Қазақстан Республикасы
Білім және ғылым министрлігі
“Сырдария ” университеті
“Гуманитарлық білім” факультеті
“ Шет тілдер” кафедрасы
Шет тілін арнайы мақсатта оқыту (С1,С2 ) пәні бойынша
ОБСӨЖ мәтіндері
Оқу түрі күндізгі
Курс: 4
Семестр: 7
Жетісай 2008
1
Қазақстан Республикасы
Білім және ғылым министрлігі
“Сырдария” университеті
“Филология” факультеті
“Шет тілдері” кафедрасы
“Бекітемін”
Кафедра меңгерушісі
___________Н.Жарқымбекова.
(қолы)
“___” __________2008ж
КҮНТІЗБЕЛІК-ТАҚЫРЫПТЫҚ ЖОСПАР
Шет тілін арнайы мақсатта оқыту (С1,С2)
пәнінен
050119 «Шет ел тiлi: eкi шет ел тiлi» мамандығына арналған
ШТ -15
тобы үшін
оқытудың формасы күндізгі
Курс 4
Семестр 7
Кредит саны 3
Барлық сағат саны: 135
Практикалық сабақ: 45
СӨЖ: 45
ОБСӨЖ:45
Оқытушы: доцент Құдияр Ғ.
Жетісай 2008
2
Шет тілін арнайы мақсатта оқыту (С1,С2)
Практикалық сабақтарының күнтізбелік – тақырыптық жоспары
050119 «Шет ел тiлi: eкi шет ел тiлi» мамандығы,
4 – курс, 7 – семестр. 45 сағат
№
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Тақырыбы
Өткізілетін м Сағат
саны
Өткізілетін
мерзімі
Ұпай
саны
Апта
саны
1
апта
Unit One. Discussion of the
Essential Vocabulary to the text
’’Doctor in the House’’p.11-15
Text. From: Doctor in the House
Speech Patterns, Phrases and Word
Combinations. p.10 -11
Reading Comprehension Exercises
p. 16-21
Vocabulary Exercises p. 21-27
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0,5б
1
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1
0,5б
1
0,5б
Conversation and discussion
Higher Education in the United
States of
America.
Topical
Vocabulary. p. 27-35
Working on the text Year-Round
Schooling is Voted in Los Angeles.
p.35-39
Writing an Essay on the theme
’’The Principal tasks of higher
education’’
Talk show on the topic: Education
for national minorities. The
problem of bilinguism in the USA
and in Kazakhstan’’
Group discussion. The role of the
student in the university
Writing a composition ’’ Problems
in higher education in the USA and
in Kazakhstan’’
Final Test
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1
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1
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1
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Unit Two. Discussion of the
Essential Vocabulary to the text
’’To kill a Mockingbird’’p.46-51
3
1
апта
1
апта
1
апта
1
апта
1
апта
1
апта
1
апта
1
0,5б
1
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1
2б
1
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12
апта
12
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12
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12
апта
13
14
15
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17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
Text.
From:
’’To
kill
a
Mockingbird’’
Speech Patterns, Phrases and Word
Combinations. p. 45 -46
Reading Comprehension Exercises
p. 52-57
Vocabulary Exercises p. 57-61
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0,5б
12
апта
1
0,5б
1
0,5б
12
апта
2
апта
Conversation and discussion
Courts
and
Trials.
Topical
Vocabulary. p. 61-62
Working on the text The US Court
System. p. 62-64
Writing an Essay on the theme
’’The Structure of the US, the
British and the Kazakhstan courts ’’
Talk show on the topic: ’’ The
Social background of juvenile
delinquency and its role in
contributing to the crime rate’’
An interview with a judge on crime
and punishment
Enact a role play ’’ Trying a
criminal case’’
Writing a composition ’’ What is
the best way to combat juvenile
delinquency? Historical survey ’’
Final Test
1
0,5б
1
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1
0,5б
1
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13
апта
1
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1
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13
апта
2
апта
1
1б
1
2б
Unit Three. Discussion of the
Essential Vocabulary to the text
’’W.S’’p.78-81
Text. From: W.S
Speech Patterns, Phrases and Word
Combinations. p.71 -78
Reading Comprehension Exercises
p. 81-86
Vocabulary Exercises p. 86-90
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1
0,5б
13
апта
0,5б
13
апта
13
апта
Conversation and discussion
Books and Reading. Topical
Vocabulary. p. 90-91
Working on the text Muriel Spark.
p.91-93
4
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1
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1
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12
апта
12
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12
апта
13
апта
13
апта
13
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14
апта
14
апта
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
Writing an Essay on the theme
’’Favourite Books of the century ’’
Talk show on the topic: ’’The role
of reading in our life ’’
Group discussion. The pros and
cons of reading detective novels
and thrillers
Writing a composition ’’My
favourite book and writer’’
Final Test
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1
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1
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1
1б
1
2б
Unit Four. Discussion of the
Essential Vocabulary to the text
’’ Ragtime’’p.109-113
Text. From: Ragtime p. 104-107
Speech Patterns, Phrases and Word
Combinations. p.108 -109
Reading Comprehension Exercises
p. 113-117
Vocabulary Exercises p. 117-121
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1
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1
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1
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Conversation and discussion.
Man
and
Music.
Topical
Vocabulary. p. 121-122
Working
on
the
text
Understanding Music. p.122-125
Pair work. Making up and acting
out a dialogue. p127-131.
Writing an Essay ‘‘The
development of music in the multinational countries (the USA,
Canada, Kazakhstan)’’
Group discussion. The role of
music in Kazakhstan.
Writing
a
composition
’’Contemporary music’’
Final test.
1
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1
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1
0,5б
1
0,5б
Барлығы
45
14
апта
14
апта
14
апта
14
апта
14
апта
15
апта
15
апта
15
апта
15
апта
15
апта
15
апта
1
0,5б
1
1б
1
2б
30балл
5
14
апта
14
апта
15
апта
15
апта
15
апта
Әд е б и е т т е р
а) негізгі
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
В.Д. Аракин. Практический курс английского языка. (4 курс) М... 2000.
A.S. Hornby. Oxford Progressive English for Adult Learners. M., 1992.
И.В.Цветкова. Glossa's Readers.Activity Book. М.., 1997.
Julia M.Dobson. Effective Techniques for English Conversation Groups.
Washington, 1992.
К.Н. Качалова, Е.Е. Израилевич. Практическая грамматика английского
языка. Бишкек, 1999.
Л. П. Христорождественская. Практический курс английского языка.
Минск, 1996.
Speak English. Часть 1,2 ., 2004.
Г. Голицынский. Грамматика английского языка. М.., 2000.
б) қосымша
1. Е. Занина. 95 Устных тем по английскому языку. М., 1999.
2. Portrait of the USA. US Information Agency., 1997.
3. English Grammar in use. 2005.
4. Speak English часть-I, II. 2004.
5. G.B.Antrushina, O.V.Afanasieyeva, T.S.Samokhina. Talks about Atr for
English Speech
Practice. M., 1987.
6. Л.Романова. Практическая грамматика английского языка. М., 2007.
7. Let's Read and Discuss. M., 1999.
6
ОБСӨЖ – сабақтарының күнтізбелік – тақырыптық жоспары мен
тапсырмаларын қабылдау кестесі
050119-Шет тілі: екі шет тілі мамандығы, 4 курс, 7– семестр. 45 сағат
№
Тақырыбы, мазмұны
1
өткізіле
тін
уақыты
№ (сабақ
кест.
сәйкес)
2
3
1
№1 Тарау.
Britain's Universities
2
2
British Schools
1
апта
0,5б
1
апта
0,5б
2
3
Speech and grammar
exercises
2
4
School Education in the
USA
2
5
Speech and grammar
exercises
2
6
Education
Kazakhstan
in
8
Higher Education in the
USA
Schooling in the United
Kingdom
10 Higher Education
Great Britain
1апт
а
0,5б
1
апта
0,5б
1
апта
0,5б
2
Speech and grammar
exercises
2
9
1
апта
0,5б
the
7
in
Сабақтар мен бақылау түрлері және
ұпайлары
Кон Пікір
Кол Гло
суль талас Үй
л.
сса
Тес
т
рий
тапс
т.
ырма тапс
сы
.
4
5
6
7
8
9
1
апта
0,5б
1
апт
а
0,5б
2
2
1
апта
0,5б
1
апта
2
7
0,5б
1
апта
2б
2
апта
0,5б
11 Schooling in the United
2
States
12 American Universities
and Colleges
2
13 The Athenian
System
Court
12
апта
0,5б
2
14 Vocabulary notes on the
text
12
апт
а
0,5б
2
15 American Court System
12
апта
0,5б
2
16 Essential vocabulary on
the text
17 The English
System
12
апта
0,5б
Judical 2
12
апта
0,5б
18 Talk show on the theme 2
the English Judicial
system
19 Kazakhstan
Court 2
System
12
апта
0.5б
13
апта
2б
13
апта
0.5б
20 Comparison of the four 2
system
21 Quiz
2
13
апт
а
0,5б
22 Talks about Books 2
competing with visual
arts
23 Speech and grammar 2
exercises
.
13
апта
1б
13
апта
2б
24 Role playing (characters 2
and situations)
13
апта
8
0,5б
25 Will Books survive?
2
13
апта
0,5б
26 Speech and grammar 2
exercises
13
апта
0,5б
27 Ideological
and 2
Educational Role of the
Literature
28 Speech and grammar 2
exercises
29 Books in our Life
13
апта
0,5б
14
апта
0,5б
2
14
апта
0,5б
30 Speech and grammar 2
exercises
31 Books shall
(for, against)
14
апта
0,5б
survive 2
14
апта
0,5б
32 Speech and grammar 2
exercises
33 Reader's Conference
14
апта
0,5б
2
14
апта
1б
34 Speech and grammar 2
exercises
35 Talks about Music
14
апта
2б
2
14
апта
0,5б
36 Speech and grammar 2
exercises
14
апта
0,5б
37 What is your choice: 2
Jazz? Classical Music ?
Pop Music ?
38 Speech and grammar 2
exercises
15
апта
0,5б
15
апта
9
0,5б
39 Music and
education
aesthetic 2
15
апта
0,5б
40 Speech and grammar
exercises
15
апта
0,5б
41 This Wonderful world 2
of Music
15
апта
0,5б
42 Pop Music – the Music 2
of the Young? (for,
against)
43 Speech and grammar 2
exercises
15
апта
0,5б
15
апта
0,5б
44 What kind of Music do I 2
prefer?
15
апта
1б
45 Speech and grammar 2
exercises
15
апта
2б
30 б
Ескерту:
Студенттердің білімін бақылау, бағалау – СӨЖ – есептері,
жаттығулар, тестілік бақылау (Т), рефераттар (Р), глоссарий (Г),
коллоквиум (К) – оқытушыға тапсыру кестесі: әр аптада:
сейсенбі – 1500 – 1700 – 16 ауд
сәрсенбі - 1600 – 1800 – 16 ауд
10
Әд е б и е т т е р.
а) негізгі
9. В.Д. Аракин. Практический курс английского языка. (4 курс) М... 2000.
10.A.S. Hornby. Oxford Progressive English for Adult Learners. M., 1992.
11.И.В.Цветкова. Glossa's Readers.Activity Book. М.., 1997.
12.Julia M.Dobson. Effective Techniques for English Conversation Groups.
Washington, 1992.
13.К.Н. Качалова, Е.Е. Израилевич. Практическая грамматика английского
языка. Бишкек, 1999.
14.Л. П. Христорождественская. Практический курс английского языка.
Минск, 1996.
15.Speak English. Часть 1,2 ., 2004.
16.Г. Голицынский. Грамматика английского языка. М.., 2000.
б) қосымша
1. Е. Занина. 95 Устных тем по английскому языку. М., 1999.
2. Portrait of the USA. US Information Agency., 1997.
3. English Grammar in use. 2005.
4. Speak English часть-I, II. 2004.
5. G.B.Antrushina, O.V.Afanasieyeva, T.S.Samokhina. Talks about Atr for
English Speech
Practice. M., 1987.
6. Л.Романова. Практическая грамматика английского языка. М., 2007.
7. Let's Read and Discuss. M., 1999.
11
1 Рейтинг контроль
Темы
1
2
3
Britain's Universities
British Schools
Speech and grammar exercises
Недел
и
1
1
1
4
5
School Education in the USA
Speech and grammar exercises
1
1
0,5 б
0,5 б
6
7
Education in the Kazakhstan
Speech and grammar exercises
1
1
0,5 б
0,5 б
8
9
Higher Education in the USA
Schooling in the United
Kingdom
Higher Education in Great
Britain
Schooling in the United States
1
1
0,5 б
0,5 б
Пікірталас
Консультация
Жазбаша үй
тапсырмасы
Пікірталас
Жазбаша үй
тапсырмасы
Консультация
Жазбаша үй
тапсырмасы
Колоквиум
Пікірталас
1
0,5 б
Пікірталас
1
2б
Пікірталас
American Universities and
Colleges
The Athenian Court System
2
0,5 б
Пікірталас
2
0,5 б
Консультация
Vocabulary notes on the text
2
0,5 б
Тест
American Court System
2
0,5 б
Консультация
Essential vocabulary on the
text
The English Judical System
2
0,5 б
2
0,5 б
Жазбаша үй
тапсырмасы
Консультация
Talk show on the theme the
English Judicial system
Kazakhstan Court System
2
0,5 б
Пікірталас
2
0,5 б
Пікірталас
Comparison of the four system
2
0,5 б
Пікірталас
Quiz
2
0,5 б
Тест
Talks about Books competing
with visual arts
Speech and grammar exercises
2
1б
Пікірталас
2
2б
Жазбаша үй
1
0
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
5
1
6
1
7
1
8
1
9
2
0
2
1
2
2
2
12
Баллы
0,5 б
0,5 б
0,5 б
Виды контроля
3
2
4
2
5
2
6
2
7
2
8
2
9
3
0
3
1
3
2
3
3
3
4
3
5
3
6
3
7
3
8
3
9
4
0
4
1
4
2
4
3
4
4
Role playing (characters and
situations)
Will Books survive?
3
0,5 б
тапсырмасы
Пікірталас
3
0,5 б
Консультация
Speech and grammar exercises
3
0,5 б
Ideological and Educational
Role of the Literature
Speech and grammar exercises
3
0,5 б
Жазбаша үй
тапсырмасы
Пікірталас
3
0,5 б
Books in our Life
3
0,5 б
Speech and grammar exercises
3
0,5 б
Books shall survive (for,
against)
Speech and grammar exercises
3
0,5 б
3
0,5 б
Reader's Conference
3
1б
Speech and grammar exercises
3
2б
Talks about Music
4
0,5 б
Speech and grammar exercises
4
0,5 б
What is your choice: Jazz?
Classical Music ? Pop Music ?
Speech and grammar exercises
4
0,5 б
4
0,5 б
Music and aesthetic education
4
0,5 б
Speech and grammar exercises
4
0,5 б
This Wonderful
Music
of
4
0,5 б
Жазбаша үй
тапсырмасы
Консультация
Pop Music – the Music of the
Young? (for, against)
Speech and grammar exercises
4
0,5 б
Пікірталас
4
0,5 б
What kind of Music do I
prefer?
