Teams
Stewart, Manz, & Sims, 1999
Team Defined
“A collection of individuals who exist within a larger social system who can be identified by themselves and others as a team who are interdependent, and who perform tasks that affect other individuals and groups.”

Teams
Stewart, Manz, & Sims, 1999
Reasons for forming teams:
1.
Functional perspectives – particular strengths of individuals can be matched to the unique and changing needs
2.
Interpersonal perspectives a.
Need for affiliation b.
Need to exercise power over others c.
Give and receive affection

Teams
Stewart, Manz, & Sims, 1999
Benefits of teams
1.
Increased productivity
2.
Improved quality
3.
Enhanced employee quality of work life
4.
Reduced costs
5.
Reduced turnover and absenteeism
6.
Reduced conflict
7.
Increased innovation
8.
Better organizational adaptability and flexibility

Teams
Stewart, Manz, & Sims, 1999
Four categories of teams
Task
Application
Advice
Production
Project
Purpose
General
General
Specialized
Specialized Action
Coordination w/ others
Low
High
Low
High
Time Frame
Long
Long
Short
Short

Social Exchange Theory
Stewart, Manz, & Sims, 1999
Social Exchange theory posits that every team provides both rewards and costs.
Rewards come from postitive interactions that provide economic and social benefits. Social rewards include friendship, self-esteem, and feeling of control.
Costs include reduced efficiency by meeting together and negotiating decisions.

Team Development
Stewart, Manz, & Sims, 1999
Five stages of the team development process:
1.
Forming
– Occurs when group begins to think of themselves as members of a team. Tension breaks down as members share about themselves.
2.
Storming
– Members begin to disagree with one another and begin to compromise.
3.
Norming – Team members begin to feel a sense of belonging.
Cohesiveness, groupthink and norms develop.
4.
Performing – Members work synergistically to achieve their collective objectives.
5.
Adjourning – teams break up and members move on to other activities.

Team Development
Stewart, Manz, & Sims, 1999
Three stages of socialization
1.
Anticipation – Expectations about team membership are developed.
2.
Accommodation – Members become involved in the day-to-day activities of the team
3.
Acceptance – Members fulfill their roles within the team. Can take up to two years to arrive at this stage.

Team Development
Stewart, Manz, & Sims, 1999
Four methods of conflict resolution:
1.
Avoidance
– Team members do not take steps to resolve the conflict
2.
Imposition
– Team member is forced to concede his position
3.
Compromise
– Each side makes concessions
4.
Integrative bargaining – Brings sides together in a dispute to reach a win/win solution

Team Development
Stewart, Manz, & Sims, 1999
Four step process for team effectiveness:
1.
Analyze the needs of the organization, team, and individual
2.
Develop the training including clear objectives and creation of lesson plans
3.
Conduct the training. Team members learn best when they are actively involved in the training and can make direct connections between their job and training material.
4.
Analyze how well the training intervention has resolved the concerns identified at the beginning of the process.

Team development
Ellis & Fisher, 1994, p. 134
Four norms that establish conditions for groupthink to occur:
1.
Mindless cohesion.
2.
Pressuring nonconformists
3.
Failing to reward critical thinking
4.
Tendency to justify what they have done

Team development
Ellis & Fisher, 1994
Four phases of decision emergence:
1.
Orientation phase
2.
Conflict phase
3.
Emergence phase
4.
Reinforcement phase

Groupthink
Janis, 1972
Groupthink defined:
“A mode of thinking of people when they are deeply involved in a cohesive group.
When the members striving for unanimity override their motivation to realistically appraise alternative courses of action.”

Organizational Change
Pugh & Hickson, 1996
Chandler’s view of structure and strategy
“Structure of an organization follows from the strategy that is adopted.”
Strategy
“Strategy is the determination of basic long-term goals and objectives together with the adoption of courses of action and the allocation of resources for carrying out those goals.”
Structure
“Structure is the organization which is devised to administer the activities which arise from the strategies adopted.”

Organizational Change
Pugh & Hickson, 1996
Miles & Snow’s four types of adaptation strategies:
1.
Defenders
– Solve problem by aiming at a narrow and stable domain.
Concentrate mostly on their engineering problem. Strategies lead to a typical administrative solution.
2.
Prospectors – aims to find and exploit new opportunities. Requires a flexible solution approach to problems.
3.
Analyzers – Attempt to achieve some of the strengths of both Defenders and Prospectors. Try to balance minimizing risk and the maximizing of profit.
4.
Reactors – Unlike the other three types, reactors do not have a viable strategy. Merely react to change in inconsistent and inappropriate ways.

Organization Types
Pugh & Hickson, 1996
Burns discusses two types of organizations at the extreme points of the organizational continuum:
Mechanistic – Ada[ted to relatively stable conditions. Clear hierarchy of control.
Responsibility for the overall knowledge and coordination rests exclusively at the top.
Organic – Adapted to unstable conditions. Continual adjustment and redefinition of individual tasks

Learning Organization
French, Bell, & Zawacki, 2005
Organizational learning defined:
 Argyris & Schon (1978); “The detection and correction of errors.”

Fench, Bell, & Zawacki, (2005); A process that unfolds over time and is linked with knowledge acquisition and improved performance.
Learning organization defined:
“A firm that purposefully constructs structures and strategies, to enhance and maximize organizational learning” (Dodson, 1993).

Learning Organization
French, Bell, & Zawacki, 2005
Learning organizations are skilled at five main activities:
1.
Systematic problem solving
2.
experimentation with new approaches
3.
learning from their own experience and past history
4.
learning fm the experiences and best practices of others
5.
transferring knowledge quickly and efficiently throughout the organization

Organizational Learning
Argyris & Schon, 1978
Three types of organizational learning:

Single-loop learning – Occurs when errors and corrected and firms continue with their present policies and goals. Followers accept change without questioning underlying assumptions or core beliefs.

Double loop learning – Occurs when, in addition to detection and correction of errors, the organization questions and modifies its existing norms, procedures, policies, and objectives. Is concerned with the why and how to change the organization.

Duetero learning – Occurs when organizations learn how to carry out singleloop and double-loop learning. The first two forms of learning will not occur if the organization is not aware that learning must occur.

Learning Organization
French, Bell, & Zawacki, 2005
Measuring organizational learning usually includes three overlapping stages:
1.
Cognitive – members are exposed to new ideas, expand their knowledge and begin to think differently
2.
Behavioral – Employees begin to internalize new insights and alter their behavior.
3.
Performance improvement – Changes in behavior lead to measurable improvements in results: superior quality, better delivery, increased market share, or other tangible gains.

Learning Organization
French, Bell, & Zawacki, 2005
Steps in creating a learning organization:
1.
Foster an environment that is conducive to learning.
2.
Open up boundaries and stimulate the exchange of ideas.
3.
Create learning forums. Programs or events designed with explicit learning goals in mind.

Organizational culture
Schein, 1992
Organizational culture defined:
“A pattern of shared basic assumptions that the group learned as it solved its problems of external adaptation and internal integration, that has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore, be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems.”

Organizational culture
Schein, 1992
Three basic levels of culture:
1.
Artifacts – Surface aspects such as dress that can be easily discerned but are hard to understand
2.
Espoused values – Beneath surface aspects which are conscience strategies, goals, and philosophies
3.
Basic assumptions and values – The core or essence of culture, which are difficult to discern because they exist at a largely unconscious level.
Provide the key understanding why things happen in a particular way. They form deeper dimensions such as nature of humans, human relationships and activity, reality and truth.

Systems theory