COURSE: Earth/Environmental Science
I.
Grade Level/Unit Number:
9 - 12
Unit 3
II:
Unit Title:
III.
Unit Length: 15 days (on a 90 min per day block schedule)
IV.
Major Learning Outcomes:
LITHOSPHERE
- Part 1 – Minerals
- Part 2 – Rocks
- Part 3 – Plate Tectonics
- Part 4 – Earthquakes
- Part 5 – Economic Development of the Earth
The student will gain an understanding of:
 The role of inquiry in the investigation and classification of minerals
 The importance of safety when conducting scientific investigation
 The forces that drive the rock cycle and are responsible for mineral
formations
 The historical development of the theory of plate tectonics.
 The interdependence between human and natural systems.
 Earth's internal structure.
 The importance and impact of the economic development of earth's finite
rock, mineral, soil, fossil fuel and other natural resources to society and our
daily lives
V.
Content Objectives Included (with RBT Tags):
Objective
Number
1.01
1.02
1.03
Objective
Identify questions and problems in the earth and environmental
sciences that can be answered through scientific investigations
Design and conduct scientific investigations to answer questions
related to earth and environmental science.
 Create testable hypotheses
 Identify variables.
 Use a control or comparison group when appropriate.
 Select and use appropriate measurement tools.
 Collect and record data.
 Organize data into charts and graphs.
 Analyze and interpret data.
 Communicate findings.
Evaluate the uses of satellite images and imaging techniques in the
earth and environmental sciences.
Earth/Environmental Science- Unit 3
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RBT
Tag
B1
B6
A5
1
1.04
1.05
1.06
Apply safety procedures in the laboratory and in field studies:
C3
 Recognize and avoid potential hazards.
 Safely manipulate materials and equipment needed for scientific
investigations.
Analyze reports of scientific investigations and environmental issues
C4
from an informed scientifically literate viewpoint including
considerations of:
 Appropriate sample.
 Adequacy of experimental controls.
 Replication of findings.
 Alternative interpretations of the data.
C5
Identify and evaluate a range of possible solutions to earth and
environmental issues at the local, national, and global level including
considerations of:




2.01
2.02
2.03
2.04
2.05
2.06
Interdependent human and natural systems.
Diverse perspectives.
Short and long range impacts.
Economic development, environmental quality and
sustainability.
 Opportunities for and consequences of personal decisions.
 Risks and benefits of technological advances.
Analyze the dependence of the physical properties of minerals on
the arrangement and bonding of their atoms.
Analyze the historical development of the theory of plate tectonics.
B4
B4
Investigate and analyze the processes responsible for the rock cycle:
 Analyze the origin, texture and mineral composition of rocks.
 Trace the path of elements through the rock cycle.
 Relate rock formation to plate tectonics.
 Identify forms of energy that drive the rock cycle.
 Analyze the relationship between the rock cycle and processes
in the atmosphere and hydrosphere.
Analyze seismic waves including velocity and refraction to:
 Infer Earth's internal structure.
 Locate earthquake epicenters.
 Measure earthquake magnitude.
 Evaluate the level of seismic activity in North Carolina.
B4
Create and interpret topographic, soil and geologic maps using scale
and legends.
Investigate and analyze the importance and impact of the economic
development of earth's finite rock, mineral, soil, fossil fuel and other
natural resources to society and our daily lives:
 Availability.
 Geographic distribution.
 Conservation/Stewardship.
 Recycling.
B6
Earth/Environmental Science- Unit 3
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C4
B5
2


