SCHOOL OF FILMMAKING
1533 S. Main Street
Winston-Salem, North Carolina 27127
FIM 151 - FUNDAMENTALS OF PRODUCTION AND CINEMATOGRAPHY
Shots & Composition
A film is made up of a series of photographic images. Each individual image is called a frame.
Each frame contains images and shapes arranged in a composition. A sequence of frames
together is commonly referred to as a shot.
When determining the placement or angle of the camera you are creating a setup, which can be
defined as the basic component of a film’s production.
Visual productions, whether they are movies, television shows, music videos, commercials,
video or slides are all made up of shots. Different shots are used for different purposes and the
selection of what shots to use illustrates the creative choices of the people making the
production. Groups of shots form sequences or scenes. There is a craft to getting the right shots
which will be needed in order for the scene to play correctly and make sense to the viewer.
Composition occurs whenever you put a frame around something. When you compose a shot,
you are actually putting a frame around it. The items within the frame separate from the rest of
the world and become their own universe.
Proper composition requires balance in order for it to feel correct. When a shot is properly
composed things feel in balance. When it's not, they don't.
Throughout the centuries, artists have discovered (not invented!) some basic rules which govern
composition.
Rules for Composition
All illustrations for the following rules of composition are taken from Tom Schroeppel, Bare
Bones Camera Course for Film and Video (Tom Schroeppel, 1982)
1. Eye Position (Eyeroom) - Whenever you frame a shot, the eyes of your subject become the
priority for framing. Most compositions require that the eyes should be kept in a position
roughly 1/3 of the way down from the top of the frame and should almost never be allowed to
drop below the center line.
2. Leading Space – There should be more space in the direction a character is looking than
behind them. Never frame someone with their nose flat against the edge of the frame. Always
try to find the center of the frame and set your composition so that the eyes don’t cross it.
NO LEADING SPACE
GOOD LEADING SPACE
FIM 151 – Fundamentals of Production and Cinematography
Composition – Page 2
Leading space can also apply to inanimate objects such as furniture, automobiles, etc.
NO LEADING SPACE
GOOD LEADING SPACE
3. Headroom - Too much is when the eyes are below the center line of the frame. Too much is
when the top of the frame is right at the top of the head or cuts into the head.
NOT ENOUGH HEADROOM
GOOD HEADROOM
4. Chopping – The edges of the frame should not cut off people or objects at weird places.
Don’t frame a shot so that the edge of the frame cuts a person off at a joint. Frame slightly above
the knees or slightly below the knees but do not cut them off at the knees.
5. The rule of thirds – Divide the frame into thirds and place principle points of interest along
where those lines intersect.
2
FIM 151 – Fundamentals of Production and Cinematography
Composition – Page 3
Composition and Balance in the Frame
Shifting elements in the frame to balance a composition is called cheating. You may need to
slightly move the positions of props and furnishings in order to achieve a pleasing composition.
Cheating may also be done to the position of actors in the scene.
Part of composition and camera operating is being able to anticipate when an actor is going to
move so that you may keep them properly composed within the frame. This is referred to as
anticipatory camera and is defined as structured, highly choreographed camerawork that leads
rather than follows. During rehearsals you will be able to see when an actor makes a particular
movement. It may be after they perform a particular task such as pick something up from a
table, or it may be on a particular line of dialogue. For example, after speaking a particular line
the actor may get up from a seated position and walk to a window. Being able to anticipate this
movement allows the camera operator to keep the actor properly framed in the lens and allows
for a more pleasing composition. If you anticipate correctly the camera movement will start a
fraction of a second sooner than the actor movement so that you lead them from one position to
3
FIM 151 – Fundamentals of Production and Cinematography
Composition – Page 4
the next. If the camera is constantly trying to catch up with an actor, this is poor composition
and often difficult for the viewer to watch.
Often characters will enter of leave your frame, requiring some type of camera movement to
balance your composition. You should be able to anticipate these movements again so that you
are not chasing the actor but leading them. As they enter or exit the frame you should be settling
in on the new composition, thereby making a smooth transition from one shot to the next.
A subject moving directly toward or away from the camera will almost always require some type
of compositional adjustment. As a subject moves toward the camera or the camera moves
toward the subject, you will often need to tilt up in order to maintain a pleasing composition. As
a subject moves away from the camera or the camera moves away from the subject, you will
often need to tilt down in order to maintain a pleasing composition.
The following are some of the standard names of shots used in motion picture production today.
This is by no means a complete list but if you start using these terms when discussing your
scripts you will be better able to communicate with your fellow filmmakers.
abbey singer
The next-to-the-last shot of the day.
director at Universal Studios.
It was named after Abby Singer who was an assistant
aerial shot
A shot taken from a plane or helicopter, often by using a special camera mount. It is often used
when a crane shot will not give a sufficient view of the area being photographed.
bowtie
Another name for an extreme close-up.
bridging shot
A shot that connects two scenes separated by time or place: for example, falling calendar pages
in the first case and an airplane taking off in the second case.
cheat
To rearrange people or objects in a scene to improve composition.
choker
A tight close-up that fills the frame with the subject’s head from usually from the neck up.
clean single
A single which contains no part of any other person other than the main subject within the frame.
close-up
(abbreviated CU) A shot in which the camera seems to be very close to the subject. A close-up
of a person usually shows their head filling the frame. A close-up of a person, for example,
might show only his head, a shot of a car's interior might reveal just the steering wheel. A closeup is used to draw attention to a significant detail to clarify a point, designate a meaning, or
heighten the dramatic impact of a film's plot.
4
FIM 151 – Fundamentals of Production and Cinematography
Composition – Page 5
coverage
1. The act of filming all the necessary footage, from all setups and angles, which may be required
for editing a fluid sequence in the cutting room.
crane shot
A shot taken by a camera on a crane; often used to show the actors/action from above. Cranes
usually carry both the camera and a camera operator, but some can be operated by remote
control.
cutaway
A shot away from the main action but used to join two shots of the main action.
detail shot
A shot that shows a very small object or very small part of an object or person. It is considered
to be closer and more detailed than a close-up.
dirty single
A single which may contain a small portion of another actor in the shot. It may contain a part of
an actor’s head and shoulder in the foreground.
dolly-zoom
An effect shot in which the camera dollies and zooms at the same time so the size of the main
subject remains largely unchanged but the perspective "warps" around them for a disorienting
effect. Popularized by Alfred Hitchcock in the film Vertigo where it was used for Jimmy
Stewart's P.O.V.'s when looking down from a great height. It's also well known for it's use by
Steven Spielberg in Jaws for a unsettling shot of Chief Brody (Roy Scheider) sitting on the beach
when he sees a boy attacked by a shark. May also be called a warp zoom, a vertigo, a Hitchcock,
or a Spielberg.
dolly shot
Also called "traveling," "trucking," or "tracking shot." A moving shot of a moving or stationary
