most trainers fed 3 concentrate feeds per day (67%) and forage twice a day
(70%). On average, each horse received 7.7kg of concentrate feed and 4.9kg of
forage per day. Hay was the predominant forage used – 56% of trainers reported
feeding hay. Of the trainers sampled, 74 (70.5%) reported animals exhibiting
stereotypies at the time of the survey. From 1368 horses, trainers reported 233
horses (17.0%) exhibited stereotypic behaviours. The stereotypies encountered
were crib biting (3.3%), weaving (2.9%), box-walking (2.3%), wood chewing
(2.6%), stamping/pawing (1.5%), shaking/bobbing head (1.4%), coprophagia
(1.0%), polydipsia nervosa (0.9%), kicking out (0.5%), pica (0.5%) and selfmutilation (0.2%).
72
Are there ‘optimal timeframes’ for handling the foal (Equus
caballus)?
Figueiredo, I¹; Costa, H²; Meireles J¹, Rosa, I¹.
1
Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade Técnica de Lisboa, Portugal
2
Fundação Alter-Real, Coutada do Arneiro, Alter-do-Chão, Portugal
There is evidence to suggest that handling young horses (early life experience)
seems to influence the horse’s behaviour later during adulthood. It may be
important therefore to identify the optimal timeframes to handle young horses with
simple procedures, which are likely to affect the horse’s fearfulness, learning
performance and manageability. These study aims were to test the effects of 3
sessions of an early type of handling during three different timeframes of the foal’s
early life. Lusitanian foals (n = 46) were assigned to one of five groups and three
of the foal groups were handled during specific timeframes. The first group (n =
8) was handled as neonates (NF), the second (n = 9) during weaning (WF), the
third (n = 12) during the first month (OF), while a fourth group (n = 9) was left
unhandled (UF) until the beginning of training sessions and the fifth group (n = 8)
served as control (CF). Following the handling periods and 1 month post-weaning,
the foals participated in 4 training sessions (they were trained to halter and to lead).
Testing occurred twice: once just before the training sessions started and again just
after they ended. There were no differences between handled groups when tested
before the training sessions. However, after handling, there were significant
differences between NF, WF and control groups. NF and WF groups reacted less
(p<0.005), tolerated the human approaches better (p<0.05) and showed less
locomotor activity in the handler’s presence (p<0.05). The WF group was easier to
halter during all training sessions and was the only group that passed all aims. In
general, it seems that three handling sessions may be sufficient to shape foal
behaviour if performed during specific periods or ‘optimal timeframes’. Neonatal
handled foals are less reactive and foals handled at weaning more manageable.
73
An investigation into personality traits of elite, amateur and nonriders
Inga A Wolframm1,2, Dominic Micklewright2
1
University of Applied Science, Van Hall Larenstein (Wageningen UR), Postbus
4116700 AK Wageningen, NL
2
University of Essex, Wivenhoe Park, Colchester CO4 3SQ, UK
Performance in sport has been linked to personality traits and resultant behavioural
expressions. Investigating personality traits in equestrian riders and comparing
elite, amateur and non-riders may give a better understanding of equestrian
performance and horse-rider interaction. Following ethical approval, 8 elite riders
(mean age 39.1±8.2), 36 amateur riders competing at intermediate level (mean age
23.8±6.5) and 27 non-riders (mean age 32.6±8.7) were asked to complete the NEO
PI-R personality questionnaire. Data were analysed using a One-Way ANOVA
with a Post Hoc Scheffe test to examine the data for differences in personality
domains of neuroticism, extroversion, openness, agreeableness and conscientious
and corresponding personality facets. Most notable findings were a significant
difference between elite riders and amateur riders in the facet of Vulnerability with
(6.5±4.2 vs. 12.0±4.3, p<0.05). Furthermore, significant differences were found
between amateur riders and non-riders in the domain of Agreeableness with
(108±2.7 vs. 120.8±3, p<0.05) and for the facets of Excitement Seeking (18.7±4.1
vs. 14.7±6.7, p≤0.01); Feelings (23.2±3.5 vs. 20.6±4.6, p<0.05); Trust (17.7±4.2
vs. 20.9±4.8, p≤0.01) and Compliance (14.6±4.7 vs. 18.5±5.9, p≤0.01).
Differences in Tendermindedness were found between elite and non-riders
(16.5±3.0 vs. 20.0±2.7, p≤0.001), and amateur and non-riders (18.7±2.9 vs.
21.0±2.7, p≤0.001). Differences were also found in Achievement Striving
between elite and non-riders (23.1±2.9 vs. 18.4±5.0, p<0.05), and amateur and
non-riders (21.4±3.9 vs. 18.4±5.0, p<0.05). The equestrian personality may thus
be described as hard working and tough-minded, competitive and aggressive,
craving excitement and able to experience intense feelings. Elite riders cope better
during stress than amateur riders. These findings support the notion that in
effective horse-rider relationships a more confident rider results in a more
successful horse-rider combination. The design of subsequent sport psychological
interventions may improve rider confidence.
74
Anxiety and self-confidence among elite and non-elite equestrian
riders
Inga A Wolframm1,2, Dominic Micklewright2
1
University of Applied Science, Van Hall Larenstein (Wageningen UR), Postbus
4116700 AK Wageningen, NL
2
University of Essex, Wivenhoe Park, Colchester CO4 3SQ, UK
Equestrian sport depends on effective horse-rider communication to allow the dyad
to perform harmoniously and relaxed. Research into other sports has shown that
excessive levels of anxiety can undermine motor function during performance. In
the rider, this may result in unclear aids, leaving the horse unresponsive.
Investigations into anxiety and its interaction with self-confidence in elite and nonelite riders may provide indications towards what defines successful horse-rider
interaction. Forty riders (12 male, 28 female; 15 elite, 25 non-elite; 12 dressage,
17 showjumping, 11 eventing) completed the Revised Competitive Sport Anxiety
Inventory 2, which measures somatic anxiety (SA), cognitive anxiety (CA) and
self-confidence (SC). Data were analyzed using independent samples t-tests and
Pearson’s product moment correlations. Results showed that, compared to nonelite riders, elite riders scored significantly lower on SA (15.2±4.4 vs. 19.0±5.0,
p≤0.01) and higher on SC (31.5±4.8 vs. 25.1±7.4, p≤0.01). Negative correlations
between CA and SC were found among elite riders (r=-.61, p<0.05) and non-elite
riders (r=-.40, p<0.05). Compared to female riders, males scored lower in CA
(15.3±3.6 vs. 20.6±7.7, p<0.01) and higher in SC (30.7±4.9 vs. 26.1±7.6, p<0.05).
Findings suggest that elite riders tend to have lower levels of SA and higher levels
of SC than non-elite riders. Horses may react to increased symptoms of SA by
becoming tense and unresponsive. Low levels of SA as found in elite riders may
facilitate a more relaxed, harmonious performance. Greater riding-specific skill in
the elite rider may result in increased levels of self-confidence allowing for taskfocused concentration and improved performance. Results also suggest that
anxiety is lower and self-confidence is higher among male riders which may be
one of the reasons why there are proportionately more male than female riders at
elite level. Future research should focus on developing appropriate intervention
strategies to manage anxiety and increase confidence particularly in non-elite
riders.
75
An investigation into personality traits of equestrian riders, grooms
and managers of equine businesses
Inga A Wolframm1,2, Dominic Micklewright2
1
University of Applied Science, Van Hall Larenstein (Wageningen UR), Postbus
4116700 AK Wageningen, NL
2
University of Essex, Wivenhoe Park, Colchester CO4 3SQ, UK
The equine industry is rapidly increasing in size and importance, contributing
considerably to national economic output. In order to operate optimally, equine
businesses depend on individual performances of their employees. The aim of the
study is to gain a better understanding of the personality characteristics of different
equine professionals, which may assist in devising relevant professional training
schemes leading to increased job satisfaction and overall performance in equine
business and sport. Following ethical approval, 14 managers of equine businesses
(mean age 42.3±8.3), 31 horse grooms (mean age 21.2±5.6) and 21 professional
riders (29.5±4.3) completed an online questionnaire of the Big Five Personality
Factors containing 48 questions rated on a 5-point Likert scale. Raw scores were
converted into percentile scores. Data were analysed using a One-Way ANOVA
with a Post Hoc Scheffe test to examine the data for differences in personality
domains of Neuroticism, Extroversion, Openness, Agreeableness and
Conscientious. Significant differences were found in Neuroticism between
managers and riders (31.8±21.8 vs. 57.6±24.6, p<0.01), in Extroversion between
managers and grooms (84.7±10.7 vs. 56.9±28.9, p<0.001) and grooms and riders
(56.9±28.9 vs. 86.2±14.4, p<0.001), in Openness between managers and grooms
(46.3±27 vs. 8.9±16.9, p<0.001) and managers and riders (46.3±27 vs. 14.8±21.8,
p<0.001), in Agreeableness between managers and riders (32.4±24.2 vs. 11.5±12,
p<0.05), and in Conscientiousness between managers and grooms (91±7.3 vs.
57.4±25.7, p<0.001). The findings support the view that managers of equine
businesses are confident, able to deal with customers, open to new ideas and highly
committed to their work. The results also suggest that grooms are conventional
and conservative in outlook and on-the-job training should focus on further
increasing conscientiousness and commitment. Riders are outgoing, aggressive,
highly competitive and should be encouraged to manage levels of anxiety in order
to improve horse-rider interaction and achieve optimum performance in training
and competition.
76
Behavioural repertoires of Irish thoroughbred (TB) yearling horses
Jack Murphy
School of Agriculture, Food Science and Veterinary Medicine, University College
Dublin, Ireland
Ireland is the third largest producer of thoroughbred (TB) horses worldwide with
12633 foals in 2007. Abnormal Repetitive Behaviour (ARB) can affect both
athletic performance and monetary value of afflicted horses. This study sought to
determine behavioural profiles including ARBs among Irish TB yearling horses.
The study used a self-reporting questionnaire survey of all members of the Irish
Thoroughbred Breeders Association (ITBA) – the representative body of the Irish
thoroughbred breeding industry.
Questionnaires were distributed to the
membership (n= 749) with ‘Business Reply Envelopes’ enclosed. Returns
numbered 228, (response rate of 30%) and 209 individual members had suitable
TB horses for the survey. The total number of horses investigated was 1893
animals (16% of total population) – consisting of 807 colts, 195 geldings and 891
fillies. Behavioural incidence included crib-biting 0.07%; weaving 0.05%; boxwalking 0.08%; wind-sucking 0.03%; tail-eating 2.75%; wood-chewing 1.5%;
head-shaking 0.01%; tongue-playing 0.03% and object-licking 0.05%. Causative
factors suggested by the respondents included: inherited 25%; copied 16%;
represented purely a coping mechanism 14%; learned by trial and error 9%; as a
result of multiple causes (some or all of the previous) 12%; stemming from a
specific cause (e.g. illness or medically induced) 7% and 17% of respondents
offered no opinion as to the probable cause. The most surprising finding is the low
rates of ARB (e.g. crib-biting & wood-chewing) compared to significantly higher
rates reported for equid populations generally. One of the more recent studies of
225 foals in the UK reported crib-biting in 11% of foals at a median age of 20
weeks and wood chewing in 30% of foals at a median age of 30 weeks. The ITBA
members employed various husbandry initiatives to minimise the incidence of
ARBs and the findings may indicate the use of enlightened husbandry systems
among Irish producers of TB horses generally.