4
1б
Жазбаша үй
тапсырмасы
Консультация
world
13
Жазбаша үй
тапсырмасы
Консультация
Жазбаша үй
тапсырмасы
Пікірталас
Жазбаша үй
тапсырмасы
Пікірталас
Жазбаша үй
тапсырмасы
Пікірталас
Жазбаша үй
тапсырмасы
Пікірталас
Жазбаша үй
тапсырмасы
Пікірталас
4
5
Speech and grammar exercises
4
2б
Жазбаша үй
тапсырмасы
∑ 30 балл
British education
British education emas us to develop fully the abilities of individuals, for their
own benefit and of society as a whole. Compulsory schooling takes place between the
agers of 5 and 16, but some pupils remain at shool for 2 years more, to prepare for
further higher education. Post shool education is organized flaxebly, to provide a
wide range of opportunities for academic and vacational education and to continue
studying through out life. Administration of state schools is decentralised. The
department of education and science is responsible for national education policy, but
it doesn't run any schools, if doesn't employ teachers, or prescribe corricular or
textbooks. All shools are given a considerable amount of freedom. According to the
law only one subject is compulsary. That is religious instruction. Children recieve
preschool education under the age of 5 in nursery schools or in infant's classes in
primary schools. Most pupils receive free education finenst from public fonds and the
small proportions attend schools wholy independent. Most independent schools are
single-sex, but the number of mixing schools is growing. Education within the
mantained schools system usually comprises two stages: primary and secondary
education. Primary schools are subdevided into infant schools (ages 5 - 7), and junior
schools (ages 7 - 11). Infant schools are informal and children are encouraged to read,
write and make use of numbers and develop the creative abilities. Primary children
do all their work with the same class teacher exept for PT and music. The work is
beist upon the pupils interests as far as possible. The junior stage extence over four
years. Children have set pirits of arithmetic, reading, composition, history, geography
nature study and others. At this stage of schooling pupils were often placed in A, B, C
and D streams according their abilities. The most able children were put in the A
stream, the list able in the D stream. Till reccantly most junior shool children had to
seat for the eleven-plus examination. It usually consisted of an arithmetic paper and
an entelligent test. According to the results of the exam children are sent to Grammar,
Technical or Secondary modern schools. So called comprehansive schools began to
appear after World War 2. They are muchly mixed schools which can provide
education for over 1000 pupils. Ideally they provide all the courses given in
Grammar, Technical and Secondary modern schools. By the law all children must
receive full-time education between the ages of 5 and 16. Formally each child can
remain a school for a further 2 or 3 years and continue his studies in the sixth form up
to the age of 18 or 19. The course is usually subdevided into the lower 6 and the
upper 6. The corricular is narrowed to 5 subjects of which a pupil can choose 2 or 3.
The main examinations for secondary school pupils are general certeficate of
14
education (the GCE) exam and certificate of secondary education (the CSE) exam.
The GSE exam is held at two levels: ordinary level (0 level) and advanced level (A
level). Candidats set for 0 level papers at 15 - 16 years away. GCE level is usually
taken at the end on the sixth form. The CSE level exam is taken after 5 years of
secondary education by the pupils who are of everage abilities of their age.
British theatres
Until reccently the history of the english theatre has been build around actors rather
then companies. It has been hard to find any London theatre that even had a
consistent policy. There are no permanent staff in British theatres. Apply is rehearsed
for a few weeks by a company of actors working together mostly for the first time
and it is allowed to run as long as it draws the odious and pays it's way. Another
peculiarity of the theatres in Great Britain is an follows: there are two kinds of seats,
which can be booked an advanced (bookable), and unbookable once have no numbers
and the spectators occupy them on the principal: first come - first served. And ancient
times plays were acted inside churches and later on the market places. The first
theatre in England "The Blackfries" build in 1576, and "The Globe" build in 1599,
which is closely connected with William Shakespeare. Speaking about our times we
should first of all mention "The English National theatre","The Royal Shakespeare
company" and "Covent Garden". "Covent Garden" used to be a fashionable
promenade - it was, before then, a convent garden - but when it became overrun with
flower-sellers, orange-vendors and vegetable-growers, the people moved to more
exclusive surroundings farther west, such as "St. Jame's Square". The first "Covent
Garden theatre" was build in 1732. It was burnt down in 1808 and rebuild exactly a
year after. It opened in September 1809, with Shakespeare's "Macbeth". Since the
middle of the last century "Covent Garden" became exclusively devoted to opera.
Now "Covent Garden" in busier than ever, it is one of the few well-known opera
houses open for 11 months of the year and it employs over 600 people both of the
Opera company and the Royal Ballet.
British Education (Образование в Великобритании)
British education permits to develop fully the abilities of individuals, for their own
benefit and of society as a whole. Compulsory schooling takes place between the
ages of 5 and 16, but some pupils remain at school for 2 years more, to prepare for
further higher education. Post school education is organized flexibly, to provide a
wide range of opportunities for academic and vocational education and to continue
studying through out life.
Administration of state schools is decentralized. The department of education and
science is responsible for national education policy, but it doesn't run any schools, if
doesn't employ teachers, or prescribe curricular or textbooks. All schools are given a
considerable amount of freedom. According to the law only one subject is
compulsory. That is religious instruction.
15
Children receive preschool education under the age of 5 in nursery schools or in
infant's classes in primary schools.
Most pupils receive free education finance from public funds and the small
proportions attend schools wholly independent. Most independent schools are singlesex, but the number of mixing schools is growing.
Education within the maintained schools system usually comprises two stages:
primary and secondary education. Primary schools are subdivided into infant schools
(ages 5 - 7), and junior schools (ages 7 - 11). Infant schools are informal and children
are encouraged to read, write and make use of numbers and develop the creative
abilities. Primary children do all their work with the same class teacher except for PT
and music. The work is based upon the pupil’s interests as far as possible.
The junior stage extends over four years. Children are learning arithmetic, reading,
composition, history, geography nature study and others. At this stage of schooling
pupils were often placed in A, B, C and D streams according their abilities. The most
able children were put in the A stream, the list able in the D stream. Till recently most
junior school children had to seat for the eleven-plus examination. It usually
consisted of an arithmetic paper and an intelligent test. According to the results of the
exam children are sent to Grammar, Technical or Secondary modern schools.
So called comprehensive schools began to appear after World War II. They are much
mixed schools which can provide education for over 1000 pupils. Ideally they
provide all the courses given in Grammar, Technical and Secondary modern schools.
By the law all children must receive full-time education between the ages of 5 and
16. Formally each child can remain a school for a further 2 or 3 years and continue
his studies in the sixth form up to the age of 18 or 19. The course is usually
subdivided into the lower 6 and the upper 6. The curricular is narrowed to 5 subjects
of which a pupil can choose 2 or 3.
The main examinations for secondary school pupils are general certificate of
education (the GCE) exam and certificate of secondary education (the CSE) exam.
The GSE exam is held at two levels: ordinary level (0 level) and advanced level (A
level).
Candidates set for 0 level papers at 15 - 16 years away. GCE level is usually taken at
the end on the sixth form. The CSE level exam is taken after 5 years of secondary
education by the pupils who are of average abilities of their age.
Educational System in Great Britain (Образовательная система
Великобритании)
The educational system of G.B. is extremely complex and bewildering. It is very
difficult to generalize about particular types of schools as schools differ from one to
the other. The department of education and science is responsible for national
educational policy, but it doesn’t employee teacher or prescribe curricular or text
books. Each school has it’s own board of governors consisting of teachers, parents,
local politicians, members of local community, businessmen and sometimes pupils.
According to the law only one subject is compulsory. Such as religious instruction.
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Schooling for children is compulsory from 5 to 16, though some provision is made
for children under 5 and some pupils remain at school after 16 to prepare for higher
education. The state school system is usually divided into 2 stages (secondary and
primary). The majority of primary schools are mixed. They are subdivided into infant
schools(ages 5 to 7),and junior schools(ages 7 to 11). In junior schools pupils were
often placed in A,B,C or D-streams, according to their abilities. Under the pressure of
progressive parents and teachers the 11+ examination has now been abolished in
most parts of the country. There are some types of schools in G.B. Grammar schools
provided an academicals cause for selected pupils from the age of 11 to 18. Only
those children who have the best results are admitted to these schools. They give
pupils a high level of academic education witch can lead to the university. Technical
Schools offer a general education with a technical bias and serve those pupils who are
more mechanically minded. The curricular includes more science and mathematics.
Secondary modern schools were formed to provide a non-academic education for
children of lesser attainment. The curricular includes more practical subjects. The
comprehensive schools brings about a general improvement in the system of
secondary education.
Great Britain (Великобритания)
“Great Britain” has several different names. Some people say “Britain”, or “the
United Kingdom”, or just “UK”. There are four different countries in the United
Kingdom: England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland.
Altogether more than 56 million people live in Britain, many of them in big industrial
cities like London, Liverpool and Manchester, but people are often surprised by how
much of Britain is open country, with lonely hills and woods, quiet rivers, lakes and
farmlands.
Many people think that the weather is cold and wet in Britain all the year round. But
it isn’t! True, it sometimes rains and even snows for days and days, but every year
there are weeks of beautiful sunny weather then the British take off their sweaters and
go out to sunbathe.
Britain is only a small country, but every part is different. Scotland is a land of
mountains, lakes and romantic castles. The winters are cold, with plenty of snow, but
the summers are often warm and sunny. Most farmers keep sheep, and they’re many
small factories, which make fine sweaters from their wool. In some parts of Scotland,
there are very few people. Deer live in the hills, and the rivers are full of salmon. But
Glasgow and Edinburgh are both large and busy, with all that is good (and bad) in
modern cities.
Northern Ireland has it problems, but it has beauty, too. In the warm, wet climate, the
grass grows a brilliant green, and much of the land is farming country. Belfast is a
large industrial city with many fine buildings and big port from which ships come
and go to Scotland and England. But Belfast has had many difficulty years, and it is
not the busy place it once was.
A hundred years ago the north of England was industrial heart of the country. From
the factories came cloth, wool, machines, engines and china. The old factories came
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have gone now and the workers have to look for jobs in the new “high-tech”
industries. Outside the towns, much of this part of England is beautiful countryside,
with green hills, lakes and sandy beaches. Fishing is still a big industry in the North
East, and every night (except Sunday) the fishing boats go out to sea.
The centre of England (the “Midlands”) is also an important industrial area,
especially near the huge cities of Coventry and Birmingham, the centre of the car
industry. But everyone, even in the heart of the modern city, there are buildings from
older Britain – cathedrals, castles, and houses built hundred years ago.
Wales is a special place, a country of high mountains and pretty valleys. But Wales
has plenty of industry, too, with many factories and coal mines.
The west of England is rich farming country. It produces milk, cream, butter, cheese
and apples, which go to make cider, a popular drink. In the villages, country people
often grow their own fruit, vegetable width=100%s and flowers.
Some areas of Britain are very crowded. Around Manchester, in north west England,
and Glasgow, in Scotland, are large city areas of houses and factories. The south east
of England, too, has many towns and cities, including London, the giant capital. But
quiet near London there are still some quiet villages and peaceful farms.
Britain is an island, of course, and you are never far from the sea. Some of the coast,
especially in the west, is wild and rocky, with small, sandy beaches, and romantic old
harbours. Other parts are industrial. The East Coast of Scotland, for example, is busy
with oil rings and fishing boats. The most popular beaches are near the many holiday
towns on the south coast, where the weather is usually warmer. It is here that
Londoners come to relax.
The Athenian Court and the American Court System
by
Henry A. Rhodes
Contents of Curriculum Unit 84.02.08:



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
Narrative
The Athenian Court System
American Court System
Comparison Of The Two Systems
Teaching Strategies
Bibliography
To Guide Entry
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This unit is intended for students in grades 8-12. There are three major objectives I
wish to accomplish with the writing of this unit. They are: 1) to acquaint students
with the Athenian court system 2) to give students an overview of the American court
system 3) to have students realize that regardless of a court’s shortcomings and
problems that these legal institutions are necessary to maintain a peaceful society.
The Athenian courts discussed in this unit existed in the second half of the fifth
century B.C. and the first half of the fourth century B.C. It should be stated that this is
a controversial period in the sense that many facts of this era are still in dispute
among historians. I have thus attempted to state only facts about courts in this period
that can be substantiated.
THE ATHENIAN COURT SYSTEM
In order to study the ancient Athenian court system it is essential to examine the two
legal codes, the Draconian and the Solonian Codes of Law, which had a great
influence on the courts in Athens. For the decisions handed down by these courts
were based, at least in theory, on these written laws. It must be stated at this point that
all the laws attributed to Dracon and Solon were not necessarily written by these
individuals. Any laws that were written during the period of time in which the
Athenian society was under the influence of the laws of either Dracon or Solon were
attributed to them, whether or not they had actually written them.
The first written laws appeared in Athens around 621 B.C. They were attributed to
Dracon, a thesmothes (a lawgiver). The punishment for all offenses was death.
Regardless of how small or serious the infraction the punishment was the same.
Dracon felt that people guilty of small infractions of the law deserved the death
penalty and that there was, after all, no greater penalty for those that had committed
the more serious infractions. As a result, laws today which are cruel and harsh are
sometimes referred to as Draconian.
(A discussion could center on how harsh or mild the laws should be. See ‘Teaching
Strategies’ below.)
One would tend to think that such a harsh code of law as the Draconian Code would
incite the people to riot and rebel. This was not the case in Athens. Our sources,
primarily Aristotle’s Constitution of Athens, suggest it was apparently the disparity of
wealth between the rich and the poor which caused the collapse of the existing
constitution. Another important factor seems to have been the demands of rich men
from common families to share in the privileges reserved for the aristocrats.
The people of Athens realized that they needed someone to revamp their constitution
to stop the quarreling among the various families. The rich were concerned about
collecting their debts and the poor were concerned with paying these debts. All
groups agreed that Solon was the man for the job. For Solon owed no one and no one
owed Solon anything.
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Solon was given a great deal of leeway in reorganizing the Athenian constitution.
Solon’s first step was to abolish all of Dracon’s laws except the ones pertaining to
homicide. The affluent wanted Solon to aid them in collecting their debts, while the
poor wanted Solon to divide up the land and give everyone an equal share. Solon
however acquiesced to only the first demand.
Solon was able to appease the poor by cancelling all debts. It was also common at
this time for Athenians to use their bodies and those of their family to secure loans.
Solon outlawed this practice. The wealthy non-aristocrats were satisfied when he
instituted a property qualification for admission to the archonship, the chief
magistracy, previously the sole prerogative of certain noble families. Under Solon’s
new system, they were elected from the richest of the four newly created Solonian
classes. The archons had a virtual monopoly on the administration of justice.
The lowest class in the Solonian system was made up of “Thetes” who were initially
prohibited from holding public office. These were common citizens. From this group
most of the members of the jury were selected. (The process of selecting a jury will
be discussed in detail later in the unit.)
The decisions of the magistrates called “archons” could be appealed in the courts. As
time passed, it became so common to appeal the decisions of the archons that they,
instead of passing judgement, referred the cases to the appropriate courts.
There were two types of cases handled by the Athenian courts. First, there was the
dike or private case. This type of case did not affect the community as a whole but
involved individuals who claimed they had been wronged. This type of case could
only be initiated by a person who was personally involved or affected by the case.
Second, there was the graphe or public case. This type of case did affect the
community. Cases of treason, desertion, or embezzlement of public funds serve as
examples of ‘graphe’ cases. Any Athenian male citizen could initiate this type of
case. It should be noted that in both cases if the prosecutor received less than 1/5 of
the jurors’ votes a substantial fine was levied.
It would be impossible to examine every law attributed to Solon. The laws listed
below were chosen to give students an idea of the wide range of laws and how some
of these laws dealt with some of the practical problems of an agricultural society. A
discussion of these laws should occur with students while covering this part of the
unit. I would also suggest that if a teacher would like to examine some of Solon’s
other laws that they refer to the books listed in the teacher’s bibliography concerning
the life of Solon. Among the laws are the following:
1) A man was permitted to kill an adulterer caught in the act.