subject exercised by mounting the camera on a dolly or camera truck. To dolly-in (or track-in) is
to move the camera toward the subject; to dolly-out (or track-out) is to move the camera away
from the subject.
establishing shot
A shot, usually a long shot or a full shot at the beginning of a sequence, which establishes the
location, setting, and mood of the action. It provides the audience with an initial visual
orientation, enabling it to see the interrelationship between the general setting and the detailed
action in subsequent scenes.
extreme close-up
(abbreviated ECU or XCU) A shot very close to the subject so that only a small portion or
detail is shown or the entirety of a small object.. Such a shot of a person would show only a part
of their face such as the eyes or mouth.
extreme long shot
(abbreviated ELS or XLS) A wide-angle shot taken from a great distance from the subject,
offering a wide view of a location. This type of shot is often used as an establishing shot. .
5
FIM 151 – Fundamentals of Production and Cinematography
Composition – Page 6
follow shot
A tracking shot or zoom, which follows the subject as it moves.
full shot
A shot whose subject completely fills the screen. When the subject is a person his or her full
body is included in the shot. The term is sometimes used interchangeably with long shot.
group shot
A shot including a number of characters.
head-on shot
A shot in which the action appears to come directly toward the camera.
high-angle shot
A shot in which the camera is above the subject, angled downward. It has a tendency to diminish
the subject, making it look intimidated or threatened.
insert
A shot, usually a close-up or extreme close-up, intercut within a scene to help explain the action,
emphasize a point, or facilitate continuity. A typical insert may consist of a close-up shot of a
newspaper item, a hand holding a gun, or a clock on a wall.
long shot
A shot taken from a great distance, usually showing the characters as very small in comparison
to their surroundings.
low-angle shot
A shot in which the camera is below the subject, angled upward. It has a tendency to make
characters look threatening, powerful or intimidating.
martini
The last shot of the day.
master shot
A continuous shot of an entire scene, generally a relatively long shot that facilitates the assembly
of component closer shots and details. The editor can always fall back on the master shot:
consequently, it may also be called a cover shot.
medium close shot
(abbreviated MCS) A shot of a subject that is between a medium shot and close-up, and
includes the subject from the chest to the top of the head.
medium shot (abbreviated MS)
A camera shot from a medium distance, usually showing the characters from the waist up, that
allows the audience to see body language, but not as much facial expression.
mirror shot
1. A shot in a mirror. 2. A kind of glass shot.
6
FIM 151 – Fundamentals of Production and Cinematography
Composition – Page 7
model shot
A shot using miniatures instead of the real objects or locations. Especially useful for staging
great disasters.
oblique shot
A shot in which the camera is tilted laterally so that it is not level or parallel with the horizon. It
may also be referred to as a Dutch Angle.
off camera
Not within the field of view of a shot, such as an actor who does not appear in a shot but whose
presence is felt by implication.
over-the-shoulder shot
A shot that is made from over the shoulder of a character, with the back of the head, neck, and
shoulder seen at the side of the frame. The camera focuses past the character on some object or
person the he or she is seeing.
passing shot
A shot in which a subject moves past a stationary camera or one in which the subject remains
stationary while the camera moves past him.
pickups
Shots filmed after the completion of the regular shooting schedule, usually in an effort to cover
up gaps in continuity which are discovered in the cutting room. May also be used to indicate a
shot taken from a point where the previous shot has ended, frequently because of some error that
has occurred in shooting.
point-of-view (POV) shot
A shot filmed at such a camera angle that an object or an action appears to be seen from a
particular actor's viewpoint. This is usually accomplished by placing the camera alongside the
player (or at a spot he would have occupied if he were present on the set) from whose viewpoint
the scene is shot. Other players look at the point designated as the player's position (or at the
player, if he is present) but not into the lens.
pull-back shot
A tracking shot or zoom that moves back from the subject to reveal the context of the scene.
reaction shot
A shot of a character, usually a close-up, reacting to someone or something seen in the preceding
shot. This type of shot is usually a cutaway from the main action.
reverse angle shot
A shot taken from an angle opposite the one from which the preceding shot has been taken. The
reverse angle technique is frequently employed in dialogue scenes to provide the editor with
alternate facial shots of the actors speaking.
running shot
A traveling shot in which the moving camera keeps up with the pace of a moving person or
object.
7
FIM 151 – Fundamentals of Production and Cinematography
Composition – Page 8
shot
A single continuous take, filmed in a single session from one camera setup. The basic
grammatical unit of the language of film, a shot may range from a single frame taken from a
fixed position to a setup involving complex camera movement.
single
A shot that focuses on only one person out of a group. Usually a close-up, but it can be
anything.
swish pan
A transition between scenes made by the camera appearing to pan so rapidly that the intervening
area passes by in a blur.
tight shot
A shot in which the subject matter fills almost the entire frame. May be the same as an extreme
close-up or choker.
tracking shot
(also trucking shot, traveling shot, dolly shot) A shot in which a camera—mounted on tracks, on
a vehicle, or on a dolly—moves forward, backward, or sideways, to follow the action and the
movements of performers. The camera is said to "track in" when moving closer to the subject
and to "track out" when moving away from the subject.
two-shot
A medium or close shot in which two people fill the frame.
two-tees (2 T’s)
A shot that tops off just above the head and cuts off at the center of the breast line.
western or cowboy
A shot which shows the person from just above the top of their head to just above the knees. It
gets its name from the fact that in shooting the old Westerns they would widen the medium shots
out to include the gun in the cowboy's holster.
There are a lot more names for shots, most of which you can figure out as you go along. Almost
all of these names started out as just slang expressions but caught on and stayed with us. New
names are being made up almost as often as shots are taken.
The illustration on the following page shows examples of some of the types of shots discussed in
this handout. The illustration is taken from The Complete Film Dictionary, Second Edition by
Ira Konigsberg.
8
FIM 151 – Fundamentals of Production and Cinematography
Composition – Page 9
EXTREME
LONG SHOT
LONG SHOT
MEDIUM
LONG SHOT
MEDIUM SHOT
MEDIUM CLOSE UP
CLOSE UP
EXTREME
CLOSE UP
9
FIM 151 – Fundamentals of Production and Cinematography
Composition – Page 10
The execution of your setup is an important part of the filmmaking process. The setup often
represents many hours of preparation in order to get the perfect shot.
All scripts are broken down into scenes. The scene is the basic unit of a script. Scenes are then
broken down into shots which then translate to setups for shooting. Each setup is numbered so
that they can be marked and logged. A setup is covered in a take which is defined as the number
of attempts at each shot needed to produce at least several useable versions.
In order to identify each scene and take a slate is used. The slate allows for organization in
shooting, easy identification of the shots and the matching of sound and picture. An example of
a slate is shown below.
Executing the shots.
The sequence that you follow to shoot a shot can vary from production to production, but the
basic procedure is as follows: This is based on the procedure I have seen on over 125
productions during the course of my career.

