Unit 32
Charlotte Bland
Pass one:
There are different types of bone shapes and functions of the skeleton. The different
types of bones are:
Long Bones- Long bones are longer than their width; they have a shaft (diaphysis)
and two heads (epiphyses). Examples of long bones are bones of the limbs and they
would be the Humerus, Femur, Tibia, Fibula, Radius, Ulna and the Phalanges. The
body for support and movement mainly uses long bones.
Short Bones- Short bones are about the same length as their width and they are often
more cube shaped. They can be found in the Carpals (wrist) and the Tarsals (ankle).
Short bones are used mostly for complex movement such as exercise.
Flat Bones- Flat bones are like thin sheets of bones and they are often shaped around
the internal organs such as the lungs or the brain. Some flat bones would include, the
Cranium, Ribs, Scapula and Pelvic Girdle. Flat bones are for the protection of specific
internal organs that would be easily damaged without that protection.
Irregular Bones- Irregular bones are complex in shape and can’t be grouped into any
of the other bone categories, as they are very different. Vertebrae can be an irregular
bone and so can zygomatgious, which is a facial bone.
Sesamoid Bones- Sesamoid bones are small bones that are found in the tendons where
considerable pressure can develop, for example, in the wrist. Sesamoid bones vary in
their number, but Patellas are present in everyone.
The different types of functions of the skeleton are:
Support- the skeleton’s job is to support our bodies and it also helps to contain our
internal organs in their correct positions. To be able to support a vertical posture the
skeleton must be strong however not too heavy. Long bones are mainly used for
support.
Protection- parts of our skeleton are designed for the protection of specific internal
organs. For example, the rib cage protects our Lungs. Flat bones are mainly used for
protection e.g. the cranium has a flat boxed shape bone that surrounds it in order for it
to be protected.
Movement- our bones provide anchorage for our muscles to be able to move. Long
and short bones are used for movement.
Blood- our bone marrow are involved with the make up of red and white blood cells.
The long and short bones are used in the blood.
Storage- bone tissue is the storage area for minerals such as calcium and phosphorus.
All bones are used for storage as they have minerals in them.
Pass Two:
A joint is a part of the body that is located in between bones or the cartilage that is in
bone. There are three types of joints; Fibrous joints (fixed), Cartilaginous joints and
Synovial joints (freely moveable).
Fibrous Joints- they are better known as fixed joints, as they are immovable. This
just means that there is no movement allowed at this joint. There is no joint cavity
here and the bones are held together by connective tissues. An example of a Fibrous
joint could be the one named the Suture Joint. Suture joints can be found between the
bones of the skull. On the edges of the bones where they meet are irregular. As they
are irregular this increases their strength. Therefore protecting vital organs, and there
is no movement allowed in the Suture Joint.
Cartilaginous Joints- there is no joint cavity here therefore bones are connected
tightly by cartilage. However when the joints occur in the epiphyseal cartilage of a
growing bone allow limited movement. Cartilaginous joints are partly movable joints.
An example of a cartilaginous joint would be one called Symphysis. Symphysis
consists of a broad flat disc of fibro cartilage that is between the bones. They can be
found in the vertebrae and the pubis symphysis, which is located at the front of the
pelvic girdle.
Synovial Joints- Synovial joints are freely movable joints. In which there is joint
cavity, bones forming the joint that is surrounded by an articular capsule and often
accessory ligaments. There is a space between articulating bones and this is called
synovial cavity. They also contain something called articular cartilage and this covers
the surface of articulating bones. A sleeve-like articular capsule that encloses the
synovial cavity surrounds Synovial Joints.
There are 6 types of synovial joint and they consist of Hinge, Ball and Socket, Pivot,
Gliding, Condyloid and Saddle.
Hinge- A hinge joint is a joint where the movement is mainly in a single planeflexion and extension just like a hinged door that is opening and closing. Hing joints
are found in certain parts of the body, they are the elbow, knee, ankle and also
interphalangeal joints (fingers).
Ball and Socket- Ball and socket joints have a ball-like surface. The ball-like surface
of a bone fits into a cup-like depression into another bone. In turn this allws flexion,
extension, abduction, adduction and also rotation. You can find Ball and Socket joints
in the shoulder and the hip.
Pivot- A Pivot joint consists of a rounded or pointed surface and allows a bone to
fit into a ring of bone and ligament. The specialised movement that Pivot Joints allow
is rotation. You can find pivot joints in the atlas and axis which are the first two
vertebrae. You can also find them in the radius and the ulna and it allows the rotation
that is needed for pronation and supination.
Gliding- The surfaces of bones are flat and this allows side to side and back and forth
movements only. You can find Gliding joints between carpals and tarsals, between the
sternum and clavicle and also between the scapula and the clavicle.
Condyloid- This is an oval shaped end of a bone and it fits into similarly shaped dip
in the other bone. Condyloid joints can be found in the wrist and also the metacarpal
and phalangeal joints.
Saddle- Both of the bones are saddle-shaped at their articulating. The movement is
side-to-side and back-and-forth this is similar to the Condyloid it just has freer
movement. You can find a saddle joint between the trapezium and the metacarpal of
the thumb.
Pass Four:
An exercise that can affect a ball and socket joint could be using a treadmill whilst at
the gym. Treadmill exercise allows the body to become fitter in the cardiovascular
area. When using a treadmill you can walk or run at different speeds depending on the
pace you want to go at. You achieve the benefits of aerobic exercise at home when
using a treadmill at they gym.