2) Fines were levied against men who either forced or enticed a free
woman.
3) Men were forbidden to talk evil of the dead.
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4) Athenians were permitted to will their estates to people outside of
their family if there were no children.
5) If a man couldn’t find water within a certain distance from his house
he was permitted to use his neighbor’s well
6) Among agricultural products, only oil could be exported.
Jury duty was optional in Athens. The only judicial service required from all
Athenian male citizen was that after their fifty-ninth birthday they had to serve as
arbitrators. An arbitrator tried to settle a case without it having to be taken to a court.
The Athenian court system was comprised of a series of courts. A few of the courts
that we are aware of that existed in ancient Athens are:
1) the Middle Court
2) the Greater Court
3) the Red Court
4) the Green Court
5) the Areopagus
6) the Palladion
7) the Delphinion
8) the Prythaneion
The Middle, Greater, Red, and Green Courts were for the lesser offenses. Our
knowledge about these courts is somewhat limited. However, we know a great deal
more about the proceedings of the Areopagus, the Palladion, the Delohinion, and the
Prytaneion. These are the courts where the homicide cases were judged. These are the
courts that I wish to focus on in this part of my unit.
The Areopagus received its name because it met on the hill of Ares in Athens. This
court had the sole right to try cases of intentional homicide. The Areopagus was
comprised of ex-archons who had had experience in government administration,
including the court system. The tone of this court was more serious than that of the
other courts due to the seriousness of the cases dealt with in this court. Even though
the death penalty was still on the books from the Draconian era, it was not the
inevitable punishment. Some common judgements that were handed down included
sending the guilty person into exile or confiscating the murderer’s property.
The Palladion was reserved for cases concerning unintentional homicides. For
example, if someone was killed in a wrestling match, that person would have to
appear in this court to prove that the homicide was accidental and unpremeditated. In
this case the person involved was usually never punished. A common punishment for
unintentional homicide was exile.
I think that many students would love to hear about how a person who was already in
exile would defend themselves against a charge of homicide or infliction of bodily
injury. The accused would have to make his defense standing in a boat offshore at a
specified place called Phreatto while the jury convened on the beach.
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If a person felt that they were justified in killing a person their case would be tried in
the Delphinion. It was justifiable homicide to kill an adulterer caught in the act or a
burglar caught in the act at night according to Athenian law.
The last Athenian court I would like to discuss is the Prytaneion. This court tried
homicide cases in which animals, inanimate objects, or unknown person were
responsible for a death. If an animal or an object was found to be responsible for a
death, the animal or object was removed from Athens, or the animal was put to death.
The unknown person was sometimes “forced into exile” by decree. The purpose of
prosecuting the animal, the inanimate object, or the unknown person was to prevent
other citizens from meeting the same fate. It also gave the Athenian citizen the
feeling that something official was being done.
The next aspect of the Athenian court I would like to examine concerns the jury
system and its selection process. The Athenians believed in large juries and taking
elaborate precautions to avoid corruption. The size of the juries could run as high as
6,001 members, depending on the severity of the case. The juries were composed of
an uneven amount to avoid ties. Ties would work in favor of the defendant because a
tie meant acquittal and there was no appealing a decision of a court.
Another interesting aspect of the Athenian jury system was that the jurors were paid
about 1/3 of what a skilled worker was paid for a day’s labor, three obols. This
wasn’t a great amount of money, but only the citizens that were somewhat well-off
could afford to give up a day’s earnings. Thus, some Athenians were not enticed by
this payment.
In order to become a juror all one had to be was a citizen of Athens, i.e., a male born
to Athenian parents, and be at least 30 years old. Under the system used for most of
the fourth century, a person who wished to become a juror had to report to an area
designated for his tribe. (there were 10 tribes which had been created by Cleisthenes
near the beginning of the fifth century) They would draw lots with their fellow tribe
members for a ticket which would indicate whether they would serve that day and, if
so, in which court they would serve. An allotment machine was used in this selection
process.
Once the jury was in court, lots were drawn to select a juror to work the water clock.
The water clock was used to time the speeches of the defendant and the prosecutor.
The length of the speeches depended on the penalty involved. The clock was only
stopped for testimony or the reading of a deposition by a clerk. There was no
evidence in the form of exhibits presented at trials. A slave’s testimony was only
admissible if it was made under physical torture. In addition to choosing a juror to
monitor the water clock, four jurors were selected to count the votes.
The jurors were given two bronze knobs, one hollow, the other solid. Bystanders
could not tell which knob was which. If the juror felt the defendant was innocent he
22
cast the solid knob, if he believed the charges made by the plaintiff, he cast the
hollow knob. The winner would be decide by a simple majority.
It must be emphasized at this point that there was no public prosecutor and cross
examination of witnesses was not allowed. The case was thus decided by the
speeches made by the plaintiff and the defendant involved in the case. The
participants spoke for themselves. Others could join in speech making for either side
if the person was unable to speak adequately. Also litigants employed paid speech
writers (which was an illegal practice, but was common nonetheless) known as
logographoi. Some of the well known speech writers of the time were Lysias,
Antiphon, Aeschines, Demosthenes, Isaeus, Isocrates, Andocides, Aeschinese,
Demades, and Hyperides. (See book in ‘Teacher’s Bibliography‘ for several court
cases with speeches written by several of the above mentioned.)
Another interesting aspect of the Athenian legal system was that only free male
citizens could instigate litigation. If a women wanted to bring someone to court, she
would have to do it through her father, her brother, or some other male relative.
Before concluding my discussion of the courts in Athens, an examination of the role
the Athenian political clubs played in this legal system must be noted. One reason
why precautions were taken against corruption in the jury selection process was due
to the activities of these political clubs in Athens.
When I first read about these activities I became somewhat dismayed with the justice
system in Athens. However, upon further study and thought I realized that due to the
large size of the juries these club activities may have been somewhat ineffectual and
justice was a reality and not a farce in the Athenian legal system. I feel these club
activities should be cited in order for students to get an accurate picture of the
Athenian court.
Some of the ways in which these clubs tried to influence the courts are:
1) Friendly Prosecution—in this instance someone from the same club as
the defendant would prosecute, but they would present a weak case.
2) Counter Suits—a member of the club would instigate a suit against
the person prosecuting a fellow member of the club in hopes of getting
the accuser to drop his case.
3) Creating Sentiment—club members would circulate favorable stories
about the defendant and lies about his opponent or vice versa depending
on the position of the club member.
4) Falsifying evidence or Suppressing evidence
5) Bribery of jurors
6) Antidosis—a person assigned a “liturgy”, i.e. paying for some public
enterprise, challenges another man to pay for the liturgy or to exchange
property with him.
7) Assassination
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AMERICAN COURT SYSTEM
The first area of the American court system that needs to be explored is that of the
dual system of courts (federal and state courts) that exists in the U.S. The jurisdiction
of these courts is mandated by state and federal statutes. This dual system of courts
was the result of the federal system of government created by our “Founding
Fathers.” In their attempt to strengthen our central government and maintain state
sovereignty they had recourse to a two-court system. Separate courts were needed to
judge and interpret federal and state statutes. The state court systems were already in
place when the federal court system was created by Article III of the U.S.
Constitution and the Judiciary Act of 1789. How these two court systems operate and
interact with one another will be discussed later in the unit.
Before going any further an examination of civil law and English common law must
be made. For they formed the basis from which these courts operate.
The Random House Dictionary of the English Language—the Unabridged Edition
defines civil law as the body of laws of a state or nation regulating private matter.
The courts use these laws in administering justice and formulating decisions.
One source which influenced American civil laws was the Roman Justinian Code.
This code was developed in the sixth century A.D. It spread throughout the European
continent. The Justinian Code was transported to the colonies by the French, the
Spanish, and the Dutch, where it was modified so as to be useful and applicable to
situations encountered by early American settlers. Another source of American civil
laws was the Napoleonic Code which also has its basis in Roman law. In fact the
Napoleonic Code still plays a part in the Quebec and Louisiana legal system. As our
country developed it gave rise to fifty-one individual codes of civil laws. They were
established by federal statutes and the state statutes of the fifty states. If someone
wanted to know what the law pertaining to alcohol was in the U.S., they would have
to examine the federal statutes and the state statutes of every state in the union
concerning alcohol.
A solution was built into the U.S. Constitution to help federal and state courts deal
with conflicts which arise when state statutes are in direct conflict with federal
statutes. The solution is the ‘Supremacy Clause’ found in Article VI of the U.S.
Constitution which states:
This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made
in Pursuance therof; and all Treaties made, or which shall be made,
under the Authority of the United States, shall be the supreme Law of
the Land; and the Judges in every State shall be bound thereby, any
Thing in the Constitution or Laws of any State to the Contrary
notwithstanding.
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What makes Article VI effective is the fact that all public officials, federal and state,
are bound by an oath to support the U.S. Constitution which is administered prior to
taking a public office.
Prior to the development of civil law in the U.S. the court systems relied on English
common law. Common law is defined as the unwritten law, especially of England,
based on custom or court decisions, distinct from statute law. After the Revolutionary
War the American courts became detached from the English court system. Each
colony began to develop its own distinct common laws. As time passed, U.S. Law
developed from a combination of English common law and American statutes. It
must be emphasized to students that common law develops from the decisions of
judges over a period of time.
There still exists a common thread between English and American common law that
could not be cut and that was “stare decisis.” ‘Stare decisis’ is the legal rule that past
precedents determine the outcome of contemporary legal disputes (Jay Sigler, An
Introduction to the Legal System, p.12). A person attempts to establish precedent
between their case and a case from the past in hopes of receiving a similar verdict.
“Stare decisis” still plays a major role in determining the outcome of cases in federal
and state courts.
Another aspect of the English legal system adapted by most U.S. legal systems is the
grand jury. A grand jury is a body of citizens (chosen in the same manner as jurors)
whose responsibility is to determine if there is enough evidence to justify bringing
charges against an individual. The grand jury was instigated in order to avoid the
official persecution by a prosecutor without just cause. Grand juries are not a part of
every state judicial system while a grand jury indictment is necessary for federal
prosecution.
Two types of cases are handled by state courts: 1) criminal cases—where it is alleged
that a state law has been broken. 2) civil cases—cases involving a dispute between
two or more individuals. Criminal cases can be classified as either felonies or
misdemeanors. Felonies are the more serious crimes usually involving murder,
kidnapping, or burglary. The less serious offenses such as traffic violations,
disorderly conduct, or indecent exposure are referred to as misdemeanors.
The organization of state courts varies from state to state. There are three types of
courts found in most states. They are a trial court, an appellate court, and a state
supreme court. A case is first heard in a trial court. If the decision is unsatisfactory, it
may be appealed in the state appellate court. If the case is still unresolved it can be
bound over to the state supreme court. There are two courts a litigant can take his
case after the state supreme court. They are the U.S. Court of Appeals and the U.S.
Supreme Court. I have heard many a middle and high school student utter the phrase,
“I’ll take it to the U.S. Supreme Court if necessary.” Usually the case or problem is
petty in nature. Students need to realize that state and federal appellate courts will
hear a case only under certain circumstances. They tend to hear cases in which they
25
feel a lower court has handled the case improperly or due process denied. The
circumstances in which the Supreme Court becomes involved will be discussed later.
Amendment VI of the U.S. Constitution guarantees every U.S. citizen a speedy and
public trial by jury. The state and federal juries are composed of twelve, or
sometimes six, individuals chosen at random, usually from the voter registration list.
The jury is sequestered while hearing a case and is not allowed to discuss the case
with anyone, including other members of the jury. Jurors may discuss the case with
the other jurors only during the deliberation part of the trial. Unlike the Athenian jury
system, an unanimous vote is necessary for acquittal or guilty verdict in the American
court system. In the U.S. a person is innocent until proven guilty and guilt must be
proven to a jury beyond a reasonable doubt. A tie can result in an acquittal or a new
trial.
Judges in the state court system are chosen in a variety of ways. They are:
1) A partisan election, in which the judge is nominated by a political
party and runs on that ticket.
2) Election by the legislature.
3) Non-partisan election, in which restrictions are put on political parties
in designating candidates.
4) The governor can appoint the judges.
5) The Missouri Plan, in which the governor chooses from a list
recommended by a special commission.
In any case the state judge is always beholden to a political party. Judges for the
federal courts, on the other hand, are appointed by the President with the approval of
the Senate. These judges serve for life. Judges in federal and state courts can overturn
guilty verdicts if they feel that the judge in the original trial committed an error or the
jury made an error in judgement based on the overwhelming weight of evidence
presented.
The major defect in the state court system is court congestion. (Connecticut is one of
the worst off in that regard.) This is due to the enormous case load and the fact that
every person has a right to a trial by jury, in all but the most trivial cases. This
problem of court congestion could lead to the release of a guilty individual on the
grounds that the state violated his civil rights by not granting him a speedy trial as
outlined in the sixth amendment of the U.S. Constitution.
The federal court system is made up of U.S. District Courts, U.S. Appeal Courts, the
Supreme Court, and several special courts established by Congress.
The U.S. District Courts hear cases involving federal statutes as mandated by the
Constitution and the Judiciary Act of 1789. There are 93 district courts. The U.S.
Court of Appeals hears cases in which individuals have chosen to appeal the decision
of the district court or a state court. There are eleven U.S. Courts of Appeals. If
satisfaction is not achieved at this level, the case may be appealed to the Supreme
26
Court. There are three writs that a lawyer can use to get a case heard before the
Supreme Court. The first involves an appeal based on the fact that a state statute is in
direct conflict with a federal statute. Or, an appeal can be filed if the federal law in
question is alleged to be unconstitutional. The second type of writ that can be
obtained is one of “Certiorari”. This writ is issued when four Supreme Court justices
feel that a case deserves the court’s attention. The third (rarely used), is a writ of
“Certification”, which can be obtained if a lower federal court wishes to have the
Supreme Court examine a case in which the lower court is in doubt as to a course of
action to take.
The special courts that were established by Congress are as follows:
1) The Court of Claims—cases against the government are heard in this
court.
2) The Customs Court—cases involving import taxes or tariffs are heard
in this court.
3) The Court of Customs and Patent Appeals—cases appealing the
decisions of the Custom Court or the Patent Office are held here.
4) The Territorial Courts—cases of people who live in U.S. territories
are held here.
5) The Tax Court—appeals concerning payment of taxes are held here.
COMPARISON OF THE TWO SYSTEMS
Initially the American court system used common laws as a basis for its decisions.
This was due to a lack of written constitutions. With the growth of the U.S. and the
development of constitutions (federal and state) common law became intertwined
with civil law. Crucial is the practice of “stare decisis.” While in Athens, the
decisions of the archons made up their legal system prior to the development of the
Draconian and Solonian Codes of Law. The archons decided each case on an
individual basis and there seems to be no evidence to suggest that “stare decisis”
influenced any of their decisions.
Another area of comparison between the two systems lies in the type of cases tried in
both legal systems. The dike case is similar to the civil case in the respect that both
cased involve disputes between individuals. In the same light, the graphe case is
similar to the criminal case because in both cases the state or public is affected by the
case in question.
Another similarity between the legal systems is that both systems had specialized
courts to handle different types of cases. Differences existed between the procedure
and type of cases handled by these courts. For example in Athens there were several
courts that dealt with homicide. While in the U.S. murder cases are dealt with in one
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court, either in the state trial court or the U.S. District Court, depending on whether
federal or state statutes were violated.
The role and selection of the judges was another area in which the two systems
differed. Even with Solon’s reorganization, the selection of judges was based on
class, even though wealth was used to determine a person’s class. There existed a
variety of ways to choose a judge in the U.S. and there are many factors which
influence their selection, but class is not one of them (this was not always true).