77
The extent of abnormal behaviours observed in a cohort of Irish
thoroughbred (TB) weanling-yearling horses
Jack Murphy
School of Agriculture, Food Science and Veterinary Medicine, University College
Dublin, Ireland
Ireland enjoys a reputation of consistently producing superior thoroughbred (TB)
horses that go on to perform at the highest level. The Irish TB breeding industry
involves some 13,000 foals per annum from a population of more than 19,500
mares and 420 stallions. Exhibiting Abnormal Repetitive Behaviour (ARB) has a
negative influence on the monetary value of young horses that exhibit these
unwanted activities. This aim of this study was to determine the extent of
abnormal behavioural activities in a cohort of weanling-yearling horses under
standard husbandry conditions. The study was conducted at TB breeding farms (n
= 22) where most young TB horses (foals and weanlings) are housed or at least
sheltered for management and feeding during the winter months depending upon
prevailing weather conditions. The number of animals at individual farms ranged
from four to forty-two and they were ‘housed’ in groups of at least four at each
breeding farm. The method included both scan sampling and direct focal sampling
of the animals [n = 323: colts (n = 173) & fillies (n = 150)] during November ’06
to February ‘07 in South-east Ireland. Scan sampling (60 seconds every 15
minutes from 08.00 – 09.30 and 18.30 – 20.00) of the animals revealed normal
behavioural patterns with the exception of very few individuals. Once identified,
focal sampling of these individuals showed that tail-eating was prevalent in 22
animals (colts = 18; fillies = 4), wood-chewing in 15 animals (colts = 6; fillies = 9)
and crib-biting was observed in only one colt during the observational period.
There was no evidence of locomotory behaviours (box-walking or weaving) or
other oral stereotypies in any of the horses. Breeders ‘housed’ the weanling horses
in groups wherever possible in an effort to maximise the welfare status and avoid
ARB development in the young animals.
78
The incidence of stereotypy in Irish thoroughbred (TB) horses sold at
auction
Jack Murphy
School of Agriculture, Food Science and Veterinary Medicine, University College
Dublin, Ireland
Ireland is synonymous with thoroughbred (TB) horse production and graduates
from the Irish bloodstock auction sales have won many of the most prestigious
races worldwide. There Irish bloodstock sales companies (Goffs Bloodstock
Sales, Goresbridge Horse Sales and Tattersalls Ireland) specialise in selling TB
horses. Vendors of horses sold via the auction houses must declare if animals
exhibit stereotypy such as box-walking, weaving, crib-biting or windsucking at the
time of sale. The conditions of sale also stipulate that if animals (declared as
stereotypy free) subsequently perform stereotypy within 7-days post sale, the
animal is returnable to the vendor who is then liable for all costs incurred during
the process. The current study set out to examine the incidence of stereotypy
typically reported in horses within the 7-day post sale period. Goresbridge Horse
Sales yearling results (1996 to 2006) revealed that only one animal was returned as
a crib-biter within the 7-day period from 1451 yearlings sold. Concerns that two
further horses displayed crib-biting behaviour were not upheld as in both cases the
veterinary panel subsequently found in favour of the vendor i.e. animals were
adjudged as normal. The Tattersalls Ireland November 2006 Sales included the
return of a 4-year old windsucker from 95 horses sold, two yearling windsuckers
from 387 yearlings sold, one foal (box-walker) returned from 946 foals sold and
there were no returns from 181 older mares sold. Goffs Bloodstock Sales reported
that two windsuckers were returned from 353 yearling sold in September 2006.
During the Goffs November Sales, one foal was returned from 778 animals sold
and there was no stereotypy reported in 160 foals post the December Sale 2006.
The findings suggest a low incidence of stereotypy during the 7-day post sale
period and may be indicative of low incidence of stereotypy overall in Irish TB
horses.
79
A preliminary investigation into the effectiveness of different halter
types used on horses
Belinda J. McDonald, Amanda K. Warren-Smith
Faculty of Science, Charles Sturt University, Orange, NSW, Australia
The success of interactions between humans and horses is determined by the
effectiveness of the communication from handler to horse. Many pieces of
equipment are used to manually communicate with horses. One example is the
halter, which may also be referred to as a headstall or head collar, of which there
are two main types, the web halter and the rope halter. Anecdotally, there is
debate as to which halter type is the most effective for both communicating to, and
controlling horses. Given that halters are the main form of horse control in unridden activities, it is important to establish the effectiveness of each type when
used for training purposes. In the current study, horses (n=10) were paired for
breed, age and sex and one from each pair placed into Group 1 (web halter) and the
other from each pair placed into Group 2 (rope halter). Each horse was led a 10 m
distance on 5 consecutive occasions with a 30 s rest between each occasion. The
behavioural responses (resist, anticipate, head up, slow to respond, look away)
exhibited by each horse as well as the times taken for each horse to respond to the
leading stimulus and to complete the 10 m distance were recorded and analysed
using one-way ANOVA. The same handler was used for all leading. There was
no difference between the groups for the time taken to lead forward, although there
was a trend for the horses wearing the rope halter to complete the distance in less
time than those wearing the web halter (P=0.079). There were insufficient
behavioural responses exhibited for reliable analysis. While the results show that
there was no difference between the two halter types, the low number of horses
used in this trial may have confounded the results. Likewise, the use of
experienced horses may not have allowed the effectiveness of each halter to be
fully evaluated.
80
Keeping riding horses in groups – a descriptive study on the common
procedure of separating a horse from the group for riding or training
purposes
Grete Helen Meisfjord Jørgensen1, Kjersti Elisabeth Fremstad1, Cecilie Marie
Mejdell2, Knut Egil Bøe1
1
Department of Animal and Aquacultural Sciences, Norwegian University of Life
Sciences, PO. Box 5003, N-1432 Ås, Norway.
2
Department of Animal Health, National Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 750
Sentrum, 0106 Oslo, Norway
The aim of this experiment was to describe problems related to separating a horse
from a group for riding or training purposes. Twenty different horse groups with a
minimum of 5 horses in each group were studied on 14 farms in Norway. The
horses (n =100) that were tested ranged in age from one to 26 years and
represented mares (n = 47), geldings (n = 29) and stallions (n = 4). As a condition
for participating in this study, all horses had to be used to haltering and leading.
On every farm, information about the facilities, horses and handlers were recorded.
In each group, the horse owner was asked to go into the group, approach his/her
horse, halter it and lead it out (later referred to as a test). The procedure was video
taped, and behaviour of the target horse as well as other horses towards the human
was scored continuously using categories for approach and haltering the horse,
leading the horse out through the gate and alertness when target horse was visually
isolated from other horses. Mean values for the scored behaviours were discussed
against facilities and management findings. Only one of the one hundred horses
moved away from the handler when approached and was haltered at first attempt.
In ten of the tests, other horses approached the handler in a non- threatening
manner and this was the highest level of interference recorded. When socially
isolated, 72 horses stayed stationary while 26 horses took a few steps and two
horses tried to break free. Location of feed and water in relation to gate influenced
how easy it was to lead the target horse towards and through the gate. In
conclusion, separating a horse from a social group can be considered relatively
easy and safe when handlers are attentive and management practices are suitable.
81
Effects of diet on learning and responsive behaviour of young foals
Becky C Hothersall1, Christine J Nicol1, Ailison Kelland2, Patricia A Harris3
1
Department of Clinical Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Langford, North
Somerset, BS40 5DU
2
Hartpury College, Hartpury, Gloucestershire, GL19 3BE
3
WALTHAM Centre for Pet Nutrition, Melton Mowbray, Leicestershire, LE14 4R
Training, learning and exposure to novel stimuli present challenging situations to
the young horse. Fearfulness or reactivity can result in difficult or even dangerous
behaviour. Weanling horses fed a supplement rich in fibre and oils (FF), rather
than a traditional cereal-based feed high in starch and sugar (SS), have shown
reduced fearfulness and increased investigative behaviour in novel or stressful
situations. This study investigated whether dietary effects were apparent in
younger suckling foals fed small quantities of either a FF or SS diet, which was
also fed to their dams through the last 3 months of gestation and lactation.
Performance was assessed on a previously validated Novel Object test, and on a
discrimination-learning task in a subset of foals. At 3 months of age (± 1 week),
17 foals (9FF, 8SS) were exposed to a slowly spinning striped golf umbrella on
three consecutive weeks. Repeated measures ANOVA revealed that foals fed an
FF diet spent more time walking towards the umbrella (F=10.876, df=1, p=0.006)
and investigating the environment (F=4.882, df=1, p=0.046). SS foals spent longer
looking at the object without investigating it (F=7.700, df=1, p=0.016.) FF foals
had a significantly shorter average latency to approach the object within one metre
(Mann-Whitney U test, z=-2.194, p=0.030). Only five foals, all FF, touched the
object. At 4 months of age (± 1 week), there was no significant difference in the
number of sessions FF (n=4) and SS (n=5) foals took to learn to find food in one of
three buckets identifiable by both their pattern (plain, striped or chequered) and
their position (left, middle or right). However, mean latency to approach and
select a bucket was significantly shorter in FF foals (mean 17.90s) than SS foals
(mean=41.42s; exact t-test, t=-3.666, p=0.021). The results of this study echoed
previous findings in weanling horses.
82
Using a treadmill to normalize different physiological parameters in
the Spanish Pure Bred Horse
María Dolores Rubio, Estrella I. Agüera, Rafael Santisteban, Pura Tovar, Rafael
Vivo, Fernando Arroyo, Begoña M. Escribano
Faculty of Veterinary Science; University of Córdoba, Campus of Rabanales,
14071-Córdoba, Spain
Notable advances have been made in equine exercise physiology with the use of
the treadmill. Depending on its inclination, this locomotion and exercise device
controls exercise speed and intensity. It also helps to assess the aptitude of any
horse trained in different sporting disciplines by accommodating its physiological
characteristics to the type of test made. Much and highly varied research has been
done in this field, but the normal values of different haematological and
biochemical parameters have never been defined in Spanish Pure Bred horses
when using a treadmill. This is the novelty of this study, together with the fact that
it has been done on 94 male animals classified into two age groups (48 and 46,
respectively), younger (1-3.5 years: Y) and older (4-12.5 years: O) than 4 years.
After initially training the horses on the treadmill, we exposed the subjects to an
increasing intensity exercise test, with speeds maintained for 2 minutes at 4, 5, 6
and 7 m/s (with a 3-min rest between speed changes) and with the treadmill at an
inclination of 6%. We extracted blood samples while horses were at rest,
immediately after each speed, and at 5, 10 and 20 minutes of a passive recovery.