The assistant director (AD) will call for quiet. (“Quiet on the Set”)

The AD will then call out one of the following – “Roll,” “Roll Sound,” “Rolling.”

The Sound Mixer will turn on the sound recording device and once it has reached the proper
recording speed will call out either “Speed” or “Sound Speed”

Upon hearing the sound mixer, the First Assistant Cameraman (1st AC) or Camera Operator
will turn on the camera. Once the camera has reached the proper shooting speed, either the
1st AC or Operator will call out “Speed” or “Marker”

The Second Assistant Cameraman (2nd AC), who has been waiting patiently in front of the
camera, with the sticks the slate open, will call out “Marker,” clap the sticks together and get
out of the way of the shot.
The 2nd AC usually does not call out the scene and take number because this information has
usually been prerecorded by the sound mixer before the shot.
Of course, as I stated above, this procedure may vary slightly, depending on the production and
crew you are working with, but the basics will be pretty much the same.
10
FIM 151 – Fundamentals of Production and Cinematography
Composition – Page 11
Sync or MOS
There are two types of shot that are done, those with sound and those without sound. Any shot
done while simultaneously recoding sound is called a sync shot. Any shot done without
recording sound is referred to as an MOS (“Em-Oh-Es”) shot. The Hollywood legend says that
the term MOS came about during the early days of filmmaking from a German director could not
say “Without Sound” instead saying “Mit Out Sound.” The literal translation of the term is
Minus Optical Sound.
11