Further, persons without legal training and experience are rarely considered for
judgeships in the U.S.
The role of the judges during court proceedings in Athens and the U.S. is another area
of difference. The Athenian magistrate had no say about the outcome. He simply
presided over the proceeding. Their American counterparts, by contrast, play a more
active part in the decision making process. These judges help interpret the law for the
jury and if they feel a miscarriage of justice has occurred in the face of overwhelming
evidence they have the power to overturn a decision of a jury.
The Athenian and American court system entrust the jury with the responsibility of
determining truth. One difference between the jury systems is size. The Athenians
believed in large juries with an odd number. In comparison, the American jury is
composed of only twelve, or sometimes even six, members. Random choice is used
in the jury selection process in both systems despite the difference in procedure.
Another difference in the jury system lies in the fact that in Athens a simple majority
is needed for an acquittal or a guilty verdict, whereas in the U.S. an unanimous vote
is necessary.
Two professions developed alongside each system to aid their citizens in presenting
their cases. The logographos aided the Athenian citizen and the modern-day lawyer
aids the American citizen. A distinction should be made between the logographoi and
the American lawyer. Anyone could be a logographos; there were no prerequisites or
qualifications whereas the American lawyer has to pass a bar exam to prove his
expertise. In concluding, each judicial system provided a system of justice that its
citizens found acceptable. The citizens may not have agreed with the decision of the
courts but they apparently agreed with the process.
TEACHING STRATEGIES
I. Special reports on the following people or subjects
should be assigned to students while covering the
appropriate parts of the unit:
____A. Solon
____B. Dracon
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____C. Common law
____D. Evidence admissible in U.S. courts
____E. The Effects of the Napoleonic Code and Justinian Codes on
American Law
____F. History of the Grand Jury in the U.S.
____G. The Connecticut Judicial System
II. The following vocabulary words should be mastered by students with
the completion of this unit. (See lesson plans for a teaching suggestion)
1. “Draconian”
18. Common law
19. Supremacy
2. thesmothes
Clause
20. Civil
3. archon
law
21. stare
4. Thetes
decisis
5. Areopagus
22. graphe
6. Palladion
23. dike
7. Phreatto
24. civil case
8. Delphinion
25. criminal case
9. Prytaneion
26. felony
10. water clock
27. misdemeanor
11. plaintiff
28. Certiorari
12. defendant
29. Certification
30. The Court of
13. logographoi
Claims
14. Friendly
31. The
Prosecution
Custom Court
32. The Court of
15. Counter Suits
Customs
16. Creating
and Patent
Sentiment
Appeals
33. Territorial
17. Antidosis
Courts
34. The
Tax Court
35. grand
jury
III. I would recommend that this unit be taught using the lecturediscussion method. A U.S. History text or U.S. Civics text would be
used by the students for a basis for discussion concerning the U.S. court
system. This would be supplemented by lectures from the teacher
29
concerning the Athenian court system. On the completion of this unit a
visit to a local court should occur. Some suggested discussion questions
are as follows:
____1) Are there any laws that you know about today that you would
consider “Draconian”?
____2) How would you like to live in a society in which every offense
was punishable by death?
____3) What are some strengths and weaknesses of the American and
Athenian court systems?
____4) Why do you think evidence from a slave was only admissible if
it was received while the slave was tortured?
Lesson Plan I
Objective To explain how a case is tried in an American court.
Procedure
1. The objective will be accomplished by setting up a role playing
situation. The following will be needed: 1) a judge 2) a grand jury 3)
prosecutor 4) defendant 5) a jury 6) cases
2. Once the class has elected a judge, the judge will appoint a grand jury
from the class to determine if there is enough evidence to prosecute.
(The cases will come from a class assignment in which each student will
be responsible for creating one case.)
3. The next step will be the actual trying of the case and the rendering of
a verdict.
4. With each new case there should be a change in the court room
personnel so that as many as possible can experience the different
positions of an American court.
Homework
After concluding several cases students should write a brief essay in which they
describe their experiences in their role playing situations.
Lesson Plan II
Objective To create an Athenian case and then play the role of a logographos.
Procedure
1. Several Athenian cases should be read from Kathleen Freeman’s The
Murder of Herodes and Other Trials from the Athenian Law to the
students to give them examples of cases tried in Athens and the speeches
that were written by logographoi. The cases to be read to the students
are:
____a. Wounding with Intent to Kill: Quarrel over a Boy— in this case
the speech for the defendant was written by Lysias, the case centers on a
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dispute between two Athenian men over the affections of a boy. In the
quarrel one of the men is injured
____b. On the Murder of Herodes—the speech for the defendant was
written by Antiphon. In this case Helos, a man from Mytilene, is accused
of murdering Herodes.
2. Students will first pair up in teams, one being the defendant, the other
the plaintiff.
3. Students will then create a case or a dispute.
4. The students will then have to go to another student and have them
write a speech defending their position. Students will not be allowed to
write their own speeches.
Homework Complete speeches for fellow classmates. This lesson will be concluded
the following day by the class acting as the jury and deciding the cases based on the
speeches.
Lesson Plan III
Objective To review vocabulary words listed in the ‘Teaching Strategies’.
Procedure
1. This lesson will be modeled after the game show ‘What’s My Line’.
2. Each student will be assigned a person or vocabulary word from the
vocabulary list.
3. Then each member of the class will be allowed to ask the student
questions pertaining to their role. The student questioned can only
answer in the affirmative or the negative. If a student asks a question that
receives an affirmative answer, they are allowed to ask another question
until they receive a negative response, at which time we will go on to the
next student. This procedure will continue until someone guesses the
role or we go through the entire class.
4. The winner will be the student who stumps the most students.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The entries with an asterisk(*) are books that can be used by students.
Andrewes, Antony, The Greeks, W.W. Norton & Company, New York, 1967.
Andrewes gives an excellent social, geographical, and historical account of Greek
life.
Aristotle, Constitution of Athens, translated by Kurt von Fritzand Ernest Knapp,
Harfner Press, New York, 1974. This is an account of the Athenian constitution by
Aristotle. This constitution covered the fifth and fourth centuries B.C.*
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Calhoun, George Miller, Athenian Clubs in Politics and Litigation, The University of
Texas Bulletin, Austin, Texas, 1913. Calhoun gives an account of the activities
employed by political clubs in Athens to influence court cases.
Freeman, Kathleen, The Murder of Herodes and Other Trials from the Athenian Law
courts, MacDonald & Co., London, 1946. Freeman translates speeches from several
Athenian court cases. I would suggest the use of this book for examples of Athenian
court cases. It is also possible to look up Loeb Library translations of the Attic
orators.*
Karlen, Delmar, Judicial Administration-the American Experience, Oceana
Publications, Inc., Dobbs Ferry, New York, 1970. Karlen gives a brief overview of
the American court system, he mentions several shortcomings that are worth noting.
Mayers, Lewis, The American Legal System, Harper & Row, New York, 1964. This
book gives a good overview of the American court system.
MacDowell, Douglas M., The Law In Classical Athens, Cornell University Press,
Ithaca, New York, 1978. This book serves as an excellent source for information on
ancient Athenian law.
The Athenian Citizen, American School of Classical Studies at Athens, Princeton,
N.J., 1974. A short pamphlet with a brief account of the court system and good
illustrations of the allotment machines, water clocks, and jurors’ ballots.*
The English Judicial System
A feature common to all the systems of law in the UK is that there is no complete
code. The sources of law include legislation (e.g. some 3,000 Acts of Parliament)
and unwritten or 'common law'. Major distinctions are between the criminal law
(wrongs against the community as a whole) and the civil law (rights, duties and
obligations of individuals between themselves).
The criminal courts in England and Wales include:
1 .Magistrates' Courts . About 98 per cent of all criminal cases are disposed of by
the magistrates (2 to 7) known as Justices of the Peace. These courts try the less
serious offences (they hear and determine charges against people accused of
summary offences, that is not serious enough to go before higher courts). The
second function of the Magistrates' Courts is to conduct a preliminary hearing.
Thirdly, they hear cases involving children (Juvenile Courts).
The magistrates act as licencing authorities for public houses, restaurants, betting
shops and other public places. There are about 27,250 lay magistrates, sitting in
nearly 700 different courts.
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2. Crown Courts. The Crown Court deals with trials of the more serious cases, the
sentencing of offenders committed for sentence by magistrates' courts, and appeals
from magistrates' courts. It sits in about 90 centres and is presided over by High
Court judges, full-time 'circuit judges' and part-time recorders. All contested trials
take place before a jury. The jury consists of 12 persons and try indictable, that is
more serious criminal offences (10 out of 12 must agree on their verdict).
NB: The Old Bailey - the central criminal court for Greater London.
The civil courts include:
1 .County Courts (300, presided over by a paid judge).Their jurisdiction covers
adoption cases, bankruptcy, divorce cases, actions concerning land, trusts and
mortgages (involving less than 750). Cases outside this limit are heard before High
Court Judges, sitting either in the Crown Courts or in the High Court itself.
2. The High Court of Justice is divided into the Chancery Division (mortgages,
bankruptcies, partnership, estates), the Family Division and the Queen's Bench
Division (Common Law actions, commercial disputes). It covers virtually all civil
cases. The Family Division of the High Court now deals with all jurisdiction
affecting the family: divorce, wardship, guardianship and probate (the ratification of
wills).
Maritime law is the responsibility of a specially constituted court of the queen's
Bench Division.
The Judicial Personnel
Judges: appointed by the Queen, on the advice of the Lord Chancellor; hold office
for life; are selected among senior barristers, especially Q.C.s (Queen's Counsels);
200 approximately.
Barristers: lawyers who have passed the examination of the Bar Council ("called to
the bar"); there are 2,000 approximately organised as a very powerful and closed
corporation (Inns of Court). These are the Inner Temple, the Middle Temple,
Lincoln's Inn and Gray's Inn. The four societies together form what is known as
"The Bar". The Bar as a whole is responsible for the education of would-be
barristers. The successful candidate is rewarded by being called to the Bar. The duty
of barristers is to further their clients' cases in courts and speak in law courts. As
'counsel for the prosecution' a barrister will try to prove the accused person's guilt.
As 'counsel for the defence' he will defend the accused.
Solicitors: members of the Law Society, prepare all the judicial work (briefs,
enquiries, witnesses) : 25,000 approximately. Their main function is to keep a client
out of the courts by advising him, drafting his contracts, wills, leases and many
other documents.
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Justices of the Peace (JPs): unpaid and non-professional magistrates for inferior
courts; assisted by professionals (clerks).
Police. There are about 60 police forces in Britain, each employed and paid by the
local authorities. They get half their money from the local rates and half from the
Treasury. The forces are completely independent of one another. Each force has its
C.I.D. - Criminal Investigation Department. The London Police Force, called the
Metropolitan Police, is not controlled by the local authority. It is responsible to the
Home Secretary, and its chief officers are appointed by the Government. 'Scotland
Yard', the C.I.D. of the Metropolitan Police, is so called because the headquarters of
the Metropolitan Police are in New Scotland Yard, near Whitehall.
NB: If in trouble, or if you've witnessed a crime, go to the nearest telephone and dial
999. You'll be put through immediately to the Post Office, who will ask which
service you want - Police, Fire Brigade or Ambulance.
Traffic Wardens. Traffic wardens were first introduced in I960. Now there are about
20,000 traffic wardens in England and Wales. They deal with minor traffic
offences), like parking in the wrong place, or without lights; they report car owners
who do not have a licence; they supervise school children crossing roads.
NB: The death penalty for murder was abolished in 1965.
Learning languages
The problem of learning languages is very important today. Foreign languages are
socially demanded especially at the present time when the progress in science and
technology has led to an explosion of knowledge and has contributed to an overflow
of information. The total knowledge of mankind is known to double every seven
years. Foreign languages are needed as the main and most efficient means of
information exchange of the people of our planet. Today English is the language of
the world. Over 350 million people speak it as a mother tongue. The native speakers
of English live in Great Britain, the United States of America, Australia and New
Zealand. English is one of the official languages in the Irish Republic, Canada, the
South African Republic. As a second language it is used in the former British and US
colonies. It is the major international language for communication in such areas as
science, technology, business and mass entertainment. English is one of the official
languages of the United Nations Organization and other political organization. It is
the language of the literature, education, modern music, international tourism. Russia
is integrating into the world community and the problem of learning English for the
purpose of communication is espicially urgent today. Learning a foreing language is
not as easy thing. It is a long and slow process that takes a lot of time and patience.
But to know English is absolutely necessary for every educated person, for every
good specialist. It is well known that reading books in the original , listening to the
34
BBC news, communicating with the English speaking people will help a lot. When
learning a foreign language you learn the culture and history of the native speakers.
One must work hard to learn any foreign language.
London is the capital of the UK (Лондон - столица Соединенного Королевства)
London is the capital of the United Kingdom, its economic, political and cultural
center. It is one of the world’s most important ports and one of the largest cities in the
world. London with its suburbs has a population of about 11 million people.
London has been a capital for nearly a thousand years. Many of its ancient buildings
still stand. The most famous of them are the Tower of London, Westminster Abbey
and St. Paul’s Cathedral. Most visitors also want to see the Houses of Parliament and
the many magnificent museums.
Once London was a small Roman town of the north bank of the Thames. Slowly it
grew into one of the world’s major cities.
Different areas of London seem like different cities. The West End is a rich man’s
world of shops, offices and theatres. The City of London is the district where most
offices and banks are concentrated; the Royal Exchange and the Bank of England are
here, too. The East End is a district where mostly working people live. The old port
area is now called «Docklands». There are now new office buildings in Docklands,
and thousands of new flats and houses.
By the day the whole of London is busy. At night, offices are quiet and empty, but
the West End stays alive, because this is where Londoners come to enjoy themselves.
There are two opera houses here, several concert halls and many theatres, as well as
cinemas. In nearby Soho the pubs and restaurants and nightclubs are busy half the
night
Mass media.
Mass media ( that is the press, the radio and television ) play an important role in the
life of society. They inform, educate and entertain people. They also influence the
way people look at the world and make them change their views. Mass media mould
public opinion.Millions of people in their spare time watch TV and read newspapers.
Everybody can find there something interesting for him. On the radio one can hear
music, plays, news and various discussions or commentaries of current events. Lot's
radio or TV games and films attract a large audience. Newspapers uses in different
ways,but basically they are read. There is a lot of advertisment on mass media. Some
of the TV and radio stations and newspapers are owned by different corporations.
The owners can advertise whatever they choose. But it is hardly fair to say that mass
media do not try to raise cultural level of the people or to develop their artistic taste.
Mass media brings to millions of homes not only entertaiment and news but also
cultural and educational programs. There are more then six TV channels and lot's of
radio stations and newspapers now in the Russian Federation.
35
A visit to the theatre
Theater is a wonderful place. There are many actors and actress here. They perform
different plays. Our family often goes to the theatre.
Last month our family went to the theatre. We saw the play "Romeo and Juliet". Our
seats were in the dress circle. It was a wonderful performance. I enjoyed every
minute of the play. The actors were really very good, especially the actress playing
Juliet. Her dress was beautiful.
I like Shakespeare's plays. I've always wanted to see "Romeo and Juliet" in the
theatre. I would like to know more about William Shakespeare and see all his plays in
the theatre.
If you want to go to the theatre you should think about some things beforehand. First
of all go to the box office and ask if they have seats for the day you want. Don't
forget that the most expensive seats are in the front stalls or in the boxes, and the
cheapest are in the gallery. The seats in the dress circle are not so expensive, but quite
good, especially if they are in the first and second row. If you can't decide about your
seats you can look at the map of the hall which usually is on the wall of the boxoffice
and can be quite helpful.