The parameters analysed in the blood included RBC, haematocrit, haemoglobin,
WBC, and neutrophils and lymphocytes numbers. In plasma, lactate, uric acid,
creatinine, AST, LDH, CK and total plasma proteins were determined. A factorial
ANOVA indicated age differences in haematocrit, haemoglobin and neutrophils
(all higher in O) and RBC, WBC, lymphocytes and LDH (all higher in Y). The
exercise intensity triggered an increase in all parameters with the speed, except in
plasma enzymes. This study determined (1) the normal values on a treadmill for
haematological and biochemical parameters in Pure Bred Spanish horses; (2) that
the horse age influenced the exercise intensity response and (3) that the exercise
seemed to be more intensive in the Y horses.
83
Relationship between stifle-hock-fetlock angulation in free-jumping
and jumping capacity of horses
Sándor Jónás1, István Komlósi2, János Posta2, Sándor Mihók2
1
2
Dózsa Gy. Str. 2, H-8628 Nagycsepely, Hungary
Institute for Animal Sciences, University of Debrecen, Böszörményi str, 138, H4032 Debrecen, Hungary
Detailed evaluations of correctly performed free-jumping self-performance tests in
foals may be predictive of sporting performance among the horses in later life.
With such evaluation, it may become possible to obtain information on
participating horses at early ages that will help selection objectively. The aim of
this study was to measure the stifle-hock-fetlock angulation – as one of the most
important part of the push off phase during the jump – at airborne phases of the
jump between the peak of the trajectory and landing of the two forelimbs.
Movement analyses of twelve one-year-old foals of the same breed that were
reared at the same location with repeating the tests at three-year-old were done.
The foals worked individually in a corridor formed without a sidewall, where an
oxer jump was situated without any small helping fences. The digital camera used
for recording (29 photos/sec) was installed up to 12m from and in line with the
first element of the oxer jump. We evaluated the photo images by using “Szelektor
HDPG 02” software developed by the authors. The stifle-hock-fetlock angulation
above the hurdle of the hind limbs pushing off depends on the intensity of the push
off. There was only a tendency in stifle-hock-fetlock angulation at the moment of
the landing of the forelimbs at the age of one, but differences were significant
between good and weak jumpers at age of three. At the age of three, the changes
in the angles of the more outstretched stifle-hock-fetlock during the time period
between the peak of the trajectory and the landing of the forelimbs are smaller and
the further closing of the closed stifle-hock-fetlock angle with weaker jumpers is
more significant. The findings suggest that there is a correlation between the
stifle-hock-fetlock angulation of the yearlings and the angulation properties when
the horses are at the three-year-old stage.
84
Balance performance in showjumping versus dressage riders
Victoria Leisk, Jenni Johnson
Hartpury College, University of the West of England, Gloucester, UK
Riders require balance to position and change their centre of gravity (COG), so
that horse and rider can move in biomechanical efficiency. Show jump riders
display a larger degree of movement in order to change their COG effectively and
remain in balance with the horse, in comparison to the dressage rider whose COG
remains relatively stable. This can be further demonstrated by jump riders
incurring a higher rate of acute injury due to rider falls from loss of balance and
displacement. We hypothesised that show jump riders will have a greater
kinesthetic awareness compared to dressage riders, which would present as a
higher mean score in balance performance tests. The study population consisted of
seven dressage riders (mean age 21.9 ± 3.1 years, height 169.2 ± 7.3 cm and
weight 67 ± 9.9 kg ) competing at elementary, and seven show jump riders (mean
age 20.1 ± 0.5 years, height 168.7 ± 11.3 cm and weight 72 ± 12.8 kg) competing
at newcomers. Subjects completed standard uni-pedal static and dynamic balance
tests on dominant and non-dominant limbs in a random order, timing to initial loss
of balance in accordance with Emery et al. (2005). There were no significant
differences found between balance performance and equestrian disciplines. The
dressage riders consistently had a higher mean balance time across all four tests, as
did the riders who regularly participate in balance training and other physical
activity. This study documents the need for further research to improve
understanding of rider balance, and thus reduce occurrence of falls. Trends for
dressage riders to have higher mean balance scores is explained by the tests
replicating the stable and undynamic nature of ridden position. Future research
may direct towards supplementary exercise in riders, investigating dynamic
balance exercise.
85
The effectiveness of equine assisted activities on positive and negative
behaviours of children with learning disabilities
Olga J M Braat, Inga A Wolframm
University of Applied Science, Van Hall Larenstein (Wageningen UR), Postbus
4116700 AK Wageningen, NL
Equine Assisted Activities (EAAs) are small-scale group activities guided by
professional trainers and designed to promote mental health through facilitating
human-equine interactions. The present study aims to investigate the effect of
EAAs on positive and negative social behaviours of children with learning
disabilities. Ethical approval and written consent was obtained prior to recruiting
21 children (mean age 12.8 ± 0.63) with mild learning disabilities for the study.
The first group, consisting of 7 subjects, participated in a predefined set of EAAs
once a week, while the second group, consisting of 14 subjects participated in the
same type of EAAs once every two weeks over a total period of 10 weeks. The
EAAs were video-taped for data analysis. Social behaviours displayed during the
first and last session of both groups were scored on a six-point likert scale using a
scoring inventory based on the Animal Assisted Therapy-Psychosocial Session
Form (AAT-PSF), identifying 9 positive and 10 negative behaviours. Data were
examined for statistically significant differences between the first and last session
using the Wilcoxon-Signed Rank Test. Results show statistically significant
increases in the positive behaviours of active listening (p≤0.05), cooperation
(p<0.05), looking at (p≤0.01), attention to task (p≤0.01), initiating contact
(p<0.01), leadership (p<0.01), participation (p≤0.001), and positive interaction
with peers (p<0.01) and professional trainer (p≤0.001). Statistically significant
decreases were found in four of the negative behaviours, including withdrawn
(p<0.05), submissive (p<0.05), overly fearful (p≤0.01) and passive (p≤0.01). The
findings suggest that EAAs support the development of positive interactive
behaviours and reduce the display of negative behaviours in children with mild
learning disabilities and could be used to aid in their continuing social education.
86
Can standardised behaviour tests predict suitability for use in
horses?
Rachel Flentje, Emma Creighton
Anthrozoology Unit, Chester Centre for Stress Research, University of Chester,
UK
Standardised behaviour tests have the potential to improve equine welfare by
enabling the selection of horses suitable for a particular role. There is a range of
tests in the scientific literature that makes such claims. However, with notable
exceptions, authors have failed to establish the reliability of their tests or the
validity of their claims. This study aimed to determine a set of reliable behaviour
tests based on those reported in literature; and to test the validity of these as
predictors of horses’ suitability as riding school or police horses. Reliability of
response to novel object, social isolation and handling tests was established by
tests repeated at three-week intervals on 33 horses. The majority of the tests were
at best moderately reliable (Weighted Kappa >0.41) with only reactivity showing
good or better reliability (Weighted Kappa >0.6-0.8). These tests were included in
the validity testing, which compared the horses’ responses to the behavioural tests
with the handlers’ ratings of key aspects of riding school and police performance.
These subjective scales of suitability were developed from interviews with
instructors and yard managers. Bonferroni corrected correlations between the
horses’ behavioural responses to the tests and subjective ratings of their suitability
for their use revealed no significant associations. These findings suggest that
standardised behavioural tests are not strongly reliable and that either the tests used
in this study did not serve as predictors of suitability for use, or that behavioural
responses to standardised tests cannot be generalised to the wider challenges faced
by these horses in their roles. Either way, the findings of this study cannot support
claims made for these (or similar) tests to be valid predictors of a horse’s
suitability for use.
87
Goal-related educational staircase in show jumping
Morgan, K., Pettersson, A-C., Berggren, E., Zetterqvist Blokhuis, M.
The Swedish National Equestrian Centre, S-734 94 Strömsholm, Sweden
The aim of the study was to develop an improved system for education in show
jumping. This educational staircase included four steps: 1) rider’s seat and
balance, 2) rider’s control and effectiveness of the aids, 3) rhythm and approach to
the fence, 4) jumping a course. The study was divided into three consecutive
steps. First, the exercises were evaluated with a test group as compared to control
with regular education. Second, the system was implemented two years within the
high-school programme. The teacher judged the achievements of every student
before and after each step. A two-way ANOVA for repeated measurements, and
where appropriate followed by a post-hoc test (Mann-Whitney Sum Rank Test or
Holm-Sidak), were used for statistical analyses. Third, an enquiry to riding
instructors and trainers was compiled to evaluate their opinion. The clearly
separate steps with their clear goals and well-defined exercises were very much
appreciated. The educational staircase increased the student’s comprehension and
provided the teacher and student with a common basis for analysing.
Comprehension increased faster than the skill. The step ’rider’s seat and balance’
was significantly (p<0.05) improved for both the years and ‘rider’s control and
effectiveness of the aids’ during one year. The riding instructors and trainers
thought that the system increased riders’ motivation and security and that the
examination could be fairer. The results showed that the system increased the
rider’s self-awareness. The results could not confirm that the examination would
be regarded more objective, and this requires further study. In conclusion, practice
improves skills and a clear and stated system as this educational staircase in show
jumping improves the rider’s comprehension, security and self-confidence. We
believe the educational staircase can improve education in show jumping, improve
the horse rider interaction and contribute to the wellbeing of both horse and rider.
88
Relationship between rider’s aerobic fitness and heart rate during a
show jumping course
Rachel S McCarthy, Jenni Johnson
Hartpury College, University of the West of England, Hartpury House, Gloucester,
GL19 3BE
It is well recognised that heart rate has a relationship with aerobic fitness, at
present there is minimal literature surrounding rider fitness and its effects on
performance. The ability to have a higher aerobic capacity may be demonstrated
by a lower heart rate throughout exercise, ultimately prolonging time to fatigue.
Therefore the aim of this study is to discover if there is a relationship between
riders’ aerobic fitness and heart rate while show jumping. Study population
consisted of 9 participants (8 females, 1 male) who regularly competed at
newcomers (110cm fences). Each subject completed the Bruce protocol (maximal
treadmill, symptom-limited cardiopulmonary exercise test) to determine aerobic
fitness times to fatigue were recorded (s). Subjects were fitted with a Polar S610i
which recorded heart rate over a pre planned show jumping course at a fence
height of 1meter. Each subjects mean, range and peak heart rates were calculated.
Pearson’s correlation was used to demonstrate any significant relationships. A
significant negative relationship was demonstrated between fitness test time and
range of heart rate (p=0.05 r= -0.739). Significant differences were not found
between peak and mean heart rates. Interestingly relationships indicated that
participants with shorter time to fatigue had higher/larger ranges in heart rate, the
increase in heart rate could be due to effects such as energy expenditure or anxiety.
Increased aerobic fitness may delay fatigue onset in riders, and may therefore
reduce risk of injury via enhancing physical and mental ability. This research is
preliminary to encourage riders to understand how their aerobic fitness levels may
improve performance, increase safety and subsequently increase welfare of the
horse.
89
Behavioural reactions of horses ridden by beginner riders
Michela Minero, Serena De Moliner, Elisabetta Canali
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Milan, Via Celoria 10, Milano
During basic equitation lessons, the chance that riders without adequate position
and balance give inconsistent signals to horses is high. As a consequence, horses
may show conflict behaviours (e.g. bucking) and develop behaviour problems. We
investigated the behaviour of horses in relation to incorrect/inconsistent signals
given by riders. We examined six adult ponies (4 geldings, 2 females) and two
gelding horses, owned by two different riding centres, during 10 equitation lessons
for each of eighteen riders. The riders were absolute beginners aged 6–8 years.