You would be using your Synovial joints when on a treadmill. This is because
Synovial joints a freely movable and you use your legs, arms, hips and shoulders
when on the treadmill. You rotate your hips whist using a treadmill. Your hips will
rotate when using it. The proper way to use it so there is no damaged caused would be
to walk from your waist, rotating your hips with a forward and backward movement
from your legs. Your shoulders should stay relaxed and facing to the front. In terms of
foot work you heels should strike the ground, you should raise your toes and roll
forward, keep your knees straight and press the ground with the ball of your foot. This
will maintain small pressure until your toes leave the ground. You should also make
your arms swing in the same forward-backward direction.
http://www.treadmill-online.com/home/treadmill-guides/facts/treadmill-exerciseprograms.htm
Merit one:
The structure of bones
Bone tissue is a kind of connective tissue that contains largely separated cells that
have a lot of intercellular material. Mature bone cells are caked osteocytes.
There are two types of bone tissue and they are, Spongy bone tissue (cancellous) and
Compact bone tissue (dense).
Spongy (cancellous) Bone tissue- this consists of several large spaces that are filled
with red bone marrow. Cancellous bone makes up most of the bone tissue of short,
flat and irregular types of bones and also most of the epiphyses bones.
Compact (dense) Bone tissue- this consists of few spaces. It also forms the layer
over the spongy bone tissue. The layer of compact bone is thicker in diaphysis than it
is in the epiphyses. This bone tissue provides the body with protection and support.
A typical long bone has the following parts:
 Diaphysis- the shaft, long and main portion of the bone
 Epiphyses- these are the ends of bones, also know as the heads
 Metaphysis- this is the region where the head of the bone meets the shaft in
the mature part of it. In a bone that is growing it is the epiphyseal or growth
plate
 Articular Cartilage- this is a layer of thin cartilage that covers the epiphysis
where the bone forms a joint with another bone
 Periosteum- this is a dense, white fibrous that covers the remaining surface of
the bone. Periosteum is essential for the growth, repair and nutrition and it is
attached to the ligaments and tendons. It also contains blood vessels, elastic
fibre and cells, which can in turn develop into osteoblasts. Osteoblasts are
cells that form new bone in growth and repair.
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Marrow cavity- this is a space in the shaft which contains the fatty yellow
marrow in adult people. It is mainly fat cells and a couple of blood cells
Endosteum- this is a layer of osteoblasts that lines the marrow cavity. It also
contains scattered osteoclasts, in turn these have the potential to help in the
removal of bone
Haversian System
The Haversian system is the basic unit of compact bone known as the osteon. Every
osteon contains concentric rings of hard substance called Lamellae. The concentric
rings have small spaces separating them that contain osteocytes (mature bone cells).
Minute canals called Canaliculi provide routes for nutrients to reach cells and waste
products can be removed. The Haversian canal, which is the central canal, contains
blood vessels and nerves.
Bone Growth
The process of a new bone growing is called ossification. In the embryo, skeleton
shape is made up of fibrous membrane and cartilage. It takes at least 6-7 weeks for
ossification to occur, and the process involves replacing the original tissue with bone
tissue and this involves the laying down of calcium. The laying down of calcium ca be
known as calcification.
In a long bone the shaft is the first part to ossify. Next is the heads, leaving a layer of
cartilage in-between the shaft and head where growth in bone length can continue
whilst new cells are being produced. If you are aged 16-20 years your epiphyseal
cartilage will ossify and there will be no more increase in bone length. However there
will be the continuous exchange of bone tissue throughout life and calcium will be
lost and re-deposited.
Normal bone growth can depend upon:
 Enough calcium and phosphorus in the diet in order for the bone tissue to
harden
 Enough vitamins in the diet, particularly vitamin D, this helps the absorption
of calcium
 Production of the correct amounts of hormones; growth hormones (pituitary
gland), calcitonin (thyroid gland), parathormone (parathyroid glands) and sex
hormones (oestrogen and testosterone on particular).
Effects of ageing Bone Tissue
As bones age, they may suffer a loss of calcium, this usually starts at around the age
of 40 for females and they can possibly loose as much as 30% when they reach the
age of 70. In males, this doesn’t typically begin until the age of 60.
When this happens, it is a condition known as osteoporosis. Osteoporosis can also
occur during pregnancy and lactation, in individuals who have experienced prolonged
treatment with cortisone (a type of steroid), and in women who have suffered with
severe anorexia. Osteoporosis affects the whole skeleton especially the hips, spine,
legs and the feet. It is also responsible for height loss, a hunched back, hip fractured
and pain.
Some say that exercise can help maintain bone density and can reduce the risk of
osteoporosis. This is particularly if the exercise is weight bearing and continuous
throughout life.
Osteoporosis can be treated with oestrogen replacement therapy and calcium
supplements. The protein information within bones can decrease with age and can
cause bones to become more brittle which means they are more likely to get fractured.
Another disease that can be inherited by the ageing of bones is arthritis.
Arthritis is a joint disorder that features inflammation. A joint is an area of the body
where two bones meet and they function to move the body parts connected by its
bones. Arthritis is basically inflammation of one or more joints. Arthritis is painful
and is accompanied with joint pain that is referred to as arthralgia. There are different
types of arthritis and those types relate to wear and tear of cartilage such as
osteoarthritis, to those associated with inflammations and this results from and
overactive immune system (rheumatoid arthritis). The causes of arthritis all depend
upon what type of arthritis you have inherited. Causes that lead to osteoarthritis could
include metabolic abnormalities such as gout, hereditary factors and infections. In
rheumatoid arthritis the symptoms are unclear.
http://www.medicinenet.com/arthritis/article.htm