Music in our life
Can you think of a day without music? We can hear music everywhere: in the streets
and at home, over the radio and on TV, in the shops and in the parks. People all over
the world are fond of music. They listen to music, they dance to music, they learn to
play musical instruments.
But what is music? Specialists explain that music isn't only a combination of pleasant
sounds. It is an art which reflects life. There are a lot of different kinds of music.
Some of them appeared long ago, and some are modern. For example, folk music
appeared long ago, but it is still alive. There are many local performers, choirs and
folk groups in Russia; but perhaps the most famous singer is Nadezhda Babkina. Folk
songs are very tuneful and pleasant to listen to. Classical music is often associated
with the music of the past. However, this style also includes music being written now,
and we may speak of modern classical music. Rap is a modern musical style where
the singer speaks or shouts the words in time to music with a steady beat. Such
groups as Public Enemy or House of Pain are leaders in this style.
Great Britain has produced more popular music stars than any other country. Over the
last 30 years rock and pop music have been very popular in Britain. The Beatles, with
their style of singing, eloquent and exciting, is still one of the most popular groups.
British groups often set new trends in music. New styles, groups and singers continue
to appear. Some of the more recent pop groups are Dire Straits, Eurhythmics and
Spice Girls. Many of the new bands have been able to use the changes in technology
36
to develop their music. Computerized drum machines, synthesizers and other
electronic instruments are now just as popular as the piano and electric guitars.
Tastes differ. So people's musical interests range from pop and rock music, which are
extremely popular nowadays, especially among young people, to classical music and
opera.
My favourite style of music is pop music, because it is breathtaking and full of
energy. When I listen to pop music it makes me remember happy times and forget the
problems of everyday life. It helps me to relax when I'm tired, and entertains me
when I'd like to have fun. My favourite group is Abba. It was formed in 1973 in
Sweden. Abba's cheerful tunes made them international pop stars and one of the most
successful groups of the seventies. Their most famous songs ("Waterloo", "Money,
Money, Money", "Knowing Me, Knowing You", etc.) often topped European charts.
Though the group doesn't exist any more, it is still popular with people of all ages. I
can't but admire their style of singing. I find it fascinating and overwhelming. When I
have free time I listen to their records. I also like having background music while I
am working.
I don't mind listening to dance music, especially when I go to disco clubs. This style
of music is catchy and I like catchy tunes. It makes me more energetic.
It's a pity that many young people like to listen only to modern music. As for me, I
also enjoy listening to classical music. I find it tuneful and appealing. Classical music
is always a complex of emotions. It gives me delight, pleasure and a sense of
happiness. Some pieces of classical music are really wonderful. Not long ago I
listened to the First Piano Concerto, composed by Tchaikovsky. The power of his
music captivated me. The impression was overwhelming.
The music I hate is heavy metal. I find it noisy and dreadful. When I listen to this
style of music it presents to my mind pictures of dark days. Though some young
people are fond of this style of music, it is not to everyone's taste. To my mind, music
too loud can destroy our ears. I am indifferent to other styles of music. For example, I
don't mind listening to jazz. Improvisation is an important part of this style, that's
why a jazz song may sound a little different each time it is played. I think that jazz is
a mixture of many different kinds of music, but I consider it a bit complicated.
My mother and father approve of my tastes in music. Though they prefer to listen to
classical and "bard music", they think that, on the whole, modern music is not too
bad. My parents agree that each generation has its own tastes.
It goes without saying that music plays a very important role in people's lives. It
reflects our moods and emotions. Music appeals to our hearts and transforms our
feelings. It conquers our souls and enriches our minds. Besides, listening to music is
the perfect way to spend free time and not to feel bored. You can hardly find a person
37
who doesn't like or need music and who never sings or dances. Music is beauty in
sounds; it is our magic source of inspiration.
The russian ballet
Not very long ago when people mentioned ballet, they thought of Russian ballet. In
fact ballet came to Russia relatively late. It brought traditions from many other
countries, mainly from France and Italy. Actually Tsar Nicholas I was ready to spend
great sums of money on the dance companies, so ballet got recognition in the capital
at St. Petersburg and in Moscow.
The Russian ballet dates back to 1847. It was the year when Marius Petipa, a young
French dancer, arrived in St. Petersburg. He found there a well-trained company,
which consisted mainly of the employees of the Imperial household. They were not
spoilt by the attention and glamour, because they were the Tsar's servants. The Tsar
wanted to see choreographies that had been seen in the times of the Sun King. That is
there was combination of romantic stories with a luxury and pomp.
Under leadership of Petipa the Russian ballet became extremely popular in the world.
Within thirty years Petipa created over forty full-length ballets, arranged dances for
thirty-five operas and recast seventeen ballet productions by other European masters.
Petipa's version of Giselle we still can see today. In the Russian ballet of the
nineteenth century everything was in harmony: the music, which was written mainly
by Ludwig Minkus, the staging, the scenery, the costumes and choreography.
At the beginning of the twentieth century ballet was still important in the cultural life
of Russia, but gradually the romantic haze was cleared away. The world changed and
it was taken a different view. The problems of love, hate, good, evil, were expressed
in more complex ways.
Cinema
In the thirties a certain pattern of genres was established. That is a musical, a
scientific movie, a gangster film, a horror film and a thriller.
The seventies didn't change the state of things. These movies stayed the most
profitable ones. Nowadays this has undergone some changes.
When the sound was invented in 1926, movies became well established and have
remained the dominant modals with some variations until today.
One can clearly define the western and the musical. It is not an easy thing sometimes
to draw a distinct line between gangster films, detectives and mystery films. As to
horror films and science fiction, they often seem to merge. What you can easily
identify that is war films and romantic, historical adventures.
38
Comedies show us different variations.
Hollywood had great difficulties with the new medium of television during the fifties.
Most of the classic genres began to feed on themselves.
But the musicals depended on Broadway for stage adaptations.
Soon the film industry began to rise from its knees. Throughout the sixties detective
films turned into agent (spy) films.
The Black Power Movement brought its changes into filmmaking. Black people, onefifth of the nation, were liberated from the cultural ghetto. They now can be seen and
heard daily on television and cinema screens.
Theatres in London
There are a great number of theatres in London: the chief theatres, music-halls and so
on. They are mainly in the West End. No doubt; you will easily find the way to spend
an enjoyable evening in London. You can choose opera, ballet, drama, comedy,
variety, musical comedy, revue.
You can ask about the best seats at theatres. The best ones are those in the stalls, the
circle, and the upper circle. Then comes the pit. The gallery offers the cheapest seats.
Boxes are the most expensive.
All the theatres and music halls have their own orchestras with popular conductors. If
you are an opera-goer, you are sure to get best of everything - an excellent orchestra,
famous conductors, celebrated singers and well-dressed audience. But if you don't
like music and singing, opera will be boring for you.
At the theatres situated in the West
The National Theatre
It took over the hundred years to establish a national theatre company. It's first
director from 1962 was Lawrence Olivier. This is the first state theatre Britain has
ever had. A special building for it was opened in 1976. It has three theatres in one:
"The Oliver theatre", the biggest is for the main classical repertoire; "The Lyttilton",
a bit smaller is for new writing and for visiting foreign countries and "The Cottesloe
theatre", the smallest is used for experimental writing and productions. "The Royal
Shakespeare company" are divided between the country and the capital and it's
produces plays mainly by Shakespeare and his contemporaries when it performs is
"Stratford -on-Avon", and modern plays in it's two auditoria in the Cities, Barbican
centre.
39
End you can see plenty of famous actors and actresses. It goes without saying that the
plays here are magnificently staged. Costumes, dresses, scenery are done on the most
lavish scale.
If you choose a play you like, you'll enjoy yourself.
MUSIC.
Music - it art, reflecting validity in sound art images, one of the forms of public
ideology. Having by powerful force direct emotional effect, music during of all
history of man-kind plays a huge social, cultural and educational role. Lieading
composers are connected to progressive public movements, life, interests and
aspirations people. Each nations differs by peculiar national features. Folk music,
being improved by creative efforts of many generations of the people, reaches a high
degree of art maturity. On the basis of riches of national music professional musical
creativity of composers is developed. Rejection of music from advanced ideas epoch
of national culture, national roots of art leads to it's to decline and degeneration. Idia
emotional contents of music is passed through soun art images, implemented in
musical sounds. The basic of music is the tune. according to the way of performance
music is divided into 2 main branches: instrumental and vocal. There are a lot of
different styles of music. Such as: Jazz, Pop, Rock, Classic; and new musical
directions.Such as: Rave, Hard Core, Jungle, Break Beat and many other. I like to
listen to rave music and Happy Hard Core. As for me i like these styles because they
are very rythmic and dancing. The beginning of techno music was put very known
singer Fredde Mercuri was the first to compose music in the style techno. In those
years very few people evaluated new style of music. But with the years a new style
has grown up to such global sizes. Now this music is listened to by large part of
youth. I think it's very good that such musical direction as raiv has appeared. Because
in raiv there are a lot of musical directions. Young people that are fond of music can
easily choose just that style which appeals to them.
Music in our life
Music - it art, reflecting validity in sound art images, one of the forms of public
ideology. Having by powerful force direct emotional effect, music during of all
history of man-kind plays a huge social, cultural and educational role. Leading
composers are connected to progressive public movements, life, interests and
aspirations people. Each nations differs by peculiar national features. Folk music,
being improved by creative efforts of many generations of the people, reaches a high
degree of art maturity. On the basis of riches of national music professional musical
creativity of composers is developed. Rejection of music from advanced ideas epoch
of national culture, national roots of art leads to it's to decline and degeneration. Idea
emotional contents of music is passed through sound art images, implemented in
musical sounds. The basis of music is the tune. According to the way of performance
music is devided into 2 main branches: instrumental and vocal. There are a great
number of different styles of music, such as Jazz, Pop, Rock, Classic; and new
40
musical directions. One of the new music directions is Rave. I prefer to listen hardcore and more quiet music such as Roxette and others. Now days the number of
music styles is growing, and every young people, which are fond of music can easily
choose that style which appeals to them.
RADIO AND TELEVISION.
Of all the discoveries ever made by man, radio or wireless, is one of the most
wonderfull. By means of wireless, you can speak to a man on the other side of the
world. Seated confortably in your own home, you can hear music or talks, broadcast
thousand of miles away from your- talks on national and international affairs, on
science, history and other educational subject. I listen to the wireless almost every
evening, mine is are eght-valve set an arial which gives splended results. I t has
medium, long and short wave-lenghts and it quit simple to manipulate. All I have to
do it's to tune into the station I require. I use my set a good deal for keeping up my
forhn lanuges Topic THEATRES, MUSIC HALLS AND CINEMAS
Theatres are very much the same in London as anywhere else; the chief theatres
,music halls and cinemas are in the West End. If you are staying in London for a few
days, you'll have no difficulty whatever in finding somewhere to spend an enjoyable
evening. You'll find opera, balley, comedy, drama, revue, musical comedy and
variety. Films are shown in the cinemas during the greatest part of the day. The best
seats at theatres are those in the stalls, the circle and the upper circle. Then comes the
pit, and the last of all the gallery where the seats are cheapest. Boxes, of course, are
the most expensive. Most theatres and music halls have good orchestras with popular
conductors. You ought to make a point of going to the opera at least once during the
season if you can. There you can get the best of everything - an exellent orchestras,
famous conductors, celebated singers and well dressed audience. But, of course, if
you are not fond of music and singing, won't interest you. At the West End theatres
you can see most of the famous English actors and actresses. As a rule, the plays are
magnificently staged - costumes, dresses, scenery, everything being done of the most
lavish scale. Choose a good play, and you'll enjoy yourself thoroughly from the
moment the curtain goes up to the end of the last act. Get your seats beforehand,
either at the box-office of theatre itself or at one of the agencies. When you go to a
theatre, you'll probably want to seat as near to the stage as possible. But if you are at
the cinema, you may prefer to seat some distance from the screen. In fact, I would
say, the further away the better.
My future profession
What I would like to become? This question pasels me greatly. Every job has its
elements of difficulties and interest. I think that nearly all the professions are very
important in life. But to choose the right occupation is very difficult, because we
must take in to consideration many factors. We must consider our personal taste and
our kind of mind. At the same time we must satisfy the requirements of our society
and peoples needs in one profession or another. The end of school is the beginning of
41
an independent life, the beginning of a more serious examination. In order to pass
that very serious exam we must choose the road in life which will help us best to live
and work. Each boy and girl has every opportunity to develop mind and use
knowledge and education received at school. Some may prefer to work in factories or
works, others want to go into construction: to take part in building power stations and
new towns. Many opportunities to work and to satisfy at the same time the
requirements of the society and your own personal interest are offered in the sfere of
the services transport, communications and many others. I have a specially liking for
to became a programmist. I like this profession because it very interest.
UK (Соединенное Королевство Великобритании и Северной Ирландии)
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Island is situated on the British
Isles not far from Europe. It consists of the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern
part of Ireland and a great number of small islands. Such as: the Orkney, the
Hebrides, the Isle of White and many others.
If you look at the map of Europe you will see that Great Britain is not large. It takes 6
hours to travel in a fast train, from London, the capital of England, to Edinburgh, the
capital of Scotland. And the June from London to Plymouth takes a little over 4 hours
by train.
There are 4 part of Great Britain England, the capital is London, Scotland the capital
is Edinburgh, Wales the capital is Cardiff and Northern Island the capital is Belfast.
Great Britain lies not far from continent. It is separated from Europe by the North Sea
and England Channel. The channel in it's narrowest part The Strait of Dover is only
32 kilometers.
Great Britain has a very good geographical position, as it lies on the crossways of the
sea routes from Europe to other parts of the World.
The sea connects Britain with most European countries such as: Belgium, Holland,
Denmark, Norway, Russia and some other countries. The main sea route from Europe
to America also passed thought the channel.
British climate is mild and damp. It often rains frogs are quit frequent especially in
the West and south-west. The Gulf Stream a warm ocean current warms to seas
around the British coast moderating the climate, giving it cold Summers mild winters.
The temperature in winter seldom falls below zero and the field and meadow are
green all year round
Teen-ages's problems
Fool guys. But they don't understand, that it's wrong. Some of them
can't stop that, and they become dependent on drugs. Andthey commit
different serious, because they need some money to buy drugs. there are alsomany
other problems: alchoholism, smokin and so on. There are many youth organisations
in our country, wich unite young men on different principles. Members of every
organisation has ons own world out looks. Each of them has their own morral
42
qualities. There are some informal organisations, for example: skinheads, hippies,
panks and so on. Now there exists the problem of missundrstanding beetwen different
youth groups. We also face the problem how to spend our free time. We can do it in
different ways. Some of teen-ages spend their free time in different night clubs. Other
young people spend their free time in the strets. As for me, i spend my free time at
home or in the night clubs. I also have some problems with my parents. But every
time then i have them i try to slove them without quorrel. Now we are young people
and we are the future of our country. Teen-aegs play an important role in the modern
society. Grown up's must remember that we are the future of our country and in
present moment our character is formed and that's why our parents must not assert
pressure on us.end our free time. We can do it in different ways. Some of tea
English - the universal language on the Internet?
Abstract
Generally speaking, English is the universal language on the Internet, but it has no
official status, and it will never have. The reasons for the position of English are
the imperialism and economical and political importance of English-speaking
countries. Linguistically, English is extremely unsuitable for international
communication, and the actual wide use of English tends to polarize the world into
Internet users and Internet illiterates.
The position of English can only be altered by major world-scale political and
economical changes, such as increasing importance of the European Union or a
coalition between Japan and China. Such powers might wish and be able to
promote a language other than English, possibly a constructed language, for
international communication.