Direct observations of horses and riders were done using a continuous recording
method for the whole lessons. Reactions of horses were evaluated in relation to
riders’ signals and during specific exercises. Proportional frequencies of
behaviours were calculated and chi-square testing was used to verify if conflict
behaviours shown by horses varied in relation to riders’ actions. Excessive
pressure on reins (25,2%) and lost rein contact with the horse’s mouth (37,4%)
were the incorrect signals most frequently recorded in riders. The most frequent
reaction to excessive pressure on reins was evading the bit (38,7% of times;
P<0,001) while losing contact often resulted in making corners smaller (45,7% of
times; P<0,001). Horses also refused to trot frequently (12%) or increased speed
(10,6%). Among exercises, coordination exercises performed by riders standing at
walk were associated with different conflict behaviour in horses (e.g. head
tossing). Beginner riders in this study probably did not have sufficient balance to
perform all of the required exercises and sometimes gave incorrect signals that
elicited the avoidance or conflict behaviour of horses. We hypothesize that similar
conditions would be observed in most riding centres that cater to novice riders.
Intervention strategies should be developed to enhance the welfare of lesson horses
in these centres.
90
Equestrian Coaching: An action research approach to equitation
teaching and learning
Lisa Beard
Rodbaston College, Staffordshire, United Kingdom
A key component to equine training, performance and welfare is the coach. In
2005, the author conducted action research to explore the complexities and
challenges equestrian coaches face. The ability to facilitate humane, clear and
progressive learning of the horse and rider was identified as the most complex and
difficult challenge. In an attempt to address this challenge, a continual
professional development (CPD) programme was designed to provide knowledge
and support of scientific horse training principles and the application of equitation
science. In September 2007 a CPD programme for coaches in an educational
setting commenced. The demand for the programme was low. Three coaches
participated, whilst one coach left equestrianism and the institute after 3 months.
A three-hour initial training session delivered scientific horse training principles
and its application. Due to the participant’s work commitments and time
constraints, formal weekly sessions were viewed restrictive, with participants
favouring informal discussions, on an informal basis. A total of 43 separate
discussions over a 6 month period were coded. Four themes were identified
including (a) equitation science provides evidence of what is innately known, (b)
the application of equitation science enables the rider to obtain a response in a
shorter timeline than previously achieved, (c) coaches perceived knowledge and
the ability to communicate how horses learn and correlation to riders speed of
progression and (d) the self-efficacy of a coach elevated, and attributed by coaches
to acquired knowledge and understanding of scientific training principles. A
written evaluation concluded participants strongly agreed knowledge of equitation
science valuable and essential to facilitating humane, clear and progressive
learning in the coaching context. The design and implementation of a coaching
development programme offering equitation science is strongly recommended,
whilst further research into the motivation of an equestrian coach to develop self
and engage in CPD is required.
91
Preferences of riders for selected dimensions of horses’ traits –
preliminary results
Aleksandra Górecka1, Michał H Chruszczewski2, Zbigniew Jaworski3, Małgorzata
Golonka4, Magdalena Pieszka5, Bogusława Długosz5, Marta Walczak1
1
Institute of Genetics and Animal Breeding, Polish Academy of Sciences, 05-552
Wólka Kosowska, Poland
2
Faculty of Psychology, Warsaw University, Stawki 5/7, 00-183 Warsaw, Poland
3
Faculty of Animal Bioengineering, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn,
Oczapowskiego 5, 10-719 Olsztyn
4
Faculty of Animal Sciences, Warsaw Agricultural University, Ciszewskiego 8, 02786 Warsaw, Poland
5
Faculty of Animal Sciences, Agricultural University of Kraków, al. Mickiewicza
24/28 30-059 Kraków
The aim of the study was to investigate preferences of student riders for a priori
established dimensions of horses’ traits: training level (TL), behaviour during
riding and handling (B), physical make-up (PM) and maintenance (M).
Participants were asked to place TL, B, PM and M on scale of importance (from 0
to 3). Distribution of dimensions, qualified as the most important to 82 students
from 3 agricultural universities, was analysed. In total, B was selected by 41% of
participants as the most important group of traits, followed by PM (29%), TL
(20%) and M (10%). The majority of riders were females (76.1%) and their first
choice was B (45.3%). The males preferred dimension was PM (36.8%). PM was
also selected as the most important trait by 77.8% of owners of 1 horse, TL by
38.5% of owners of more than 1 horse and B by 46.7% of non-owners. B was
placed first by more than 45% of people riding once or less than once a week, as
well as 60% of dressage competitors, 60% of participants of both dressage and
show-jumping competitions and 64% of non-competitors. In turn, PM was crucial
to 40% of people riding more than once a week, to 41.7% of advanced riders and
to 64% of show-jumping competitors. B was the most important to less
experienced riders (45.5, 45.0 and 43.0% of beginners, basic and medium
experienced riders, respectively). Our preliminary conclusion here suggest that
more men, experienced riders, and show-jumping competitors assess physical
make-up of a horse as the most important, and women, less experienced riders and
dressage competitors are more focused on how horse behaves. The horse’s level
of training and its maintenance were less important to the studied population. This
study is part of a larger project.
92
Consequences of fluctuations in density and group composition on
social behaviour of group housed horses
Marc Pierard
Geelstraat 30, B-3800 Sint-Truiden, Belgium
This was a preliminary study to observe what happens in group-housed horses with
regular changes in group composition or available area. A common objection to
group housing at riding stables is the fact that group composition changes all the
time and that this would lead to significantly increased aggression. This study
aims to look at what happens in reality at a stud farm/training stable with group
housing, observing the horses from February until the end of April 2008. The
starting group of horses consisted of 8 Coloured horses (Tinkers), 3 Arabians and 1
Warmblood. There were short-term changes in group composition, e.g. for
training sessions, and long term changes, e.g. horses being sold or housed
elsewhere. Density also varied because of changes in accessible surface. Three of
the Tinker mares were pregnant and 2 foals were born during the observation
period. Data were gathered by scan sampling every 15 min for the position of
every group member and continuous all occurrence sampling of 13 different
affiliative and agonistic behaviour categories. Behavioural data were recorded on
a voice recorder by one observer. Clear patterns in social relations were observed
at 2 crates with hay, which changed with a lower stocking density. The
frequencies of interactions were compared under different circumstances. The
introduction of 2 young foals made it possible to compare the responses of other
group members to them and the behaviour of the mothers, which happened to be
the highest ranking and the lowest ranking horses in the group. The multitude of
circumstances and events over the entire period also allowed to gather some nonquantitative data on behaviour and the link to housing regime. The overall
conclusion after this study is that group housing is possible for groups of horses
with regular changes in group composition.
93
Information wanted: where do horse owners seek advice about issues
affecting their horses?
Jo Hockenhull, Emma Creighton
Anthrozoology Unit, Chester Centre for Stress Research, University of Chester,
UK
Equine welfare charities have identified the education of (primarily novice) horse
owners as the principal route to tackling the majority of equine welfare problems
in the UK. To reach and educate owners effectively we must understand where
they seek advice about issues that arise when owning or caring for a horse.
Questions regarding information seeking behaviour were included in an internet
survey completed by a convenience sample of 1424 leisure horse owners, recruited
online and via electronic and postal mail shots to equestrian clubs and
establishments. The questions asked where owners sought advice about four
different subject areas: horse behaviour, health, stable care and training.
Participants were asked to select their main sources of information from a list of
seven – books/magazines, vet/farrier, instructor, internet/forums, friends/family,
tack shops and other. While books/magazines were the most frequently used
information source across all four subject areas overall, there were differences
between the most commonly selected sources (χ2=992, P<0.001) and combinations
of sources (χ2=2110, P<0.001) between the four subject areas, and between the
number of sources consulted (χ2=254, P<0.001). Vet/farriers were the source
consulted most frequently for health advice (Z=-13.32, P<0.001), instructors for
training advice (Z=-3.93, P<0.001) and books/magazines for advice regarding both
behaviour (Z=-9.49, P<0.001) and stable care (Z=-8.26, P<0.001). Despite the
survey mode and that many participants were recruited online, internet/forums
were only the 3rd to the 5th most used of the seven information sources, depending
on subject area. Although internet technology is becoming ever more accessible
and represents the primary source of information for some members of the
population, the horse industry does not appear to have reached high acceptance
yet. This has important implications for those trying to reach the horse-owning
population to disseminate research findings and ultimately improve the welfare of
their horses.
94
The influence of filler pole layout on jumping technique of horses
Albert Bracun, Carol A Hall, Andrea D Ellis
School of Animal, Rural and Environmental Sciences, Nottingham Trent
University, Nottinghamshire, NG25 0QF
Previous research and training of horses has focused on developing accurate
biomechanical skills to jump fences. However, horses rely on visual perception of
layout and height when approaching the fence. The aim of this study was to assess
the effect of fence design on the jumping technique of un-ridden horses. Twelve
horses in show-jumping training (6 mares and 6 geldings) were loose jumped over
vertical fences with blocked, randomly assigned filler pole positions (cross,
ascending diagonal, descending diagonal and vertical position). To compensate
for horse experience and training level the maximum comfortable (MaxC) jumping
height was determined (horses were loose jumped at increasing heights until 2
consecutive knock downs). Fence height was individually adjusted to 66% (two
thirds) of MaxC for each horse, following advice from professional trainers.
Video measurements of positioning were taken from the anterior plane at the end
of the jumping lane. In total, 144 jumping efforts were recorded (36 per type of
fence). There was no effect of fence on canter lead in at take off, on lateral
deviation of the horse from the centre of the fence or on landing leg. Over all
fences 68% of horses preferred to jump to the right of the centre (p<0.001). Canter
lead into the fence was evenly distributed but there was a preference for left canter
lead out of the fence (70%, p<0.001). There was no effect of gender on results.
When analysing for combinations of canter lead in, landing leg and canter lead out,
all possible combinations were observed (for example: same, same, opposite, etc.).
This highlights the horses’ ability to change leg leads during the bascule phase but
also, contrary to previous reports, during the landing phase. In conclusion, there
was no influence of filler pole layout on horses’ jumping technique when loose
jumping.
95
The effects of gender on learning ability in the horse
E.L. Blundell, A.J. Northrop, J.H. Martin
Myerscough College, Preston, Lancashire, UK. PR3 0RY
The aim of the study was to determine effects of equine gender on learning ability,
applied to a specific task. Individual learning ability can affect training, and is
dependent on age, gender and personality. Equine males are more able to keep
track of changes throughout the environment than females (males have superior
visuo-spatial awareness). Equine males have also shown superior learning abilities
in the execution of Gardner’s (1937) black box task. The study used six mares and
five geldings. Horses were habituated to the experimental area over four days.