Alternatively, or in addition to this, the technology of machine translation may
allow people to use their own language in international communication.
Table of Contents
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Preface
The current situation
Why is it so?
Effects of the importance of the Internet and English
An official language for the Internet?
But can things change?
Is English a suitable universal language?
A constructed international language?
An alternative: machine translation
Final remarks
43
Preface
The impulse to writing this article was a discussion in the newsgroup sci.lang. The
original question was "whether or not English should be made the universal
language of the internet".
As several people remarked, English essentially is the universal language of the
Internet. Nevertheless, the question, appropriately interpreted and elaborated, is
worth a more delicate treatment.
I had previously discussed related themes in my article Internet muuttaa maailman
2 (The Internet changes the world 2, in Finnish). Here I present some of those
ideas in English and develop them a bit further.
The current situation
In general, the universal language on the Internet is English, or more exactly a
vague collection of languages called "English" because their common origin is the
national language spoken in England by the English. That national language has
spread over the world, and several variants such as American (US) English,
Australian English, etc exist. A great number of people whose native language is
none of the variants know English as a foreign language. They typically use a
more or less simplified variant, e.g. excluding most of the idioms of British,
American, Australian etc English. Of course, they make mistakes, and sometimes
the "English" used by people as a foreign language on the Internet is almost
incomprehensible to anyone else. In addition, people who use English as their
native language do not know how to spell difficult words, since they basically
know English as a spoken language.
Thus, roughly speaking, the universal language of the Internet is clumsy, coarse
and misspelled "English".
There are exceptions, most importantly national newsgroups in such countries
where English is not the native language of the majority. Even in such groups
English is used, for instance when people from other countries wish to participate.
And a few international groups have a theme like discussing a particular language
or culture so that it is natural to assume that the participants have a common
language other than English. Moreover, a group which is partly international in the
sense of not being purely national might use a language other than English, for
instance if the group is intended for people in German-speaking countries.
Why is it so?
Generally speaking, when a languages has got the position of a universal language,
the position tends to be affirmed and extended by itself. Since "everyone" knows
and uses English, people are almost forced to learn English and use it, and learn it
better.
44
Even if you expect the majority of your readers to understand your native
language, you may be tempted to use English when writing e.g. about research
work. Usually researchers all over the world know English and use it a lot, and
often the relevant terminology is more stable and well-known in English than in
your own language. Thus, to maximize the number of interested people that can
understand your text, you often select English even if the great majority of your
readers have the same native language as you. Alternatively, you might write your
texts both in your native language and in English, but this doubles the work
needed for writing your document and possibly maintaining it. The maintenance
problem is especially important for documents on the World Wide Web - the
information system where one crucial feature is the ability to keep things really up
to date. Consequently, the use of English in essentially national contexts tends to
grow.
In the news system, the position of English in most international groups is
regarded as so obvious that people who post non-English articles to such groups by accident or by ignorance - typically get flamed quickly. This is the sort of
control that newsgroup communities exercise in other matters than language, too.
It is often regarded as an example of the "democratic" nature of the news system.
However, things are changing fast. The flame control - i.e. control by flaming - has
worked to a great extent because people have had relatively compatible status,
background, and values of life. The time has come - childhood's end for the
Internet - when we will see more and more people and organizations who pay little
attention to flames and netiquette. The increasing amount of spamming is just one
indication of this. But these general remarks hardly apply to the status of English.
By the way, when people post articles to international groups in their own
languages, the reason is typically novice users' ignorance of basic facts about the
news system. People start posting articles before they have read what is generally
written to the group. One thing that causes this happen relatively often that there is
no easily accessible and useable list of groups together with their content
descriptions, and typically content descriptions do not explicitely state what
language(s) should be used in the group.
The universal language position, once gained, tends to be strong. But how is such
a position gained?
During the history of mankind, there have been several more or less universal
languages or lingua francas, such as Latin (and Greek) in the Roman empire,
mediaeval Latin in Western Europe, later French and English. Universality is of
course relative; it means universality in the "known world" or "civilized world", or
just in a large empire. No language has been really universal (global), but the
current position of English comes closest. The position of a universal language has
always been gained as a by-product of some sort of imperialism: a nation has
conquered a large area and more or less assimilated it into its own culture,
45
including language, thus forming an empire. Usually the language of the conquerer
has become the language of the state and the upper class first, then possibly spread
over the society, sometimes almost wiping out the original languages of the
conquered areas. Sometimes - especially in the Middle Ages - the imperialism has
had a definite cultural and religious nature which may have been more important
than brute military and economic force.
As regards to the English language, it would have remained as a national language
of the English, had it not happened so that the English first conquered the rest of
the British Isles, then many other parts of the world. Later, some English colonies
in a relatively small part of America rebelled, formed the United States of
America, and expanded a lot. They formed a federal state where a variant of the
English language was one of the few really uniting factors. And that federal state
became, as we all know, wealthy and important. It also exercised traditional
imperialism, but more importantly it gained a very important role in world
economy and politics. Whether you call the US influence imperialism or neoimperialism is a matter of opinion, but it certainly has similar effects on
maintaining and expanding the use of English as classical imperialism.
This probably sounds like political criticism, but it is intended to be descriptive
only. Personally, I do not regard imperialism as an incarnation of the Evil; it has
had both positive and negative effects, and in many cases imperialism has been a
necessary step from chaos to civilization.
Effects of the importance of the Internet and English
The importance of the Internet grows rapidly in all fields of human life, including
not only research and education but also marketing and trade as well as
entertainment and hobbies. This implies that it becomes more and more important
to know how to use Internet services and, as a part of this, to read and write
English.
Of course, the majority of mankind cannot use the Internet nowadays or in the near
future, since they live in countries which lack the necessary economical and
technological infrastructure. But the Internet causes polarization in developed
countries, too: people are divided into Internet users and Internet illiterates, and as
the use of the Internet grows and often replaces traditional methods of
communication, the illiterates may find themselves in an awkward position.
In general, it is easy to learn to use Internet services. The worst problems of
Internet illiteracy are, in addition to lack of economical resources of course, wrong
attitudes. Older people are usually not accustomed to live in a world of continuous
and rapid change, and they may not realize the importance of the Internet or the
easiness of learning to use it.
But although Internet services themselves are, generally speaking, easy to learn
and use, you will find yourself isolated on the Internet if you are not familiar with
46
English. This means that knowledge or lack of knowledge of English is one of the
most severe factors that cause polarization. Learning to use a new Internet service
or user interface may take a few hours, a few days, or even weeks, but it takes
years to learn a language so that you can use it in a fluent and self-confident
manner. Of course, when you know some English, you can learn more just by
using it on the Internet, but at least currently the general tendency among Internet
users is to discourage people in their problems with the English language.
Incorrect English causes a few flames much more probably than encouragement
and friendly advice.
In different countries and cultures, English has different positions. There are
countries where English is the native language of the majority, there are countries
where English is a widely known second language, and there are countries where
English has no special position. These differences add to the above-mentioned
polarization. Specifically, it is difficult for people in previous colonies of other
countries than Great Britain (e.g. France, Spain, the Netherlands) to adapt to the
necessity of learning English. Locally, it may be necessary to learn the language of
the previous colonial power since it is often an official language and the common
language of educated people; globally, English is necessary for living on the
Internet. And the more languages you have to learn well, the less time and energy
you will have for learning other things.
An official language for the Internet?
There is no conceivable way in which any authority could define an official
language for the Internet. The Internet as a whole is not controlled by anyone or
anything, and this could only change if, by miracle, all countries made an
agreement on it or if the entire world were taken to the control of one government.
Thus, if the question "whether or not English should be made the universal
language of the internet" is interpreted as concerning the official status of English,
the answer is simply that English, or any other language, cannot be made the
official universal language. It is fruitless to ask whether an impossible thing should
be made.
But can things change?
Things can change, and they actually do, often with unpredictable speed. The rapid
fall of the Soviet empire - including the loss of the role of Russian as a "universal"
language within in - is a recent indication of this.
English can lose its position as a widely used (although not official) universal
language in two ways. Either a new empire emerges and its language becomes
universal, or a constructed language becomes very popular. I believe most people
regard both of these alternatives as extremely improbable, if not impossible.
Perhaps they are right, perhaps not.
47
I can see two possible empires to emerge: the European Union and a yet
nonexistent Japanese-Chinese empire.
The European Union (EU) is an existing formation which is, at least according to
its own doctrine, moving towards federalism. In many respects, the European
Union already is a federal state, with less independence and autonomy for its
constituents than the states have in the United States. Although people may present
the EU as the successor of previous empires such as the Roman empire and the
empire of Charlemagne, it is quite possible that the EU never becomes a real
empire, since it seems to be inherently bureaucratic. Every empire needs a
bureaucracy, of course, to promote the aims of its ruler(s), but the EU lacks true
rulers. But if the EU ever becomes a true empire with prominent role in the world,
the language of the empire will hardly be any of the national languages in the EU,
except possibly English. It is more probable that the builders of the empire will
realize the need for a relatively neutral universal language, and adopt Esperanto or
some other constructed language for official purposes. In fact, such a choice would
be extremely rational at the present stage of the EU, since now a considerable
portion of EU expenses are used for translation and interpretation between the
official languages of the EU. A single official language of the EU might or might
not be adopted by people worldwide as a universal language for everyday
communication, including communication on the Internet.
Japan is probably too small, both as a country and as a nation, to create an empire
with its own forces, despite its flourishing technology and economy and efficient
social organization. But its potential combined with the vast human and other
resources of China would certainly constitute a basis for an empire that succesfully
competes with the United States and the European Union, even if latter powers
were (economically) strongly allied. Both Japan and China would have a lot to
gain from intensive mutual cooperation, or alliance, confederation, or federation.
A Japanese-Chinese empire would have a difficult choice of language. It might
decide to accept the role of English as a universal language, both for continuity
and for the reason that selecting either Japanese or Chinese (Mandarin) would set
the Japanese-Chinese union at stake. Alternatively, it might seriously consider
using a constructed language - most probably not Esperanto but a language which
is culturally more neutral, i.e. not dominantly Indo-European, for instance
something like Loglan or Lojban.
Is English a suitable universal language?
Apart from being widely used and known, English is extremely unsuitable as a
universal language. There are several reasons to this.
Any national language, i.e. a language which is or was originally the language of a
particular tribe or nation, has obvious defects when used for international
communication:
48
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

Native speakers of the language are in a quite different position than others.
Some people regard this as bad in itself, as contrary to the equality principle,
but I think it is practical consequences that make it bad. Native speakers tend to
use idioms and rare words and to speak too fast, unless they exercise conscious
control over their language - and such control is difficult and unnatural when
applied to one's mother tongue. This implies that in oral communication in
particular native speakers of English often have worse problems in getting
themselves correctly understood than nonnative speakers!
National languages exist in various dialects and forms - sometimes they are
even mutually unintelligible, but the differences always make communication
harder. There is usually no standard for a national language, and even if
something that can be called standard exists, it is just one form of the language
- typically a form that is only used by a minority, and even by it only in a
minority of occasions. For a native speaker of a language, it is natural to use
one's own dialect, and it is difficult to avoid this entirely; this emphasizes the
importance of the above-mentioned problem of native speakers expressing
themselves in international contexts.
When you learn your native language in your childhood, you learn it by
listening to and talking with people who have it as their native language. First
they know it much better than you, later equally well. Thus it is very natural
human behaviour to use your native language with the unconscious but strong
assumption that the listener or reader knows the language to the same or even
higher extent than you. In international contexts, this built-in assumption is
almost always false, and this has severe consequences. For instance, we tend to
regard people as stupid or ignorant if they do not understand normal language;
this deep-rooted tendency is present even if our conscious mind understands the
situation correctly.
A national language carries with it the history of the nation. For instance,
words and phrases have got, in addition to their dictionary meanings,
connotations, colours and associations. This is an important cultural
phenomenon which helps in keeping the nation a nation, but in international
communication it is a burden.
National languages have originally evolved as spoken languages. When written
national languages originated, they were usually formed on the basis of the
dialect of the capital or other important area, with the aim of creating a
language which supports the creation of a unified nation. Thus, the very origin
of a national language is in a sense nationalistic, not internationalistic.
Due to their long history, national languages have historical relics and features
which make them illogical and irrational, such as grammatical gender or
irregular forms. Moreover, being originally spoken languages, they lack
sufficient tools for expressing things in an exact, unambiguous manner; and the
need for such expression is immense and growing, especially in the areas of
law and contracts, technology and technical descriptions, and science.
49
These remarks apply to English, too, and especially to English. One of the worst
relics of English is the orthography. English has a very rich repertoire of idioms,
and it typically has several words which have the same basic meaning but different
connotations and stylistic value. Especially in international contexts you can never
know what words mean to people with different backgrounds. Thus, you may
occasionally get your basic message understood in some way, but you cannot tell
in which way. This is of course an inherent problem in all human communication,
but the nature of English makes it a really big problem.
English is an eclectic language which tends to borrow words from other languages
instead of constructing words for new concepts from older words with derivation
or word composition. People often say that English has a rich vocabulary as if it
were something to be proud of. The richness of the vocabulary results basically
from word borrowing and implies that words for related concepts are typically not
related to each other in any obvious, regular manner. Word borrowing makes a
language more international in one sense, but in the essential sense it makes it less
suitable for international communication, since learning the vocabulary is more
difficult.
A constructed international language?
The discussion above shows that it would be highly desirable to have a constructed
language for international communication. It is well known that a large number of
attempts to that effect have been made, with little results. Advocates of the basic
idea have hardly agreed on anything but the basic idea, and most constructed
languages have had no use as a language. People who strongly support the idea
have typically designed their own proposal, a perfect language, and they do not
want accept anything that is not perfect - "best" is the worst enemy of "good".
The very idea is not inherently unrealistic, but it can only be realized if strong
economical and political interests are involved, such as the intended creation of a
European or Japanese-Chinese empire. The best that the advocates of a constructed
international language can wish is that such empires emerge and that the United
States remain as an important power, so that the world will have a few strong
empires which cannot beat each other but must live in parallel and in cooperation.
In such a situation, it might turn out that it is unrealistic not to agree on a common
language which is not any of the national languages.
The role of the Internet in this hypothetical development would be to create the
informational infrastructure for the discussion of the construction of the language,
the very construction work, spreading out information about the language, the use
of the language, and continuous development of the language. Most probably the
language would first be used in parallel with English, and the initial use would be
for such purposes like international agreements where national languages are
clearly insufficient. For instance, if you need to formulate an agreement between
50
two countries, you definitely need a neutral common language instead of having
the text in two languages, each text allowing its own interpretations.
An alternative: machine translation
An alternative view of the future is that after a few years or decades, no universal
language is needed: machine translation will allow you to use your own language.
If the machine translation tools had sufficient quality and speed, you could sit on
your terminal writing your news article or an IRC message in, say, Finnish, and
another person in New Zealand would read your text in English, due to automatic
translation "on the fly".
During the last few decades, quite a lot of predictions and even promises have
been presented regarding machine translation, but useful software and systems for
it have not been available until recently. This has caused disappointments and
pessimism to the extent that many people consider machine translation as
definitely unrealistic.
Actually, machine translation is operational for a wide range of texts, although
corrective actions by human translators may be necessary. Corrections are needed
to resolve ambiguities which exist due to the limitations of the software and to fix
errors caused by the fact that translation of human languages requires
extralinguistic information.
Assumably fully automatic correct translation will never be possible. However,
this does not exclude the possibility of using it extensively. It only means that we
must be prepared to accept a risk - decreasing by advances in technology, but
never reaching zero - of translation errors. Such risks exist when human translators
are used, too, and in many respects automatic translation can be more reliable.