Horses were then taught to touch a yellow target. A successful touch was
rewarded with food, delivered via a tube, by an outside observer. Once horses
were able to do this without a handler, a green target was introduced. Horses were
tested ten times a day for three days and were only rewarded for touching the
yellow target. The green target was then replaced with a red target and the
procedure repeated. The final trial involved red, green and blue versus yellow
targets. After three months, horses were re-tested using the same colour
combinations. Geldings exhibited higher success rates than mares (P<0.05) in
both assessments, determined using Chi-Squared (Figure 1.0). There was no
significant effect of colour combination on success (P>0.05), determined using
ANOVA. There was a strong significant effect of individual horse (P<0.0001),
determined using ANOVA. There was a smaller difference between success rates
of mares than geldings after three months. This suggests geldings interpreted the
task more quickly, but mares retained the memory of the task, implying that
mentally, mares could break from training for longer. Overall, the study indicates
training regimes should be tailored for individual needs to maintain horses at
desired levels. Extension of the sample size would provide further insight into
these preliminary findings.
96
Weight of the reins technique is most appropriate for both horse and
rider in equitation
Nelly Valère1, Francis Desbrosse2
1
2
Belle-Ile 61120 Canapville, France
Clinique Desbrosse 78470 St Lambert des Bois, France
The achievement of lightness during equitation, (a matter of survival at war in the
past) has become a challenge for Dressage competitors as well as for all riding
horse-lovers. The objective of this study is to demonstrate that there exists a
specific technique for achieving the required lightness (also called “riding via the
weight of the reins”). Indeed this technique was originally described by the Great
Masters of the Past, and this approach is still in use in some places around the
world. This technique involves specific features associated with the anatomical
characteristics of the horse’s head during equitation – essentially the opening of
the temporo-madibular joint. In the first instance, using the curb bit presses on the
bars of the mandibular surface and this action reflects the ‘effect of the firm hand’
as outlined by La Guérinière. The ‘effect of the firm hand’ subsequently induces
the opening of the articulation of the tempora-mandibular joint or cession de
mâchoire as described by Baucher. Thereafter the result is the lightening of the
contact between the rider's hand and the horse's mouth that facilitates ‘easier
locomotion’, which is the desired outcome within equitation. For maximum effect
and benefit in terms of rider prowess, equine biomechanics and horse welfare,
equestrianism should always work on the principle of employing the ‘least amount
of pressure’ to achieve the desired outcomes and responses. Revisiting the ancient
treatises (Xenophon, La Guérinière, Baucher and successors) demonstrates that
these writings are the fruits of experience and they give salient clues for
pleasurable and efficient riding using this least pressure approach. Scientific
research is required to validate the equine biomechanics referred to in the ancient
treatises and achieved by some of our contemporaries so that all equestrian culture
can be studied (and taught) as an experimental science.
97
Changing attitudes towards horses’ defensive aggression body
language communication
Anneliese Durant, Emma Creighton
Anthrozoology Unit, Chester Centre for Stress Research, University of Chester,
UK
Horses (Equus caballus) are often punished for what is interpreted as wilful bad
behaviour when it is actually the horse communicating discomfort or annoyance.
This is particularly evident in young riders who have yet to develop an
understanding of horse ethology or a good ability to empathise. Damaging lifelong
attitudes can be formed at an early age and it is important to educate young riders
to understand the motivation behind their mount’s behaviour. A science
communication project was designed that aimed to educate young riders and
develop in them a constructive attitude towards horses showing defensive
aggression behaviour. The programme included a basic introduction to horse
ethology, and video clips of horses objecting to common husbandry tasks, with
accompanying ethological explanations as to why the horse was behaving in the
way observed. Thirty-two riders aged 9-16 years took part at riding schools in
Cheshire, UK and Co. Meath, Ireland. An attitude survey was developed to test
the degree of blame attributed to the horse, the horse-handler interaction or a
neutral cause, in the participants’ interpretation of short test clips shown before and
after the science communication presentation. These showed a shift in attitude
(χ25=34.6, P<0.001) from blaming the horse to blaming the human-horse
interaction for the defensive aggression shown by horses, and suggested that the
riders had shifted to looking for a constructive explanation for the horse’s
behaviour. Such changes in attitude have been shown to cause positive changes in
behaviour towards animals, and it may be concluded that this programme has the
potential to improve the emotional welfare of riding horses by reducing riders’
tendencies to blame, and so punish horses’ attempts to communicate their
discomfort. The programme will be made available to riding schools throughout
the UK and Ireland as a web-based learning resource.
98
Communicating research findings on behavioural enrichment of
stables
Helen Messer, Emma Creighton
Anthrozoology Unit, Chester Centre for Stress Research, University of Chester,
UK
Stabled horses suffer restriction in their foraging, social and movement behaviour
that may have adverse effects on their welfare and contribute to the development
of oral and movement stereotypies. Stable enrichment devices and techniques
have been developed to alleviate some of these behavioural restrictions and
research evidence exists to support their effectiveness. A website was designed to
translate the findings of this research into readily accessible information for
owners seeking advice on enriching their stabled horse’s environment. The site
was designed to present concise information on crib-biting, weaving and box
walking; and the use and effectiveness of The Equiball, stable mirrors and
increasing visual horizons as stable enrichment devices and techniques. In line
with current research on web-based learning resources, information for each
device/technique was organised into hierarchies of increasing complexity ranging
from a basic description, to detail of its use, and research evidence supporting its
effectiveness. The effectiveness of the website was assessed by questionnaire
comparing prior knowledge and learned knowledge from viewing the website in
foundation-level university students studying animal management (N=28). There
was an increase in descriptive (Wilcoxon: W28=2.83, P=0.002) and functional
knowledge of the devices/techniques (Wilcoxon: W28=2.48, P=0.006); but there
was no improvement in knowledge of the associated research, with the majority of
respondents choosing not to investigate these deeper levels of the site. There was a
greater increase in knowledge of The Equiball and stable mirrors than for
increasing visual horizons. Qualitative feedback indicated that the structure and
content of the website was a good educational resource for horse owners. This
evaluation supports the effectiveness of the website as a resource for horse owners
seeking information on stable enrichment – even if they do not access the researchrelated information, and it will be made available to owners as a web-based
resource.
99
Investigating training surfaces as a risk factor for injury in UK
dressage horses
Hannah Snart1, Tim Parkin2, Rachel Murray3
1
School of Pharmacy, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, NG7 2RD
2
University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8QQ
3
Centre for Equine Studies, Animal Health Trust, Lanwades Park, Kentford,
Newmarket, CB8 7UU
Equestrian sport is in a growth phase and dressage is a sport rapidly gaining
popularity in the UK. The athletic demands placed on horses during both training
and competition is considerable. Training-associated injuries are one of the
primary reasons that prevent horses from training and competing at both Elite and
Non-elite levels of dressage competition. Dressage training and competition
regularly takes place on various different artificial surface types including sand,
sand and rubber composites and other synthetic materials. However, it is yet
unknown how any of these surfaces could affect the risk of injury in dressage
horses. We hypothesised that the type of surface would influence the types of
injuries sustained by dressage horses. We distributed a Questionnaire survey to
British Dressage members (n = 11,838) and we received 2554 completed returns
(21.6%). We analysed the response data with descriptive, univariate and
multivariate analyses to generate frequency data and to test for associations
between surface types and injury. The results showed that the foot, suspensory
ligament and tarsus were the most frequently injured anatomical structures in the
dressage horse. The most frequently used surface was a sand and rubber
composite (55%) followed by sand-only surfaces (16%). Working the horse in
sand-only arenas increased the likelihood of the horse experiencing an injury by
1.32 times (p<0.001). However, for every time per week a horse trained in the
sand-only arena, the likelihood of lameness decreased by 0.9 times (p<0.005).
Boggy surfaces and surfaces that became deeper in wet weather increased the risk
of injury 1.44 times and 1.48 times respectively (p<0.01). Our findings would
suggest that horses might undergo adaptive tissue responses to particular surface
types, although further research extending from this study is required. These
results have generated important data, which have practical application relating to
performance horse training and welfare.
100
The role of alternative forages in satisfying both physiological and
psychological demands of domesticated equidae
Catherine E Hale1, Andrew J Hemmings2
1
Centre for Equine and Animal Science, Writtle College, Chelsmford, Essex, CM1
3RR
2
Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester, Gloucestershire, GL7 6JS, UK
Increased energy demands (placed upon domesticated equidae by man) dictate that
high-energy, cereal-based diets replace traditional forage-based diets of hay.
These high-energy diets limit innate grazing behaviours of horses, which may
consequently be at greater risk of developing oral strereotypies. High cereal diets
are also concomitant with high starch intakes – linked to metabolic disorders, such
as laminitis. High starch diets may compromise the welfare of the horse through
reduced intake times and the possible deleterious effects of excess starch. This
study aims to identify forages of high nutritive value, which can provide highenergy intakes, but minimise the risk of abhorrent behaviours through the
supposed reduction of the glycaemic response, alongside satisfying the horse’s
innate desire to graze. Two 3 x 3 latin square digestibility trials where hay (H), big
bale grass silage (GS) and big bale red clover silage (RCS) were fed ad libitum and
in vivo apparent digestibility of energy (DE), fresh weight intake (FWI) and dry
matter intake (DMI) was determined for each diet by total collection. Results
revealed that FWI for RCS were significantly higher (mean FWI values [kg/d] H,
6.40; GS, 15.96; RCS, 26.24; s.e.d. 1.46; p<0.001) than all other forages. DMI
was highest for RCS (mean DMI values [kg/d] H, 5.5; GS, 6.13; RCS, 7.2; s.e.d.
0.44; p<0.05) although this figure was not significantly different from GS, and
both RCS and GS showed significantly higher DE values than H (mean DE values
[MJ/kg/d] H, 6.023; GS, 14.567; RCS, 14.263; s.e.d. 0.40; p<0.05). The high DE
values for both RCS and GS indicate that these forages could meet the energy
demands for horses in hard work, when fed at NRC recommended levels. These
findings suggest that RCS and GS are appropriate in place of conventional cerealbased feeds and provide a more natural alternative to energy provision.
101
The effects of prior handling experiences on the stress responses of
semi-feral foals presented at auction
C.E. Hale1, G. Laycock1, A. J. Hemmings2
1
2
Writtle College, Writtle, Chelmsford, Essesx, CM1 3RR
The Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester, Gloucestershire, GL76JS
Welfare refers to the state of an individual to cope with its environment and
environmental stimuli typically cause ‘stress response’. Stress can be measured by
alterations in behaviour and through changes in physiological parameters.
Aversive handling and the consequent fear that animals feel towards humans can
be a major source of stress. Research into aversive handling has a propensity to
focus on intensively farmed production animals, such as pigs and cows.
Management of pony stock (particularly unhandled foals) through Auction House
sale rings is often less than optimal. The aim of this study was to investigate the
effects of prior handling experience on the stress response of semi-feral foals at
auction. The subjects included New Forest (NF) ponies (n = 74) between the ages
of 4 months and 2 years at regular pony auction sales. The ponies were blocked
for age and handling status where animals not broken to halter and therefore
herded through the ring were classified as unhandled. Ponies initially led into the
ring, and then turned loose were classified as handled. Ponies were videoed whilst
in the ring, and an ethogram study conducted to establish stress levels through
analysis of behavioural parameters. Unhandled ponies spent significantly more
time (P<0.001) performing avoidance and jump behaviour, and ears back (P<0.01)
than handled ponies. Conversely, handled ponies spent significantly more time
standing and walking, possibly indicating a reduced fear response due to prior
conditioning. Investigative behaviour was significantly higher in unhandled foals;
common in horses responding to novel stimuli and often performed at higher
frequencies in unhandled horses in novel object tests. The results show that ears
back occurred significantly more with the unhandled ponies (P<0.01). The
findings indicate that prior handling of foals significantly reduces the occurrence
of behavioural parameters specifically linked to a heightened stress response.