Both human beings and computer programs err, in different ways.
In addition to the advancement of translation techniques, there are several ways in
which the risk of errors in automatic translation can be decreased:



avoiding ambiguities in the source language: people can try to write their texts
so that they are more easily tractable by translation programs
checking the translations: a person who has written a text in his native
language may run it through a translation program, check and correct the result,
and provide the "authorized" translation together with the source text; although
it is usually not feasible to do this for several target languages, the authorized
translation (typically, to English) can be used by translation programs for
checking purposes: if translations from the original source and the authorized
translation yield different results, this fact should be signalled to the user
warnings: in general, problematic fragments of texts like those obviously
allowing different syntactic analyses, can be signalled to the user - i.e. to the
author, to the reader, or both.
51
Currently the operational machine translation software is essentially based on
syntactic analysis, so that semantic information is implicit in the dictionaries used
by the software. An alternative approach, based on some kind of semantic analysis
in addition to syntax, does not appear to be practically applicable yet.
Final remarks
Machine translation and constructed international languages are alternative but not
mutually exclusive solutions to the problem of communication between people
with different native languages. They can be combined in several ways.
A constructed language might form the basis of a semantics-oriented machine
translation system. It could be used as an intermediate language, thus reducing the
problem of making m*n translators from m languages to n languages into the
problem of making m+n translators.
A constructed language, specifically designed to allow exact and unambiguous
expression, might also be more suitable than English to the role of the language of
"authorized" translations.
The design of a constructed language which might achieve general use is, of
course, a very difficult and controversial issue. A few years ago I wrote an
(unpublished) article The Effect of Computer Technology on the Design of
Artificial Languages which emphasizes computer tractability as an essential point
in constructed language design.
Date of creation: 1995-10-09. Last update: 1999-08-03. Technical modifications
and corrections made 2003-01-12 and 2003-09-02.
This page belongs to section Human languages of the free information site IT and
communication by Jukka "Yucca" Korpela.
George Orwell
Politics and the English Language
Most people who bother with the matter at all would admit that the English language
is in a bad way, but it is generally assumed that we cannot by conscious action do
anything about it. Our civilization is decadent and our language — so the argument
runs — must inevitably share in the general collapse. It follows that any struggle
against the abuse of language is a sentimental archaism, like preferring candles to
electric light or hansom cabs to aeroplanes. Underneath this lies the half-conscious
belief that language is a natural growth and not an instrument which we shape for our
own purposes.
Now, it is clear that the decline of a language must ultimately have political and
economic causes: it is not due simply to the bad influence of this or that individual
writer. But an effect can become a cause, reinforcing the original cause and
producing the same effect in an intensified form, and so on indefinitely. A man may
52
take to drink because he feels himself to be a failure, and then fail all the more
completely because he drinks. It is rather the same thing that is happening to the
English language. It becomes ugly and inaccurate because our thoughts are foolish,
but the slovenliness of our language makes it easier for us to have foolish thoughts.
The point is that the process is reversible. Modern English, especially written
English, is full of bad habits which spread by imitation and which can be avoided if
one is willing to take the necessary trouble. If one gets rid of these habits one can
think more clearly, and to think clearly is a necessary first step toward political
regeneration: so that the fight against bad English is not frivolous and is not the
exclusive concern of professional writers. I will come back to this presently, and I
hope that by that time the meaning of what I have said here will have become clearer.
Meanwhile, here are five specimens of the English language as it is now habitually
written.
These five passages have not been picked out because they are especially bad — I
could have quoted far worse if I had chosen — but because they illustrate various of
the mental vices from which we now suffer. They are a little below the average, but
are fairly representative examples. I number them so that I can refer back to them
when necessary:
1. I am not, indeed, sure whether it is not true to say that the Milton who
once seemed not unlike a seventeenth-century Shelley had not become,
out of an experience ever more bitter in each year, more alien [sic] to the
founder of that Jesuit sect which nothing could induce him to tolerate.
Professor Harold Laski (Essay in Freedom of Expression)
2. Above all, we cannot play ducks and drakes with a native battery of
idioms which prescribes egregious collocations of vocables as the Basic
put up with for tolerate, or put at a loss for bewilder.
Professor Lancelot Hogben (Interglossia)
3. On the one side we have the free personality: by definition it is not
neurotic, for it has neither conflict nor dream. Its desires, such as they
are, are transparent, for they are just what institutional approval keeps in
the forefront of consciousness; another institutional pattern would alter
their number and intensity; there is little in them that is natural,
irreducible, or culturally dangerous. But on the other side, the social
bond itself is nothing but the mutual reflection of these self-secure
integrities. Recall the definition of love. Is not this the very picture of a
small academic? Where is there a place in this hall of mirrors for either
personality or fraternity?
Essay on psychology in Politics (New York)
53
4. All the ‘best people’ from the gentlemen's clubs, and all the frantic
fascist captains, united in common hatred of Socialism and bestial horror
at the rising tide of the mass revolutionary movement, have turned to
acts of provocation, to foul incendiarism, to medieval legends of
poisoned wells, to legalize their own destruction of proletarian
organizations, and rouse the agitated petty-bourgeoise to chauvinistic
fervor on behalf of the fight against the revolutionary way out of the
crisis.
Communist pamphlet
5. If a new spirit is to be infused into this old country, there is one thorny
and contentious reform which must be tackled, and that is the
humanization and galvanization of the B.B.C. Timidity here will
bespeak canker and atrophy of the soul. The heart of Britain may be
sound and of strong beat, for instance, but the British lion's roar at
present is like that of Bottom in Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's
Dream — as gentle as any sucking dove. A virile new Britain cannot
continue indefinitely to be traduced in the eyes or rather ears, of the
world by the effete languors of Langham Place, brazenly masquerading
as ‘standard English’. When the Voice of Britain is heard at nine o'clock,
better far and infinitely less ludicrous to hear aitches honestly dropped
than the present priggish, inflated, inhibited, school-ma'amish arch
braying of blameless bashful mewing maidens!
Letter in Tribune
Each of these passages has faults of its own, but, quite apart from avoidable ugliness,
two qualities are common to all of them. The first is staleness of imagery; the other is
lack of precision. The writer either has a meaning and cannot express it, or he
inadvertently says something else, or he is almost indifferent as to whether his words
mean anything or not. This mixture of vagueness and sheer incompetence is the most
marked characteristic of modern English prose, and especially of any kind of political
writing. As soon as certain topics are raised, the concrete melts into the abstract and
no one seems able to think of turns of speech that are not hackneyed: prose consists
less and less of words chosen for the sake of their meaning, and more and more of
phrases tacked together like the sections of a prefabricated hen-house. I list below,
with notes and examples, various of the tricks by means of which the work of proseconstruction is habitually dodged.
DYING METAPHORS. A newly invented metaphor assists thought by evoking a
visual image, while on the other hand a metaphor which is technically ‘dead’ (e. g.
iron resolution) has in effect reverted to being an ordinary word and can generally be
used without loss of vividness. But in between these two classes there is a huge dump
of worn-out metaphors which have lost all evocative power and are merely used
54
because they save people the trouble of inventing phrases for themselves. Examples
are: Ring the changes on, take up the cudgel for, toe the line, ride roughshod over,
stand shoulder to shoulder with, play into the hands of, no axe to grind, grist to the
mill, fishing in troubled waters, on the order of the day, Achilles’ heel, swan song,
hotbed. Many of these are used without knowledge of their meaning (what is a ‘rift’,
for instance?), and incompatible metaphors are frequently mixed, a sure sign that the
writer is not interested in what he is saying. Some metaphors now current have been
twisted out of their original meaning without those who use them even being aware
of the fact. For example, toe the line is sometimes written as tow the line. Another
example is the hammer and the anvil, now always used with the implication that the
anvil gets the worst of it. In real life it is always the anvil that breaks the hammer,
never the other way about: a writer who stopped to think what he was saying would
avoid perverting the original phrase.
OPERATORS OR VERBAL FALSE LIMBS. These save the trouble of picking out
appropriate verbs and nouns, and at the same time pad each sentence with extra
syllables which give it an appearance of symmetry. Characteristic phrases are render
inoperative, militate against, make contact with, be subjected to, give rise to, give
grounds for, have the effect of, play a leading part (role) in, make itself felt, take
effect, exhibit a tendency to, serve the purpose of, etc., etc. The keynote is the
elimination of simple verbs. Instead of being a single word, such as break, stop, spoil,
mend, kill, a verb becomes a phrase, made up of a noun or adjective tacked on to
some general-purpose verb such as prove, serve, form, play, render. In addition, the
passive voice is wherever possible used in preference to the active, and noun
constructions are used instead of gerunds (by examination of instead of by
examining). The range of verbs is further cut down by means of the -ize and deformations, and the banal statements are given an appearance of profundity by means
of the not un- formation. Simple conjunctions and prepositions are replaced by such
phrases as with respect to, having regard to, the fact that, by dint of, in view of, in the
interests of, on the hypothesis that; and the ends of sentences are saved by anticlimax
by such resounding commonplaces as greatly to be desired, cannot be left out of
account, a development to be expected in the near future, deserving of serious
consideration, brought to a satisfactory conclusion, and so on and so forth.
PRETENTIOUS DICTION. Words like phenomenon, element, individual (as noun),
objective, categorical, effective, virtual, basic, primary, promote, constitute, exhibit,
exploit, utilize, eliminate, liquidate, are used to dress up a simple statement and give
an air of scientific impartiality to biased judgements. Adjectives like epoch-making,
epic, historic, unforgettable, triumphant, age-old, inevitable, inexorable, veritable,
are used to dignify the sordid process of international politics, while writing that aims
at glorifying war usually takes on an archaic colour, its characteristic words being:
realm, throne, chariot, mailed fist, trident, sword, shield, buckler, banner, jackboot,
clarion. Foreign words and expressions such as cul de sac, ancien regime, deus ex
machina, mutatis mutandis, status quo, gleichschaltung, weltanschauung, are used to
give an air of culture and elegance. Except for the useful abbreviations i. e., e. g. and
55
etc., there is no real need for any of the hundreds of foreign phrases now current in
the English language. Bad writers, and especially scientific, political, and
sociological writers, are nearly always haunted by the notion that Latin or Greek
words are grander than Saxon ones, and unnecessary words like expedite, ameliorate,
predict, extraneous, deracinated, clandestine, subaqueous, and hundreds of others
constantly gain ground from their Anglo-Saxon numbers(1). The jargon peculiar to
Marxist writing (hyena, hangman, cannibal, petty bourgeois, these gentry, lackey,
flunkey, mad dog, White Guard, etc.) consists largely of words translated from
Russian, German, or French; but the normal way of coining a new word is to use
Latin or Greek root with the appropriate affix and, where necessary, the size
formation. It is often easier to make up words of this kind (deregionalize,
impermissible, extramarital, non-fragmentary and so forth) than to think up the
English words that will cover one's meaning. The result, in general, is an increase in
slovenliness and vagueness.
MEANINGLESS WORDS. In certain kinds of writing, particularly in art criticism
and literary criticism, it is normal to come across long passages which are almost
completely lacking in meaning(2). Words like romantic, plastic, values, human,
dead, sentimental, natural, vitality, as used in art criticism, are strictly meaningless,
in the sense that they not only do not point to any discoverable object, but are hardly
ever expected to do so by the reader. When one critic writes, ‘The outstanding feature
of Mr. X's work is its living quality’, while another writes, ‘The immediately striking
thing about Mr. X's work is its peculiar deadness’, the reader accepts this as a simple
difference opinion. If words like black and white were involved, instead of the jargon
words dead and living, he would see at once that language was being used in an
improper way. Many political words are similarly abused. The word Fascism has
now no meaning except in so far as it signifies ‘something not desirable’. The words
democracy, socialism, freedom, patriotic, realistic, justice have each of them several
different meanings which cannot be reconciled with one another. In the case of a
word like democracy, not only is there no agreed definition, but the attempt to make
one is resisted from all sides. It is almost universally felt that when we call a country
democratic we are praising it: consequently the defenders of every kind of regime
claim that it is a democracy, and fear that they might have to stop using that word if it
were tied down to any one meaning. Words of this kind are often used in a
consciously dishonest way. That is, the person who uses them has his own private
definition, but allows his hearer to think he means something quite different.
Statements like Marshal Petain was a true patriot, The Soviet press is the freest in
the world, The Catholic Church is opposed to persecution, are almost always made
with intent to deceive. Other words used in variable meanings, in most cases more or
less dishonestly, are: class, totalitarian, science, progressive, reactionary, bourgeois,
equality.
Now that I have made this catalogue of swindles and perversions, let me give another
example of the kind of writing that they lead to. This time it must of its nature be an
56
imaginary one. I am going to translate a passage of good English into modern English
of the worst sort. Here is a well-known verse from Ecclesiastes:
I returned and saw under the sun, that the race is not to the swift, nor the
battle to the strong, neither yet bread to the wise, nor yet riches to men
of understanding, nor yet favour to men of skill; but time and chance
happeneth to them all.
Here it is in modern English:
Objective considerations of contemporary phenomena compel the
conclusion that success or failure in competitive activities exhibits no
tendency to be commensurate with innate capacity, but that a
considerable element of the unpredictable must invariably be taken into
account.
This is a parody, but not a very gross one. Exhibit (3) above, for instance, contains
several patches of the same kind of English. It will be seen that I have not made a full
translation. The beginning and ending of the sentence follow the original meaning
fairly closely, but in the middle the concrete illustrations — race, battle, bread —
dissolve into the vague phrases ‘success or failure in competitive activities’. This had
to be so, because no modern writer of the kind I am discussing — no one capable of
using phrases like ‘objective considerations of contemporary phenomena’ — would
ever tabulate his thoughts in that precise and detailed way. The whole tendency of
modern prose is away from concreteness. Now analyze these two sentences a little
more closely. The first contains forty-nine words but only sixty syllables, and all its
words are those of everyday life. The second contains thirty-eight words of ninety
syllables: eighteen of those words are from Latin roots, and one from Greek. The first
sentence contains six vivid images, and only one phrase (‘time and chance’) that
could be called vague. The second contains not a single fresh, arresting phrase, and in
spite of its ninety syllables it gives only a shortened version of the meaning contained
in the first. Yet without a doubt it is the second kind of sentence that is gaining
ground in modern English. I do not want to exaggerate. This kind of writing is not yet
universal, and outcrops of simplicity will occur here and there in the worst-written
page. Still, if you or I were told to write a few lines on the uncertainty of human
fortunes, we should probably come much nearer to my imaginary sentence than to the
one from Ecclesiastes.
As I have tried to show, modern writing at its worst does not consist in picking out
words for the sake of their meaning and inventing images in order to make the
meaning clearer. It consists in gumming together long strips of words which have
already been set in order by someone else, and making the results presentable by
sheer humbug. The attraction of this way of writing is that it is easy. It is easier —
even quicker, once you have the habit — to say In my opinion it is not an
unjustifiable assumption that than to say I think. If you use ready-made phrases, you
not only don't have to hunt about for the words; you also don't have to bother with the
57
rhythms of your sentences since these phrases are generally so arranged as to be more
or less euphonious. When you are composing in a hurry — when you are dictating to
a stenographer, for instance, or making a public speech — it is natural to fall into a
pretentious, Latinized style. Tags like a consideration which we should do well to
bear in mind or a conclusion to which all of us would readily assent will save many a
sentence from coming down with a bump. By using stale metaphors, similes, and
idioms, you save much mental effort, at the cost of leaving your meaning vague, not
only for your reader but for yourself. This is the significance of mixed metaphors.