102
Fulfilling the educational aims of the International Society for
Equitation Science (ISES)
Hayley Randle, Lorna Button
Duchy College, Stoke Climsland, Callington, Cornwall, UK, PL17 8PB
Two of the aims of the ISES are to (1) encourage and support basic and applied
research into the training and welfare of horses used by humans and (2) encourage
and support the teaching of equitation science in research and academic
institutions, especially veterinary schools, departments of animal science and
animal production, agricultural colleges and departments concerned with
laboratory or companion animals or captive animals. This abstract summarises
academic delivery to FdSc and final year BSc Equine/Equitation Science degree
students in the UK. ‘Equine Behaviour and Training’ focuses on the application of
the principles of learning theory and behavioural psychology to both training and
behaviour problem-solving, considering a range of horses and taking into account
characteristics of both the equine and associated humans. The ‘Equitation
Science’ module presents the students the opportunity to conduct simple
experiments in order to appraise and evaluate the importance of the comprehension
and application of scientific principles to the horse within equitation disciplines,
and reflects contemporary issues under the examination of ISES. During the
2007/2008 academic year a simply constructed ‘rein-o-meter’ tested on 15 students
revealed a significant difference between perceived ‘contact strength’ (F2,264=73.0;
P<0.001) with significant differences between ‘light’ (0.16lb), ‘medium’ (0.73lb)
and ‘strong’ (2.49lb) contact but no difference in handedness (F1,264=3.56; P>0.05).
Another study of 17 blindfolded students standing on two sets of bathroom scales
showed that there was a clear tendency towards right sidedness (χ21=9.99; P<0.01).
When informed, 70% of participants overcompensated in the opposite direction.
Finally a study using Dartfish movement analysis software demonstrated that the
stride length of horses did not differ significantly when ridden or not (t4=1.70;
P>0.05). The relative ease of generating objective equitation-related data using
cheaply constructed equipment and readily available software within an
educational establishment is demonstrated, helping to fulfil the ISES aims.
103
Association of facial hair whorl direction and motor laterality during
grazing in the domestic horse (Equus caballus)
Hayley Randle1, Liz Francis2, Paul McGreevy3
1
Duchy College, Stoke Climsland, Callington, Cornwall, PL17 8PB, UK
2
Plymouth University, Drakes Circus, Plymouth, PL4 8AA, UK
3
Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Sydney, NSW, 2800
The aim of this study was to explore the possible relationship between motor
laterality in the grazing horse and facial hair whorl direction. Facial hair whorl
direction is a structural marker of functional brain lateralisation in humans and so
may represent a visual indicator of leg preference. Potentially, this could enable
trainers to assist in the selection foals for specific competitive sports. Forty-two
horses of three different racing breeds; Thoroughbreds, Quarter horses and
Standardbred horses were observed in pairs in paddocks to derive a behavioural
scoring of the relative position of their forelegs while standing. A minimum of 50
observations were made one minute apart. Laterality index (LI) of motor
preference was calculated as (L-R)/(L+R)x100, where L was the number of times a
horse was observed standing with left foreleg advanced and R the number of times
observed standing with right foreleg advanced. Significance of individual
preferences were determined using z scores ≥±1.96 (P<0.05). The direction of the
forehead hair whorl was scored as either clockwise (CW) or anti-clockwise (AC).
Results showed that the frequency of left and right forelimb preference is the same
in horses with either an AC (Left = 16; Right = 5) or C (Left = 16; Right= 5) facial
hair whorl orientation (df = 1, P<0.05, chi-squared = 0). The mean laterality index
was -17.3, mean LI for AC horses was -7.62 compared to a mean LI for CW horses
of -27.1, indicating that although there was a population bias with both AC and
CW horses preferring to graze with the left foreleg in advance, there is a stronger
expression of left forelimb bias in CW horses. These findings suggest that there is
no relationship between the two variables and implies that grazing asymmetries
may be skeletal rather than neurological in origin.
104
Factors affecting prices of Thoroughbred (TB) foals in the Irish
market
Julia Luehr, Sean Arkins
Department of Life Sciences, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland
Ireland is now the third largest producer of thoroughbreds in the world. As
significant amounts of money are involved in buying and selling thoroughbreds,
the provision of quantitative evidence about price determinants of thoroughbreds is
of interest to breeding and sales sectors within the industry. This study sought to
determine factors affecting thoroughbred foal price based on a regression model
allowing for prediction of thoroughbred foal price. A sample size of 2660 foals
was chosen. Data were collected from the Goffs November Foal Sales in the years
2004, 2005 and 2006. From literature, 28 independent variables were selected and
compared with price using linear modelling in SPSS. The final model was able to
account for 45.5% in variability of foal price over the examined time period
(r2adj=0.455; p<0.001). ‘Stallion fee during year of sale’ was identified as best
predictor of foal price accounting for 30% in the variability of price
(r2change=0.301). The variables ‘percentage of black type progeny produced by the
dam’, ‘gender’ and ‘first crop (sire)’ accounted for an additional increase in
predictability of 4.3%, 3.5% and 2.3% respectively (r2change=0.043; r2change=0.035;
r2change=0.023). Overall, variables representing sire quality, dam and dam progeny
racing performance, as well as grand dam and grand dam progeny racing
performance were found to be statistically significant (p<0.05). Sales prices could
be predicted within a range of ± €5,000 50% of the time when testing the final
model on the sample population. This study indicates buyers valued sire quality
among other previously mentioned variables as important and these variables
should be considered when making breeding decisions and purchasing young
stock. This study can serve as a basis for further research in areas such as the
relation of performance to sales prices and hence could provide a further
understanding of equine performance and factors affecting it.
105
Analysis of peri-parturient and postnatal behaviours in TB mares
and foals on Irish Farms
Soraya Morscher, Sean Arkins
Department of Life Science, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland
Parturition in the mare is a rapid event in three stages, where each stage can be an
indication of health and wellbeing of mare and foal. It is essential to be able to
assess potential abnormalities in any of the stages of parturition. Additionally, the
neonate displays essential behaviour patterns after birth in the extra uterine
environment that may have an effect on its further development. This study set out
to analyze and clarify some aspects of equine parturition and potential factors
affecting these. Data on a sample set of 1,297 parturitions were obtained from
foaling reports of a large Irish stud farm (1993-2006) and chi-square tests, t-tests
and ANOVA were carried out using SPSS. For 1,294 parturitions the mean
gestation length was 340.37±0.27 days. Gestation length was significantly
affected by season/photoperiod, foal sex, foal weight (p<0.001) and mare parity
(p<0.05). The majority (83%) of parturitions took place between 19:00 and 7:00
hours. The mean duration of second stage labour was 17.51±0.30 minutes. The
mean interval from birth of the foal to standing successfully was 47.98±0.55
minutes and the mean duration from birth to the foal nursing was 92.45±0.88
minutes. Additionally the birth to standing interval was significantly affected by
sex, parity and foaling difficulty (p<0.05) and the duration to nursing was
significantly affected by both parity and sex (p<0.05). The incidence of dystocia in
1,297 mares was 17.1%. Premature placental separation occurred in 6.3% of all
years combined and 12.9% in 2006. The incidences of premature placental
separation significantly increased with an increase in mare age and parity
(p<0.001). The study provides important baseline data on peri-parturient events
and neonatal behaviours in the thoroughbred mare and foal in the light of current
management practices. Therefore giving foaling personnel a guideline to identify
potential welfare issues arising from abnormal situations.
106
A comparison of coarse and pelleted compound feed for horses
B. Younge, G. O’Neill, S. Arkins
Department of Life Sciences, Equine Science, University of Limerick
The objectives of this study were to compare the ingestive behaviour and intake
rate of pelleted and coarse feed. Six riding school horses were offered equal
amounts of energy, in the form of coarse and pelleted feed. During a 10-day
adaptation period, feed type offered alternated between morning (8:00, AM) and
evening feeds (17:00, PM). Both feed types were offered an equal number of times
on either the right or left hand side of the stable. During the measurement period
(5-days) both feed types were offered together at both AM and PM feeds.
Behaviour was measured pre-feeding (15 mins), during feeding and post feeding
(20 mins). Subsequently the horses were subjected to a 6-day adaptation period
and 3-day measurement period. During both periods the horses were presented
pelleted or coarse feed, alternating between AM and PM feeds. During the
measurement period total amount offered, intake at five-minute intervals and
refusals were recorded. Student t-tests were used to compare the differences
between the treatments. In the AM feed the number of first preferences for coarse
feed was significantly higher than pelleted feed (P<0.05). During feeding the
horses lifted their heads out of the pelleted feed more frequently (28 ± 12.2) than
from the coarse feed (23 ±10.6), (P<0.007). Horses spent a greater length of time
consuming pelleted feed at both feeding times (AM: 13.1± 6.8 vs. 8.6 ± 1.5 mins
and PM: 12.3± 4.6 vs. 10.4±2.6 mins, P>0.05). At all measurement times intake of
coarse feed was higher than the intake of pellets (AM: 92% vs. 82% at 15 mins
(P>0.05), PM: 92% vs.79% at 15 mins (P<0.06). This study indicates that when
horses are offered a choice they will show a preference for coarse feed over
pelleted feed. In addition, horses tend to consume more coarse feed per unit time
than pelleted feed.
107
Detection of emotionality in horses during physical activity
F Jansen1, J Van der Krogt1, K Van Loon1, V Avezzù2, M Guarino2, S Quanten1, D
Berckmans1
1
Division Monitor, Model & Manage Bioresponses (M3-BIORES), K.U. Leuven,
Belgium
2
Department of Veterinary and Technological Sciences for Food Safety, University
of Milano, Italy
In equine sports, the horse’s performance depends on both its physical abilities as
well as its emotional status. The objective of this research was to measure in a
continuous and non-invasive way emotionality, specifically fear, in horses during
training activity. In the experiment carried out, a horse walked for 5 minutes, then
trotted for 10 minutes and finally walked again for 5 minutes. After 5 minutes of
trotting stress was applied to the horse by suddenly opening an umbrella, as used
by other authors. The experiment was repeated 37 times using two different
horses. During the experiment the horse’s heart rate and physical activity were
continuously measured using the Polar Equine RS800 and the ActiGraph GT1M
respectively. The relationship between the horse’s physical activity and its heart
rate was described in real-time by a single input – single output (SISO)
mathematical model. This real-time input-output modelling allows determination
of the component of the horse’s heart rate, which is solely related to physical
activity. During the first part of the experiment, before stress is applied, on
average 93% of the variance of the measured heart rate could be related to physical
activity (RT2avg = 0.93). When stress is applied during trotting by suddenly
opening an umbrella, the physical model accounts for only 58%, on average over
37 experiments, of the variance of the horse’s heart rate (RT2avg = 0.58). This
increase in the model error can then be used to asses the horse’s fearfulness. In 33
out of the 37 experiments, the opening of the umbrella could be detected from the
physical model error. In the 4 remaining experiments, no stable SISO model could
be found. This shows that model-based decomposition of heart rate can be used to
monitor stress levels and corresponding welfare levels during training, i.e. while
improving physical performance.