The sole aim of a metaphor is to call up a visual image. When these images clash —
as in The Fascist octopus has sung its swan song, the jackboot is thrown into the
melting pot — it can be taken as certain that the writer is not seeing a mental image
of the objects he is naming; in other words he is not really thinking. Look again at the
examples I gave at the beginning of this essay. Professor Laski (1) uses five negatives
in fifty three words. One of these is superfluous, making nonsense of the whole
passage, and in addition there is the slip — alien for akin — making further
nonsense, and several avoidable pieces of clumsiness which increase the general
vagueness. Professor Hogben (2) plays ducks and drakes with a battery which is able
to write prescriptions, and, while disapproving of the everyday phrase put up with, is
unwilling to look egregious up in the dictionary and see what it means; (3), if one
takes an uncharitable attitude towards it, is simply meaningless: probably one could
work out its intended meaning by reading the whole of the article in which it occurs.
In (4), the writer knows more or less what he wants to say, but an accumulation of
stale phrases chokes him like tea leaves blocking a sink. In (5), words and meaning
have almost parted company. People who write in this manner usually have a general
emotional meaning — they dislike one thing and want to express solidarity with
another — but they are not interested in the detail of what they are saying. A
scrupulous writer, in every sentence that he writes, will ask himself at least four
questions, thus: What am I trying to say? What words will express it? What image or
idiom will make it clearer? Is this image fresh enough to have an effect? And he will
probably ask himself two more: Could I put it more shortly? Have I said anything that
is avoidably ugly? But you are not obliged to go to all this trouble. You can shirk it
by simply throwing your mind open and letting the ready-made phrases come
crowding in. The will construct your sentences for you — even think your thoughts
for you, to a certain extent — and at need they will perform the important service of
partially concealing your meaning even from yourself. It is at this point that the
special connection between politics and the debasement of language becomes clear.
In our time it is broadly true that political writing is bad writing. Where it is not true,
it will generally be found that the writer is some kind of rebel, expressing his private
opinions and not a ‘party line’. Orthodoxy, of whatever colour, seems to demand a
lifeless, imitative style. The political dialects to be found in pamphlets, leading
articles, manifestos, White papers and the speeches of undersecretaries do, of course,
vary from party to party, but they are all alike in that one almost never finds in them a
fresh, vivid, homemade turn of speech. When one watches some tired hack on the
platform mechanically repeating the familiar phrases — bestial, atrocities, iron heel,
58
bloodstained tyranny, free peoples of the world, stand shoulder to shoulder — one
often has a curious feeling that one is not watching a live human being but some kind
of dummy: a feeling which suddenly becomes stronger at moments when the light
catches the speaker's spectacles and turns them into blank discs which seem to have
no eyes behind them. And this is not altogether fanciful. A speaker who uses that
kind of phraseology has gone some distance toward turning himself into a machine.
The appropriate noises are coming out of his larynx, but his brain is not involved, as
it would be if he were choosing his words for himself. If the speech he is making is
one that he is accustomed to make over and over again, he may be almost
unconscious of what he is saying, as one is when one utters the responses in church.
And this reduced state of consciousness, if not indispensable, is at any rate favourable
to political conformity.
In our time, political speech and writing are largely the defence of the indefensible.
Things like the continuance of British rule in India, the Russian purges and
deportations, the dropping of the atom bombs on Japan, can indeed be defended, but
only by arguments which are too brutal for most people to face, and which do not
square with the professed aims of the political parties. Thus political language has to
consist largely of euphemism, question-begging and sheer cloudy vagueness.
Defenceless villages are bombarded from the air, the inhabitants driven out into the
countryside, the cattle machine-gunned, the huts set on fire with incendiary bullets:
this is called pacification. Millions of peasants are robbed of their farms and sent
trudging along the roads with no more than they can carry: this is called transfer of
population or rectification of frontiers. People are imprisoned for years without trial,
or shot in the back of the neck or sent to die of scurvy in Arctic lumber camps: this is
called elimination of unreliable elements. Such phraseology is needed if one wants to
name things without calling up mental pictures of them. Consider for instance some
comfortable English professor defending Russian totalitarianism. He cannot say
outright, ‘I believe in killing off your opponents when you can get good results by
doing so’. Probably, therefore, he will say something like this:
‘While freely conceding that the Soviet regime exhibits certain features
which the humanitarian may be inclined to deplore, we must, I think,
agree that a certain curtailment of the right to political opposition is an
unavoidable concomitant of transitional periods, and that the rigors
which the Russian people have been called upon to undergo have been
amply justified in the sphere of concrete achievement.’
The inflated style itself is a kind of euphemism. A mass of Latin words falls upon the
facts like soft snow, blurring the outline and covering up all the details. The great
enemy of clear language is insincerity. When there is a gap between one's real and
one's declared aims, one turns as it were instinctively to long words and exhausted
idioms, like a cuttlefish spurting out ink. In our age there is no such thing as ‘keeping
out of politics’. All issues are political issues, and politics itself is a mass of lies,
evasions, folly, hatred, and schizophrenia. When the general atmosphere is bad,
59
language must suffer. I should expect to find — this is a guess which I have not
sufficient knowledge to verify — that the German, Russian and Italian languages
have all deteriorated in the last ten or fifteen years, as a result of dictatorship.
But if thought corrupts language, language can also corrupt thought. A bad usage can
spread by tradition and imitation even among people who should and do know better.
The debased language that I have been discussing is in some ways very convenient.
Phrases like a not unjustifiable assumption, leaves much to be desired, would serve
no good purpose, a consideration which we should do well to bear in mind, are a
continuous temptation, a packet of aspirins always at one's elbow. Look back through
this essay, and for certain you will find that I have again and again committed the
very faults I am protesting against. By this morning's post I have received a pamphlet
dealing with conditions in Germany. The author tells me that he ‘felt impelled’ to
write it. I open it at random, and here is almost the first sentence I see: ‘[The Allies]
have an opportunity not only of achieving a radical transformation of Germany's
social and political structure in such a way as to avoid a nationalistic reaction in
Germany itself, but at the same time of laying the foundations of a co-operative and
unified Europe.’ You see, he ‘feels impelled’ to write — feels, presumably, that he
has something new to say — and yet his words, like cavalry horses answering the
bugle, group themselves automatically into the familiar dreary pattern. This invasion
of one's mind by ready-made phrases (lay the foundations, achieve a radical
transformation) can only be prevented if one is constantly on guard against them, and
every such phrase anaesthetizes a portion of one's brain.
I said earlier that the decadence of our language is probably curable. Those who deny
this would argue, if they produced an argument at all, that language merely reflects
existing social conditions, and that we cannot influence its development by any direct
tinkering with words and constructions. So far as the general tone or spirit of a
language goes, this may be true, but it is not true in detail. Silly words and
expressions have often disappeared, not through any evolutionary process but owing
to the conscious action of a minority. Two recent examples were explore every
avenue and leave no stone unturned, which were killed by the jeers of a few
journalists. There is a long list of flyblown metaphors which could similarly be got
rid of if enough people would interest themselves in the job; and it should also be
possible to laugh the not un- formation out of existence(3), to reduce the amount of
Latin and Greek in the average sentence, to drive out foreign phrases and strayed
scientific words, and, in general, to make pretentiousness unfashionable. But all these
are minor points. The defence of the English language implies more than this, and
perhaps it is best to start by saying what it does not imply.
To begin with it has nothing to do with archaism, with the salvaging of obsolete
words and turns of speech, or with the setting up of a ‘standard English’ which must
never be departed from. On the contrary, it is especially concerned with the scrapping
of every word or idiom which has outworn its usefulness. It has nothing to do with
correct grammar and syntax, which are of no importance so long as one makes one's
60
meaning clear, or with the avoidance of Americanisms, or with having what is called
a ‘good prose style’. On the other hand, it is not concerned with fake simplicity and
the attempt to make written English colloquial. Nor does it even imply in every case
preferring the Saxon word to the Latin one, though it does imply using the fewest and
shortest words that will cover one's meaning. What is above all needed is to let the
meaning choose the word, and not the other way around. In prose, the worst thing one
can do with words is surrender to them. When you think of a concrete object, you
think wordlessly, and then, if you want to describe the thing you have been
visualising you probably hunt about until you find the exact words that seem to fit it.
When you think of something abstract you are more inclined to use words from the
start, and unless you make a conscious effort to prevent it, the existing dialect will
come rushing in and do the job for you, at the expense of blurring or even changing
your meaning. Probably it is better to put off using words as long as possible and get
one's meaning as clear as one can through pictures and sensations. Afterward one can
choose — not simply accept — the phrases that will best cover the meaning, and then
switch round and decide what impressions one's words are likely to make on another
person. This last effort of the mind cuts out all stale or mixed images, all
prefabricated phrases, needless repetitions, and humbug and vagueness generally. But
one can often be in doubt about the effect of a word or a phrase, and one needs rules
that one can rely on when instinct fails. I think the following rules will cover most
cases:
1. Never use a metaphor, simile, or other figure of speech which you are used to
seeing in print.
2. Never use a long word where a short one will do.
3. If it is possible to cut a word out, always cut it out.
4. Never use the passive where you can use the active.
5. Never use a foreign phrase, a scientific word, or a jargon word if you can think
of an everyday English equivalent.
6. Break any of these rules sooner than say anything outright barbarous.
These rules sound elementary, and so they are, but they demand a deep change of
attitude in anyone who has grown used to writing in the style now fashionable. One
could keep all of them and still write bad English, but one could not write the kind of
stuff that I quoted in those five specimens at the beginning of this article.
I have not here been considering the literary use of language, but merely language as
an instrument for expressing and not for concealing or preventing thought. Stuart
Chase and others have come near to claiming that all abstract words are meaningless,
and have used this as a pretext for advocating a kind of political quietism. Since you
don't know what Fascism is, how can you struggle against Fascism? One need not
swallow such absurdities as this, but one ought to recognise that the present political
chaos is connected with the decay of language, and that one can probably bring about
some improvement by starting at the verbal end. If you simplify your English, you
are freed from the worst follies of orthodoxy. You cannot speak any of the necessary
61
dialects, and when you make a stupid remark its stupidity will be obvious, even to
yourself. Political language — and with variations this is true of all political parties,
from Conservatives to Anarchists — is designed to make lies sound truthful and
murder respectable, and to give an appearance of solidity to pure wind. One cannot
change this all in a moment, but one can at least change one's own habits, and from
time to time one can even, if one jeers loudly enough, send some worn-out and
useless phrase — some jackboot, Achilles’ heel, hotbed, melting pot, acid test,
veritable inferno, or other lump of verbal refuse — into the dustbin where it belongs.
1946
_____
62
СӨЖ өткізу кестесі
СӨЖ тақырыбы
1.
2.
3.
4
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
”Running for Governor” by Mark
Twain
Word Combinations, Exercises to
the Text
Topics for Oral and Written
Practice
“ The Broken Boot ” by John
Galsworthy
Word Combinations, Exercises to
the Text
Topics for Oral and Written
Practice
“ To Let “ by John Galsworthy
Word Combinations, Exercises to
the Text
Topics for Oral and Written
Practice
“ Mr. Know-All “ by
W.S.Maugham
Word Combinations, Exercises to
the Text
Topics for Oral and Written
Practice
“The Moon and Sixpence” by
W.S.Maugham
Word Combinations, Exercises to
the Text
Topics for Oral and Written
Practice
“The Greek Interpreter” by A.
Conan Doyle
Word Combinations, Exercises to
the Text
Topics for Oral and Written
Practice
’’ Lost on Dress Parade’’ by
O.Henry
Word Combinations, Exercises to
the Text
Сағат Бақылау
Әдебиеттер Өтілетін күні
саны
түрі
№2,7
2
Aуызша
2
Жазбаша №5,6,7
2
Ауызша№1,2,3
жазбаша
2
Aуызша
2
Жазбаша №5,6,7
2
2
Ауызша№1,2,3
жазбаша
Aуызша №2,7
2
Жазбаша №5,6,7
2
Ауызша№1,2,3
жазбаша
2
Aуызша
2
Жазбаша №5,6,7
2
Ауызша№1,2,3
жазбаша
2
Aуызша
2
Жазбаша №5,6,7
2
Ауызша№1,2,3
жазбаша
2
Aуызша
2
Жазбаша №5,6,7
2
Ауызша№1,2,3
жазбаша
2
Aуызша
2
Жазбаша №5,6,7
63
№2,7
№2,7
№2,7
№2,7
№2,7
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
Topics for Oral and Written
Practice
“A Cup of Tea” by K.Mansfield
Word Combinations, Exercises to
the Text
Topics for Oral and Written
Practice
“Ruthless” by W. de Mille
Word Combinations, Exercises to
the Text
Topics for Oral and Written
Practice
“A Farewell to Arms” by
E.Hemingway
Word Combinations, Exercises to
the Text
Topics for Oral and Written
Practice
“The Light That Failed” by
R.Kipling
Word Combinations, Exercises to
the Text
Topics for Oral and Written
Practice
“The Quiet American” by
G.Greene
Word Combinations, Exercises to
the Text
Topics for Oral and Written
Practice
“Rachel” by E.Caldwell
Word Combinations, Exercises to
the Text
Topics for Oral and Written
Practice
“Wheels” by A.Hailey
Word Combinations, Exercises to
the Text
Topics for Oral and Written
Practice
“The Man of Property” by John
Galsworthy
Word Combinations, Exercises to
the Text
2
Ауызша№1,2,3
жазбаша
Aуызша №2,7
2
Жазбаша №5,6,7
2
2
Ауызша№1,2,3
жазбаша
Aуызша №2,7
2
Жазбаша №5,6,7
2
Ауызша№1,2,3
жазбаша
2
Aуызша
2
Жазбаша №5,6,7
2
Ауызша№1,2,3
жазбаша
2
Aуызша
2
Жазбаша №5,6,7
2
Ауызша№1,2,3
жазбаша
2
Aуызша
2
Жазбаша №5,6,7
2
2
Ауызша№1,2,3
жазбаша
Aуызша №2,7
2
Жазбаша №5,6,7
2
2
Ауызша№1,2,3
жазбаша
Aуызша №2,7
2
Жазбаша №5,6,7
2
Ауызша№1,2,3
жазбаша
2
Aуызша
2
Жазбаша №5,6,7
2
64
№2,7
№2,7
№2,7
№2,7
45
Ауызша№1,2,3
жазбаша
Topics for Oral and Written
Practice
2
Барлығы
45
Әд е б и е т т е р.
а) негізгі
17.В.Д. Аракин. Практический курс английского языка. (4 курс) М... 2000.
18.A.S. Hornby. Oxford Progressive English for Adult Learners. M., 1992.
19.И.В.Цветкова. Glossa's Readers.Activity Book. М.., 1997.
20.Julia M.Dobson. Effective Techniques for English Conversation Groups.
Washington, 1992.
21.К.Н. Качалова, Е.Е. Израилевич. Практическая грамматика английского
языка. Бишкек, 1999.
22.Л. П. Христорождественская. Практический курс английского языка.
Минск, 1996.
23.Speak English. Часть 1,2 ., 2004.
24.Г. Голицынский. Грамматика английского языка. М.., 2000.
б) қосымша
1. Е. Занина. 95 Устных тем по английскому языку. М., 1999.
2. Portrait of the USA. US Information Agency., 1997.
3. English Grammar in use. 2005.
4. Speak English часть 1, 2.,2004.
5.
G.B.Antrushina, O.V.Afanasieyeva, T.S.Samokhina. Talks about Atr for
English Speech
Practice. M., 1987.
6. Л.Романова. Практическая грамматика английского языка. М., 2007.
7. Let's Read and Discuss. M., 1999.
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