108
Factors influencing gastric ulceration in Irish racehorses
Niamh K. Morrissey1, Maureen Prendergast1, Christopher R. Bellenger2
1
Department of Life Sciences, University of Limerick, Ireland
2
Robert Menzies College, New South Wales, Australia
Gastric ulceration is a common condition in performance horses. While many
affected horses are apparently asymptomatic gastric ulceration has been associated
with alterations in behaviour, reduced performance, appearance and appetite and
even colic symptoms. This current study aimed to document the prevalence of
gastric ulceration in Irish racehorses and to identify associated risk factors.
Gastroscopy was performed on 100 racehorses in active training, in ten Irish
training yards, on three occasions. Results were analysed using a variety of
statistical methods including stepwise regression and Chi-Squared, KruskallWallis and Mann Whitney tests. At the time of the first examination 76% had
nonglandular lesions while 32% of horses had lesions in the more ventral glandular
mucosa. There was a significant difference (p<0.02) in nonglandular lesion scores
between horses trained in different yards. In this study horses that were six years
or older, or had previously raced, or had raced in the ten days prior to examination,
or that were bedded on paper, had significantly higher nonglandular lesion scores
(p<0.05) than horses in other categories. Horses reported to have poor appetite had
higher nonglandular lesion scores than other horses although this difference only
showed a trend towards significance (p<0.08). There was no association found
between the severity of nonglandular gastric ulceration and poor performance,
temperament, the presence of stereotypic behaviour patterns, gender or poor
dentition. Overall trainers greatly underestimated the prevalence of gastric
ulceration in horses under their care. The prevalence of gastric ulceration detected
in this study is comparable with that previously reported in other countries. While
intensive training and racing schedules were shown to negatively affect stomach
morphology the exposure of racehorses to such risk factors is unavoidable.
However, the results suggest that other modifiable management decisions were
also of influence. An appreciation of altered behaviour in affected horses and a
greater understanding of the impact of management decisions on stomach
morphology could potentially improve both the welfare and performance of all
equine athletes.
109
The contribution of craniosacral therapy to the rehabilitation of
problem horses
Mike Harrison1, Johanna Macarthur2, Alison Wakelin2
1
2
Anglian School of Craniosacral Therapy, Sheringham, Norfolk NR26 8PX, UK
Progressive Equitation, Running Free Farm, Aylmerton, Norfolk NR11 8PU, UK
We define a ‘problem horse’ as one that is either difficult or impossible to ride or
handle. The previous experience of the horse may be that considerable time, effort
and expense have been expended in other methods of training and/or veterinary
intervention. In the worst cases, the horse may have been recommended for
destruction. A joint approach of learning theory and rider biomechanics principles
achieves significant improvements in behaviour as it addresses the needs of both
horse and rider. The process of rehabilitation requires physical and psychological
changes to take place, to reverse the effects of habituation. Much of this can be
done within the approach described above. However, given the individual nature
of all such cases, patterns of dysfunction are sometimes not detected except by
subtle palpation – both on and off the body – by an experienced practitioner of
craniosacral therapy. It is suggested that such an enhanced approach may often
facilitate more rapid recovery by revealing previously hidden features of the case
(in horse or rider). The objective of the original joint approach is ultimately to
achieve obedience in the horse and a relaxed bond between horse and rider. By
contrast, the craniosacral method allows the horse to express its problems in its
own way and not simply in terms of for example its stay mechanism or muscle
chains; to identify any chronic patterns; and to make choices about its treatment.
Various instrumental methods are planned for evaluation; however, assessment is
likely for practical purposes to be mainly by observation, both visual and
experiential. Results are expected to lead to improved understanding of the
horse/human partnership in the learning process leading to rehabilitation. This will
have wider implications in equine training, performance and welfare. The
programme will be continuous, permitting adjustments to the approach as
outcomes are evaluated and discussed.
110
Point-to-Point Racing in Ireland – A Critical Review 2000-2007
Carol Quish, Sean Arkins
Department of Life Sciences, University of Limerick, Limerick
Ireland produces more thoroughbred foals than any other EU member state. Horse
Racing Ireland are experiencing difficulties in increasing racing fixtures, so
securing racing opportunities on the racetrack in Ireland is becoming more
difficult. Point-to-Point racing in Ireland has experienced phenomenal growth as a
direct result of this. This study sought to provide baseline data on Irish point-topoints, which had not been previously assembled. The study population consisted
of 25,466 horses over three point-to-point seasons. The factors examined included
age, gender, type of race ran, fence options and racing profile. In addition
associations between these factors were also investigated. The number of horses
participating in point-to-points has increased by 49%, the number of fixtures has
increased by 27% and the number of races by 34%. The average number of
runners in races has increased from 11.7 to 12.0 with maiden races showing the
largest increase. The percentage of mares participating in point-to-points has
decreased by 5% over the study period. In all seasons geldings were significantly
older participating in Point-to-Points compared to mares (6.33±0.03yrs.
6.02±0.03yrs, P< 0.001). Age had an effect on type of race and Open Races had
older horses than maiden races (P< 0.001). Horses 7 year olds and older ran more
frequently than horses less than 7 years of age (P< 0.001). In addition, mares ran
significantly more times than geldings in all seasons (P< 0.05). The percentage of
horses finishing races has improved by 8% and geldings more likely than mares to
finish (P< 0.001). Horses 4 years old had the highest percentage of finishers while
5 year olds had the lowest percentage of finishers. There was a significant positive
correlation between the number of times horses ran and the number of times horses
finished races(r= 0.627, P< 0.001).
111
The effect of forage nonstructural carbohydrate on glycemic response
Lindsay A Perry1, Bridget A Younge1, Catherine S Ballard2
University of Limerick, Castletroy, Limerick1
W. H. Miner Agricultural Research Institute, P.O. Box 90, Chazy, NY 129212
Dietary nonstructural carbohydrates (NSC) have been implicated in the
development of insulin resistance and metabolic diseases e.g. laminitis. Research
has focused on effects of concentrate meals. The objectives of this study were to
observe biochemical and physiological changes in horses fed a forage only diet
differing in NSC content. Eight horses were divided into two groups and
randomly allocated to one of two treatments; (1) Low NSC hay <100g/kg; (2)
High NSC hay (200g/kg). The experimental design was cross over, and consisted
of two treatment periods (21days each) and a washout between treatments (7days).
Horses had access hay (1.75% BW) at two feeds times (8:00 and 17:00). Prefeeding blood samples (07:30am) and forage samples were taken on days 1, 7, 14,
and 21. On days 1 and 21 blood samples were taken at 0, 1, 2, 4 and 8 hours post
feeding. Plasma was analysed for glucose, insulin, non esterified fatty acids and
triglycerides. BW, BCS, neck and girth circumference were measured on days 1
and 21. Forage was analysed for proximate constituents, NSC, fructan and starch.
The forage samples showed substantial variability (low NSC: 96-151g/kg; high
NSC: 137-196g/kg). On day 1, horses fed high NSC had higher peak glucose and
insulin concentration (glucose 105.1 vs. 93.8mg/dl; insulin 25.3 vs. 17.1mIU;
p<0.05). On day 21, there was no difference in glucose concentrations between
treatments and insulin was higher in horses fed low NSC hay (30.74 vs.
21.04mIU). The horses fed high NSC had a steady increase in resting triglyceride
concentration between days 1 and 21 (35.7 vs. 26.3mg/dl) and was different
between treatments on day 21 (35.7 vs. 24.0mg/dl). There were no significant
changes in physical measurements. The findings suggest that there is considerable
variation in NSC content of forage and that higher NSC content, particularly
fructan, may increase plasma triglyceride concentrations.
112
Merits of an automated system in determining and implementing
optimal feeding schedules for the stabled horse
J.P. Monahan1, Jack Murphy2
1
Cheval Equi Products, ArcLabs Research and Innovation Centre
WIT West Campus, Carriganore, Waterford
2
School of Agriculture, Food Science and Veterinary Medicine, UCD
The horse is a browsing grazer with a high reliance on forage and a digestive
system that is not naturally adapted to high levels of cereal intake. Free-living
horses spend in excess of 16 hours per day on feeding behaviour. In contrast,
some domesticated horses spend more than 20 hours per day in the stable. Feed
consumption is approximately 1.5-3.5% of bodyweight depending on individual
requirements and feeding schedules are usually twice or three times per day. The
objective of this pilot study was to investigate the responses of hunter hirelings to
an increased feeding (automated) schedule. The horses (n = 8) were used for
hunting twice per week during November to February. Previously, the horses were
fed at 07.30 and 17.30 (identical feed deliveries) receiving a total of 6 kg of
concentrates consisting of grain, cubes and coarse mix. The horses also received 6
kg of forage per day – hay equally divided between morning and evening feeds.
We used a programmable feed dispenser to deliver the concentrates at 06.00,
08.00, 10.00, 18.00, 20.00 and 22.00 daily in equal 1kg amounts. The horses
habituated to the new routine relatively easily with the exception of one subject
that displayed adverse behaviour for approximately 20 days. Riders reported that
the horses exhibited increased energy levels during daily exercise. At the end of
the trial, four of the horses gained weight (average = 11 kg) while the remainder
maintained bodyweight throughout the trial period. The increases may have
resulted from a noticeable slower eating behaviour (average increase = 17
minutes/day) and perhaps more efficient digestion of the feed. The findings
suggest that feeding stabled horses up to 6 times per day may be beneficial in some
instances. The findings warrant further enquiry to evaluate the effects of multiple
feeding schedules for horses.
113
An Evaluation of a Trickle Feeding System for Horses
Siobhan Hardman1, JP Monahan2, Bridget Younge1
1
Dept of Life Sciences, Equine Science, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland
2
Cheval Equi, Arc Labs Research Centre, West Campus, Waterford
Free-living horses spend 16–18 hours per day browsing and grazing.
Domesticated horses spend up to 23 hours per day in stables. This intensive
practice limits normal dietary behaviour and poses welfare concerns for horses
under such rigid husbandry routines. The objective of this study was to investigate
feeding behaviour using two feeding systems. Four riding school horses (all
geldings) in a cross over design were fed using two feeding systems 1. An
automated trickle feeding system; 2. A manual feeding system. The horses were
allowed a four-day adaptation period followed by a four-day measurement period.
Time-lapse video recording was used to observe behaviours during feeding times
(08:30 13:15 16:30 hours) and for 15 mins during night rest (02:00 hours). An
ethogram of feeding and resting behaviours was developed and behaviours were
recorded using the Noldus Observer 5.0 system. The horses spent more time
consuming their concentrate when fed via the trickle compared to the manual
feeding system (33.4 ±5.4 vs. 27.1± 4.5 mins/day) (P>0.05). The horses spent
more time eating dropped concentrate off the floor when feeding on the manual
system (11.1 ±1.0mins) compared to the trickle system (9.4 ±2.2mins), this
difference was significant at the 8:30 feeding time (P<0.01). Analyses of
nocturnal time budgets revealed that the horses on the trickle system spent more
time resting than the horses on the manual system, 9.3 ±3.1 vs. 0.03 ±0.03 from
15-minute scans. In addition, at night the horses on the manual system spent
significantly more time (9.5 ±0.3mins) searching stall bedding than horses on the
trickle system (0.04 ±2.3mins; P<0.05). These findings suggest that the automated
trickle feeding system may have helped to slow down the rate of feeding and
increase resting bouts. The results warrant study to evaluate the benefits of
reducing meal size and increasing meal frequency.
114
Are there advantages to a cantilevered saddle over traditional
English and western type saddles?
Martin Ryan1, Jack Murphy2
1
Industrial Design Department, Faculty of Design, National College of Art &
Design, 100 Thomas St. Dublin 8
2
School of Agriculture, Food Science and Veterinary Medicine, University College
Dublin, Ireland
Within equitation, the saddle provides support for the rider’s position and
facilitates weight distribution over the muscular structures of the horse’s thoracic
column. An ever-increasing array (both traditional English and western type) are
currently available with fixed trees, adjustable trees and treeless types with various
padding, flocking and pneumatic undersides. The objective of this study was to
investigate the efficacy of an innovative-cantilevered saddle design. Several types
of seating systems have employed cantilevered principles successfully including
bicycle saddles – utilizing the benefits of natural suspension and flexion properties.
This innovative saddle is a product of modern materials and engineering principles
and may improve comfort and performance for both horse and rider. The
cantilevered tree structure of this saddle is constructed from 3 separate features: 1.
support resting on the horses back, 2. support under the riders seat, 3. support
connecting 1 and 2 positioned to the to the front of the saddle, completing a C
shaped structure. A prototype is under test and the structure elevates the rider’s
seat off the horses back. While this may prove beneficial by allowing greater
freedom of movement of the horse’s back, it may also compromise control via the
seat due to the loss of ‘feel’ through the rider’s seat. Moreover, any excessive
spring due to the cantilever system could de-stabilise the rider and/or the additional
height may compromise balance between horse and rider. Notwithstanding any
such deficits, there may be significant advantage in such a system within equitation
by achieving greater comfort, performance and welfare benefits in Endurance
riding or Show jumping and Eventing. Preliminary field tests and initial rider
feedback indicates that the benefits may outweigh the disadvantages. A
cantilevered system may facilitate more appropriate weight distribution and
subsequently freer movement of the horses back and merits further comprehensive
scientific testing.
115
Horse trials: Fence design and cross-country falls
Emma Ponsonby, Karen Hennessy
Centre for Sports Studies, University College Dublin, Ireland
The sport of horse trials or ‘eventing’ consists of dressage, showjumping and
cross-country riding. The cross-country phase is a high-risk activity and there
have been a spate of rider fatalities in recent years. Multiple combination fences
(more than one jumping element) may be associated with an increased risk of
injury while (spread) fences with an ascending profile might reduce the risk of
falling. The aim of this study was to identify some factors that contributed to the
falls, which occurred during the cross-country phase of international eventing
competitions in Ireland. Data on cross-country falls (that occurred at international
events held in Ireland in 2005) were available from the FEI database. These data,
combined with interviews of organising event secretaries and safety reviews of
cross-country course descriptors were analysed.
The analysis included
competition type, competition level and fence profile, obstacle design (post &
rails, palisade, square spread, ascending spread, step into/out of water).
Regression analysis was used to test the number of falls incurred by competition
type and chi-squared analysis was used to test the number of falls incurred by
fence profile. There were 38 cross-country falls from 529 starters (7.2%), of
which 14 (37%) were horse falls. The shorter distance CIC competitions incurred
fewer falls (4.8%) compared to the longer distance CCI (9.6%) competitions, (P =
0.55). Combination fences incurred a significantly higher percentage of fallers
(74%, P = 0.025), than single effort fences. Overall, fence design appeared to play
an influential role in the number of fallers during competition. Specifically, post
and rail type fences and round-top fences accounted for 30% and 24% of falls
respectively, whereas ascending spreads accounted for only 5% of falls. It may be
possible to improve horse and rider safety significantly during the cross-country
phase of eventing by simply using more appropriate fence designs.
116
Equestrian participation: A case study of the Irish Sport Horse
Industry
Karen Hennessy1, Katherine Quinn2
1
2
Centre for Sports Studies, University College Dublin, Ireland
School of Agriculture, Food Science and Veterinary Medicine, University College
Dublin, Ireland
The first equestrian jumping competition, ever held, was at The Royal Dublin
Society’s inaugural Dublin Horse Show (1868) and comprised of the High Leap,
the Wide Leap and the Stone Wall. The equestrian sports of showjumping,
dressage and eventing are now well-established Olympic sports, with a multitude
of international competitions worldwide. International success is a major goal, and
national governing bodies are constantly dividing their focus and funding
programmes between national and international level competition / training to
target competition successes, albeit for a minority group. On the other hand there
is a huge volume of equestrian activity at grass root level, which very often goes
unnoticed. We sought to investigate the balance of participation in equestrian
activities in Ireland, so as to understand its participation profile. A questionnairebased survey was conducted on all equestrian organisations within Ireland.
Activities were categorised into competition and leisure, for which the annual
entries (participation numbers) were calculated. The findings indicated that 65%
of participation was leisure-based and 35% was competition-based (27% within
the Olympic sports). The competition-based group, however, also include many
amateur and leisure riders participating in novice competitions at the weekend as a
hobby. One of the most interesting findings was that hunting days accounted for
38% of all activity (>150,000 outings). This indicates a huge volume of activity
over the winter months given seasonality of hunting (Nov – Feb). Many of these
participants might not be involved in other equestrian organisations and hence
receive little or no education or training supports. The findings indicate that the
broad grass root level base is the strength of equestrian activity in Ireland.
Identifying a means to educate and influence the knowledge base of these grass
root level participants would have the greatest impact on the training and welfare
of the greatest number of horses.
117
The changing nature of Sport horse ownership: A case study of the
Irish Sport Horse Industry
Karen Hennessy1, Katherine Quinn2
1
2
Centre for Sports Studies, University College Dublin, Ireland.
School of Agriculture, Food Science and Veterinary Medicine, University College
Dublin, Ireland
Since domestication, horses have functioned to provide milk, meat, ridden to war,
work the land and to transport humans and goods. However, with the increased
urbanisation and farm mechanisation since World War II, the role of the horse
changed and it became a source of competition and leisure, and was more
predominantly accessible by those with farm-based backgrounds. However,
anecdotal evidence suggests that since the 1990s the nature of horse ownership has
changed, brought about new wealth, modern living and greater accessibility to
horses and away from the traditional farm-based associations. We sought to
investigate sport horse ownership profiles in Ireland, in order to obtain statistics on
its nature and gain an understanding of the industry’s strengths and needs. A
questionnaire based survey, was conducted on sport horse industry participants (n=
1550). The findings indicated that 23% of participants were new horse owners
within the previous 10 years, of whom 50% were in the over 40 years of age
category. Of these new horse owners, 71% indicated that they had no basic
equine-related qualifications; neither pony club, riding club nor otherwise.
Another finding of note was that 50% of the sport horse yards were unaccounted
for by the agricultural statistics register and hence were considered nonagricultural based facilities. This would indicate a shift away from the typical
association of horses with farm-based facilities and its traditional animal
husbandry based connections. Such findings suggest that new horse ownership
may occur at any stage in a person’s life, and that there is a strong educational
need amongst these newcomers. The findings also highlight that a farm-based
horse connection can be no longer assumed. Such changing horse ownership
profiles bring with it many challenges for education and training within the
human-horse dyad.
118
A comparison of Linear versus Traditional Scoring Models for
assessment of conformation traits in Irish Draught Horses
Elaine Breen, Sean Arkins
Dept of Life Sciences, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland
Traditionally, conformational characteristics have been assessed on a subjective
numerical scale in relation to an ideal. An alternative approach, the linear scoring
method evaluates individual traits on a linear scale from one biological extreme to
the other. The linear system operates successfully in several cattle breeding
programmes and a number of equine studbooks. The objective of the current study
was to compare the use of the traditional and linear scoring methods for
conformation traits of Irish Draught horses. A panel of 21 experienced judges
evaluated the conformation of a sample of 22 Registered Irish Draught mares
(average age 3.9 years) using both the traditional and linear scoring methods
individually. Descriptive statistics, intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) and
the iota coefficient interpreted the data and determined the level of agreement
between judges for both scoring methods. The use of the scale available was
greater for the linear scoring method than the traditional scoring method. ICC
values ranged from 0.020 to 0.234 for the traditional scoring method and 0.037 to
0.320 for the linear scoring method indicating slight to fair agreement between
judges. The iota coefficient determined slightly better agreement between judges
for the linear scoring method (0.135) than the traditional scoring method (0.124).
Independent t-tests found significant differences (p < 0.05) between Sport Horse
judges and Irish Draught judges for 4 of the traits assessed by the traditional
scoring method and 19 of the traits assessed by the linear scoring method. The
findings highlight the lack of agreement between judges when assessing the
conformation traits. There was a significant difference in how Sport Horse and
Irish Draught judges evaluated the horses for a number of conformation traits and
indicated a need to standardise the assessment process. The slightly better
agreement found for the linear scoring method would imply that greater
consistency may is achievable with this approach.
119
Conformation traits of Irish Draught (ID) horses: changes over time
Elaine Breen, Sean Arkins
Dept of Life Sciences, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland
The Irish Draught horse has played a significant role in Irish agriculture, industry
and society, traditionally as a means of motive power for agriculture and transport
and in more recent times as foundation stock for the Irish Sport Horse and as a
riding horse. The objective of the current study was to investigate the
development of conformation traits in Irish Draught horses born over 10 year
periods from pre 1975 to 2004. Conformation traits of Irish Draught mares and
stallions (n = 207) born pre 1975 to 2004 were assessed using quality side profile
(sagittal plane) photographs. Four experienced Irish Draught judges evaluated
each of the horses using the linear scoring method. General linear models were
used to determine the effect of year of birth category on each of the conformation
traits. The effect of year of birth category was found to be significant (p < 0.05)
for 8 of the conformation traits examined – Head Appearance, Head-Neck
Connection, Muscling of Neck, Line of Back, Line of Loins, Shape of Croup,
Muscularity of Hindquarters and Stance of Pasterns (hindlimbs). The findings
show that the horses examined have changed significantly over the years analysed
for these traits. The results also indicated a lack of progress for a number of
conformation traits and faults, where the horses were described on average to be
back at the knee and have upright forelimb pasterns in all of the year of birth
categories. Traits describing type and traits considered important to the Irish
Draught as outlined by the Breed Standard were included in the analysis. A
decrease in type traits was observed over the year of birth categories, in particular
in the mares analysed where the findings showed a significant decrease in bone
and a significant increase in cannon bone length over the year of birth categories.
The results highlight the need to define the breeding objectives of the Irish Draught
and the characteristics considered important for these breeding objectives. These
findings suggest the need for an appropriate system to monitor morphological
changes and developments in the Irish Draught horse breed.
120
Notes
121