Environmental impact.
Challenge of rehabilitation of disturbed lands.
Analyze the sources and impacts of society's use of energy.
 Renewable and non-renewable sources.
 The impact of human choices on Earth and its systems.
2.07
B5
VI.
English Language Development Objectives (ELD) Included:
NC English Language Proficiency (ELP) Standard 4 (2008) for Limited English
Proficiency Students (LEP)- English Language learners communicate information,
ideas, and concepts necessary for academic success in the content area of science.
Suggestions for modified instruction and scaffolding for LEP students and/or students
who need additional support are embedded in the unit plan and/or are added at the end
of the corresponding section of the lessons. The amount of scaffolding needed will
depend on the level of English proficiency of each LEP student. Therefore, novice level
students will need more support with the language needed to understand and
demonstrate the acquisition of concepts than intermediate or advanced students.
VII.
Materials/Equipment Needed:
Activity
Materials
PART 1 - MINERALS
Introductory Activity: Salt Sand
and Sand in Water
Salt
Spoon
Cups
Clear bowl (if done as demo)
Basic Mineral
Identification: Parts 1-4
Sets of minerals to include: talc, gypsum,
calcite, fluorite, apatite, feldspar, quartz,
topaz and *corundum
Rock and mineral guidebooks
Copper pennies
Glass plates
Hand lenses
Streak plate
Basic Mineral
Identification: Part 5
Clear rhombohedral calcite specimen
Clear ulexite specimen
Thin pieces of muscovite
Polarizing filters
Scotch tape (the old-fashioned clear kind)
Basic Mineral
Identification: Part 6
100 mL graduated cylinder
Scale
Samples of galena, pyrite and copper
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Rock and mineral guidebooks
Mineral Families and
Formation
Mineral specimens
Hand lenses
Rock and mineral guidebooks
AD Campaign for a
Mineral
poster board or construction paper
markers
rulers
rock and mineral guidebooks
names of individual minerals on note cards
or paper
Crystal Systems
Prentice Hall Earth Science Laboratory
Manuel
PART 2 - ROCKS
Rock Roulette
11 six-sided die
Station signs
Rock Identification Using Copies ROCK KEY from the web site
Hand lenses
Flow Charts
Diluted hydrochloric acid
Flow chart station questions printed on
cards (one per station)
The Melting Point of
Computers with Internet access
Rocks
Igneous Rock
Identification
Computers with Internet access
History Rocks
Paper
Pencil
PART 3 – PLATE TECTONICS
Oreo Cookie Activity
Oreo cookies
Napkins
Locating Patterns of
Earthquake and Volcano
Distribution
A world map per student showing latitude
and longitude (on back)
Four different colored pencils
Pushing and Pulling
Mountains
Foam of different thickness and color (craft
and camping pad foam)
String
Rope
4x4 piece of wood 2 feet long
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Saw
Scissors
Evidence for Plate
Tectonics
Computers with Internet access
Shoebox
Glue
Scissors
Markers
Patterns
Edible Geology
Three flavors of gelatin - maybe raspberry,
lime, and lemon
Boiling water
Graham cracker
Whipped cream
Banana or canned fruit cocktail, drained
Clear Pyrex or glass pan – (8 x 12 x 2)
Measuring cup
Spatula
Refrigeration
Slice of Earth
PART 4 - EARTHQUAKES
2- 11 x 17 inch sheets of paper
Meter stick
~ 70 cm long string with loop at one end
Tape
Pencil
Finding the Epicenter of
an Earthquake
Drawing compass with pencil
Graph that plots distance to epicenter (Xaxis) and difference in arrival time between
P and S waves
United States map
Investigating the Speed
of Earthquake Waves
Four different colored pencils
Graph of Seismic Wave Travel Time vs.
Distance
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Density of Igneous Rocks
Modeling Liquification
Design and Build a
Simple Seismograph
Hand lens
Intrusive igneous rocks
Tables from website
Prentice Hall Earth Science Lab Manuel pp.
69-72
Prentice Hall Earth Science Lab Manuel pp.
73-78
Computers with Internet access
Virtual Earthquake
Computers with Internet access
Locating the 1989 “World
Series Earthquake”
Epicenter
PART 5 – ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF EARTH
Several varieties of chocolate chip cookies
Chocolate Chip Cookie
(high, medium and low-end)
Mining
Paper (“play”) money (10s, 5s, and 1s)
Grid paper
Toothpicks (flat and round)
Paper clips
Recovering Oil
PRENTICE HALL EARTH SCIENCE LAB
MANUEL (Chapter 4, Investigation 4A)
Investigating Ore
Deposits
McDOUGALL-LITTELL EARTH SCIENCE
LAB MANUEL (Chapter 7)
Pizza box
Magnetic & electronic stud finder
Duct tape
Assortment of magnetic and non-magnetic
objects
Graph paper
USING DISASTER TO
TEACH SCIENCE
Computers
Newspaper Article about Pipeline Fire
Equation Balancing Tutor
3" x 5" card
VIII.
Detailed Content Description:
Please see the detailed content description for each objective in the Earth and
Environmental Support Document. The link to this downloadable document is in the
Earth and Environmental Science Standard Course of Study at:
http://www.ncpublicschools.org/curriculum/science/scos/2004/25earth
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IX.
Unit Notes
Overview Of Unit Three
This unit is focused on the formation and processes that govern Earth’s materials such
as rocks, minerals, soil, mountain formation, and plate movement. Included are the
impacts of human conditions on the availability of resources with their economical
implications as well as the impact of plate movements. Specifically, students will gain an
understanding of:







basic mineral formation and human impact on the land due to mining
the rock cycle and its effects on soils
classification techniques
earth’s physical structure and continued development
the historical theory of plate tectonics
plate movement and their impacts on the formation of mountains and basins
historical relevance concerning North Carolina’s earthquake events
In each unit, Goal 1 objectives which relate to the process of scientific investigation are
included. In each of the units, students will be practicing the processes of science:
observing, hypothesizing, collecting data, analyzing, and concluding.
The unit guide gives an overview of the activities that are suggested to meet the
Standard Course of Study Goals for Unit Three. The guide includes activities, teacher
notes on how to weave the activities into the content, and supplementary notes related
to other issues such as preparation time and time to complete the activity. If a teacher
follows this unit s/he will have addressed the goals and objectives of the SCOS.
However, teachers may want to substitute other activities that teach the same concept.
Teachers should also refer to the support document for Earth/Environmental Science at
http://www.ncpublicschools.org/curriculum/science/scos/2004/25earth for the detailed
content description for each objective to be sure they are emphasizing the specified
concepts for each objective.
Essential Questions for Unit Three :
The following are the essential questions for part 1 of this unit. Essential questions are
those questions that lead to enduring understanding. These are the questions that
students should be able to answer at some level years after the course. These
questions are designed to incorporate multiple concepts. Students will work on
answering these questions throughout the unit. Teachers are advised to put these
questions up in a prominent place in the classroom and refer to them during the
teaching of the unit.
Part 1 - Minerals:
1) How do scientists conduct experiments safely?
2) How does the arrangement of atoms and bonding determine mineral properties?
3) What is the relationship between rocks and minerals?
4) What are the major types of chemical bonding?
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5) How are minerals classified?
6) How do geologic conditions affect mineral formation?
Part 2 – Rocks
1) What are the processes and products of the rock cycle?
2) How does analysis of texture and composition of igneous rocks infer the rock’s
origin?
3) Describe the forms of energy that drive the rock cycle.
4) How do processes in the atmosphere and hydrosphere affect the rock cycle?
Part 3 – Plate tectonics
1) What are the seismic characteristics of the different types of plate boundaries?
2) How do volcanoes form at plate boundaries?
3) What are the rock types at plate boundaries?
4) How are minerals evidence for past and present plate tectonic activity?
Part 4 – Earthquakes
1) What factors determine faults or folding of the crust?
2) How does the density of a material affect the speed and intensity of a seismic
wave?
3) How are seismic waves analyzed to determine an earthquake’s epicenter and
intensity?
4) Explain the connection between plate boundaries and earthquakes.
5) Describe the level of seismic activity in North Carolina.
6) What are the distinguishing features of crust, mantle, outer and inner core?
Part 5 – Economic Development of the Earth
1) Where are minerals found?
2) How are minerals mined?
3) What impact does mining have on the surface of the Earth?
4) Does the cost of extraction justify the means?
5) How are minerals used in my everyday life? What impact does this have on the
resource?
6) How do “I” impact the environment? My neighborhood? My daily path to school?
Modified Activities for LEP Students:
Those activities marked with a  have a modified version or notes designed to assist
teachers in supporting students who are English language learners. Teachers should
also consult the Department of Public Instruction website for English as a Second
Language at: http://www.ncpublicschools.org/curriculum/esl/ to find additional
resources.
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LEP Accommodation Considerations
The following are general suggestions for accommodating English second language:
1. Assess the prior knowledge of your LEP student and make sure that he or she
has adequate background information in order to execute this activity.
2. Provide graphic organizers or roadmaps illustrating the specific procedures
and expectations of each activity.
3. Provide highlighted text which target key vocabulary and concepts. Review
this text prior to activity.
4. Elicit verbal response of understanding from student. For, example, “Explain to
(or show me) me what you need to do next.”
5. Include marginal notes in activity outline to re-emphasize terms and concepts.
6. Provide visual demonstration in conjunction with verbal instructions
7. Provide immediate feedback and or assessment in order to reinforce
objectives.
8. Provide for alternate forms of assessment such as concept maps, graphic
organizers, verbal explanations, written explanations, or actual performance
rather than strictly pen and paper tests.
9. Provide LEP students the opportunity to peer tutor, pairing those who are on
different proficiency levels.
10. Provide opportunities to demonstrate effective test- taking strategies, regularly
exposing students to sample questions.
Computer Based Activities:
Some of the recommended activities are computer based and require students to visit
various internet sites and view animations of various processes and identification
guides. These animations require various players and plug-ins which may or may not
already be installed on your computers. Additionally some districts have firewalls that
block downloading these types of files. Before assigning these activities to students it is
essential for the teacher to try them on the computers that the students will use and to
consult with the technology or media specialist if there are issues. Some of these
animations also have sound. Teachers may wish to provide headphones if possible.
X.
Global Content: Aligned with 21st Century Skills
One of the goals of the unit plans is to provide strategies that will enable educators to
develop the 21st Century skills for their students. As much as students need to master
the NCSOS goals and objectives, they need to master the skills that develop problem
solving strategies, as well as the creativity and innovative thinking skills that have
become critical in today’s increasingly interconnected workforce and society. The
Earth/Environmental Science- Unit 3
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Partnership for 21st Century Skills website is provided below for more information about
the skills and resources related to the 21st Century classroom.
http://www.21stcenturyskills.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=27&Ite
mid=120
NC SCS Biology
1.01, 1.02, 2.01,
2.02, 2.04
21st Century Skills
Communication Skills
Conveying thought or opinions
effectively
When presenting information,
distinguishing between relevant
and irrelevant information
Explaining a concept to others
Interviewing others or being
interviewed
Computer Knowledge
Using word-processing and
database programs
Developing visual aides for
presentations
Using a computer for
communication
Learning new software programs
Employability Skills
Assuming responsibility for own
learning
Persisting until job is completed
Working independently
Developing career interest/goals
Responding to criticism or
questions
Information-retrieval Skills
Searching for information via the
computer
Searching for print information
Searching for information using
community members
Language Skills - Reading
Following written directions
Earth/Environmental Science- Unit 3
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Activity
Most of the activities can be
presented as opportunities for
students to follow written
directions. The teacher will
have to work with most students
10
to develop this skill over time.
The following activities are well
suited to developing skills in
following directions:

Identifying cause and effect
relationships
Summarizing main points after
reading
Locating and choosing
appropriate reference materials
Reading for personal learning
Language Skill - Writing
Using language accurately
Organizing and relating ideas
when writing
Proofing and Editing
Synthesizing information from
several sources
Documenting sources
Developing an outline
Writing to persuade or justify a
position
Creating memos, letters, other
forms of correspondence
Teamwork
Taking initiative
Working on a team
Most of the activities are
designed to be done and
discussed in teams. The
following activities are well
suited to developing team
interdependence skills:
Thinking/Problem-Solving
Skills
Identifying key problems or
questions
Evaluating results
Developing strategies to address
problems
Developing an action plan or
timeline
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Unit Guide: THE LITHOSPHERE
Total: 15 - 90 min days OR 30 – 45 min days
ENGAGE:
Activating Prior Knowledge through journal entry about minerals: Ask students to
answer these questions in a journal/log or generate answers in small groups and report
out. (According to the NC Standard Course of Study, these topics/concepts were
covered in the sixth grade (Goal 3) and eighth grade (Goal 4).
http://www.learnnc.org/scos/2005-SCI/0006/05/)
Suggested Journal Questions:
 What is an element?
 What are the major types of chemical bonding?
 Are you comfortable using the Periodic Chart of the Elements? Explain.
 What is density?
 What is the relationship between rocks and minerals?
 What do you already know about minerals? List your ideas.
 http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/earth/geology/geology.html
Time: 10 min
================================================================
EXPLORE:
INTRODUCTORY ACTIVITY: SALT AND SAND IN WATER
Focus Objectives: 1.01, 1.02, 1.04
Language (ELP) Objective for LEP students:

Participate in a class discussion on what happens to salt and sand when
mixed with water.
Modifications for LEP students:
Use this activity as a demonstration and explain each procedure as performed.
Explain the terms settle and dissolve to assure student relate terms to the action
of the sand and salt.
Activity Time: 5 min (depending on discussion)
Preparation Time: 2 min if done as a demo or 5 min. if students do it as a partner
activity
Earth/Environmental Science- Unit 3
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Safety: none
Notes: Use this activity as a catalyst to spark questions and generate interest.
Students will observe that the sand (detrital sediment) settles to the bottom,
unchanged, while the salt (chemical sediment) dissolves. Allow students to discuss
their ideas. Do not get into the chemistry or mineralogy yet. The activities provided
in this unit will help students develop an understanding.
Guiding Question: What will happen to the salt and the sand when it is mixed with
the water?
Before the activity: The teacher should have students trained concerning safety
procedures and movement when handling equipment such as gathering/disposing of
water, sand, salt.
After the activity: The teacher should acknowledge and accept all suggestions for
the obvious conclusions and encourage students to state the obvious. Building trust
and communication when discussing some obvious principals will allow students to
discuss more difficult concepts later in the unit.
================================================================
EXPLAIN:
BASIC MINERAL IDENTIFICATION
Focus Objective: 2.01
 Language (ELP) Objective for LEP students:
1. Reading a chart, classify minerals according to chemical and physical
properties.
2. Describe in a chart the hardness, luster, color, specific gravity, and streak
of minerals.
3. Explain to a partner different models of chemical structures that show
mineral crystal formation.
Modifications for LEP students
1. Model/illustrate each mineral characteristic before students use them to
classify minerals.
2. Show examples, using minerals or other objects, to help LEP students
visualize words used to describe luster.
3. Give students a list of minerals and their descriptions before the actual
activity. Allow students to match minerals with their descriptions written
on the list.
Activity Time: 90 minutes
Preparation Time: 45 minutes
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Note: A student worksheet BASIC MINERAL IDENTIFICATION WORKSHEET is
provided after the BACKGROUND INFORMATION which is located at the end of
this document. You can modify this worksheet so it better suits your classroom and
resources. Part five (Optical Properties) requires clear pieces of rhombohedral
calcite and ulexite, thin pieces of mica, and polarizing filters.
Make sure the specimens for determining specific gravity are small enough to fit in
the graduated cylinders. If not, use beakers.
Part 3 – Crystal Shape and Cleavage: Students are asked to distinguish between
fluorite and quartz. This question could be applied to any mineral pairs that are
difficult to distinguish.
Guiding Question: How do scientists classify minerals based on scientific
investigation?
Before the activity: The teacher will need to prepare all the samples for testing and
practice testing. Be sure to plan for enough space for students to move around the
room through stations with each test set up with the equipment they need. Students
should be familiar with safety issues and movement within your confines.
After the activity: A discussion of their findings can take place in small groups or
whole group. Students should be able to relate safety issues, comparison of mineral
structures, and investigative measures to identify characteristics.
================================================================
EXPLAIN:

Focus Objective:
Activity Time:
Preparation Time:
Notes:
Guiding Question:
Before the activity:
After the activity:
================================================================
ELABORATE:
ROCK ROULETTE
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Focus Objective: 2.03
Language (ELP) Objective for LEP students:
1. Draw and label the rock cycle to show the origins of sedimentary,
igneous, and metamorphic rocks.
2. Explain to a partner the difference in extrusive and intrusive rocks and
identify examples of each.
3. Complete a concept map using vocabulary.
Modifications for LEP students:
1. Emphasize the most important vocabulary and reduce the quantity of
vocabulary.
2. Model the process for moving from station to station for each activity. Elicit
verbal response of understanding from students.
3. Pair LEP students with different proficiency levels for activities.
4. Create concept maps or graphic organizers to show vocabulary
relationships.
Activity Time: 30 min
Preparation Time: 45 min
Safety: none
Notes: This activity provides an opportunity for students to examine the rock cycle
and see it realistically – as a collection of interrelated systems. The developers
identified eleven transitional stages through which earth materials might pass during
the rock cycle. The term “earth materials” consists of all possible types of earth
matter: sediment, the three types of rocks (sedimentary, metamorphic, igneous),
lava, etc. There is a station for each of the components of the rock cycle. Materials
might remain at a station briefly or for a very long period of time before eventually
moving on to another stage. See additional ROCK ROULETTE set up information at
the end of this document.
Guiding Question: How do elements move through the rock cycle?
Before the activity: The teacher needs to set up the area and make each station.
Students need to be aware of how they will move through stations and work together
to complete the task.
After the activity: Students may be required to write an essay on their travels
through the rock cycle or there may be group discussion on the event of their travels.
.
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================================================================
EVALUATE:
LOCATING PATTERNS OF EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANO DISTRIBUTION
Focus Objective: 2.04
 Language (ELP) Objective for LEP students:
1. Read a chart to locate on a map the Ring of Fire
2. Explain to a partner the relationship between crustal movement and the
occurrence of volcanoes and earthquakes.
3. Write a paragraph to describe the relationship between the locations of
earthquakes and volcanoes.
Modifications for LEP students:

Begin the activity by accessing prior knowledge of mapping latitude and
longitude. Review the ideas of plate tectonics and how plates move. After
the activity relate the results of their map to plate boundaries.
Activity Time: 90 min
Preparation Time: 5 min
Guiding Question: What is the worldwide pattern of Earthquake and Volcano
Distribution?
Before activity: The teacher should review how to plot points on a graph and how
to use the map with respect to longitude and latitude.
After activity: The teacher will lead the class in a discussion of their findings and
the students should turn in their written explanations to the discussion questions.
================================================================
EXPLAIN:
Pushing and Pulling of Mountain Building
Focus Objective: 2.04
Modifications for LEP students:


To assess prior knowledge ask students to draw and label large
pictures of each type of plate boundary on newsprint. Students can
show and explain their type of plate boundary to the class.
Model the activity using key vocabulary needed by the students. Pair
LEP students together to complete this activity.
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Language (ELP) Objective for LEP students:


Read activity directions to create mountains formed by different forces.
Label a diagram using vocabulary relating to specific forces needed to
create mountains.
Activity Time: 40 min
Preparation Time: 40 min
Notes: Mountains and valleys are created by huge tectonic activity, or movement in
the Earth. This movement occurs in many different ways, over millions of years. This
lesson will show how mountains and valleys form as the result of tectonic forces.
See Pushing and Pulling of Mountain Building following this section of the document
for further information and the website.
Guiding Question: How do tectonic forces build mountains?
Before the activity: The teacher should attempt this activity beforehand and be
aware of students who may be in special need of kinesthetic activities to ensure
success. Be aware that students my need more space and that it might take more
time depending on your students.
After the activity: The teacher should be able to have a discussion on what was
learned by each action taken on the materials and what each represented.
================================================================
ELABORATE:
SLICE OF THE EARTH
Focus Objective: 2.04
Language (ELP) Objective for LEP students:




Read and follow directions to complete scale drawing.
Orally share group scale drawing of layer of the Earth with the class.
Participate in class discussion describing how scale models describe
the layer of the earth.
Write a paragraph describing the layers of the Earth
Modifications for LEP students:



Access prior knowledge of how to create scale drawings and remediate
when necessary.
Illustrate the concept of “drawing to scale” by using a map to show the
distance from one city to another.
Pair different English proficiency students together to complete the
project.
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Activity Time: 60 min
Preparation Time: 20 min
Safety: Beware of sharp objects.
Notes: In this activity, students will construct a scale model of a “slice” of the earth.
With this slice, students will illustrate the layers of the earth and their components.
Additional information follows this section of the document.
Guiding Question: How can the earth’s internal structure be inferred through the
interpretation of seismic data?
Before the activity: Students will need to understand procedures for moving around
the room, getting supplies, and have some ideas of the formation of the earth.
After the activity: Students will share their slices with the rest of the class and
discuss the new concepts that they discovered.
.
================================================================
EVALUATE:
FINDING THE EPICENTER OF AN EARTHQUAKE
Focus Objective: 2.04
Language (ELP) Objectives for LEP students:



Compare and contrast P and S waves using a Venn diagram.
Read and interpret data to create a earthquake wave travel-time graph.
Orally explain to a partner how to determine the epicenter of an
earthquake.
Modifications for LEP students:



Review with students the difference in the focus and the epicenter where
they are located.
Discuss P and S waves and how they move through the Earth with the
students to access understanding before graphing the data and explain to
the students the need for at least 3 data sites for determining the epicenter.
Review how to create scale drawings and how to use a compass for the
activity. Students will need to be aware of how to use the compass and the
scale given on the attached map to graph larger distances.
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Activity Time: 45 min
Preparation Time: 5 min
Safety: none
Notes: In this investigation students will construct an earthquake wave travel-time
graph. They will then use the graph to answer some questions about earthquakes.
The complete instructions follow this section of the document.
Guiding Question: What is an earthquake wave travel-time graph and how is it
used?
Before activity: Students should have an understanding of a seismograph and
how it works to collect data.
After activity: Students should be able to understand the importance of having 3
pieces of data from the graphs to accurately locate an epicenter.
================================================================
EXPLAIN:
CHOCOLATE CHIP COOKIE MINING
Focus Objective: 2.06
Language (ELP) Objective for LEP students:


Participate in a class discussion on the economic impact of mining.
Make a poster listing the environmental impacts of mining.
Modifications for LEP students:


When making posters, LEP students can draw and label illustrations to
explain environmental impacts of mining.
To help students make application of the environmental and economic
impacts of mining ask them to find examples of mining in their country on
the internet and bring them in to share.
Earth/Environmental Science- Unit 3
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Activity Time: 60 min
Preparation Time: 30 min
Notes: This is a mining game using edible cookies and calculating the costs.
Students will be tempted to eat the cookie before the complete the mining exercise.
The complete instructions follow this section of the document.
Guiding Question: What is the economic importance and impact of developing
economical mining practices?
Before the activity: Game pieces and cookies will need to be purchased along with
explanation for rules that will keep students working collaboratively.
After the activity: Students should discuss their results then apply them to research
on existing mining operations.
================================================================
APPENDIX
Background information for MINERAL IDENTIFICATION:
HARDNESS is the ability of a mineral to resist being scratched. Students will
determine the hardness of selected minerals using the “hardness kit.” Remind
students to use common sense and not scratch a soft mineral with a hard object.
The key is to observe which is actually DOING the scratching and which is BEING
scratched. Rub the mineral against another known mineral or object to see if it will
become scratched. The chart below shows how you might test a mineral for
hardness using a combination of Moh's hardness scale and field hardness scales.
Talc, the softest mineral, is assigned a value of 1, while diamond, the hardest is
assigned the value of 10. A mineral with a higher Moh hardness value can scratch a
mineral with a lower Moh hardness value. A mineral may be scratched by any of the
items corresponding with a higher hardness value. When testing for hardness,
remind students to start with the softer mineral or item and work up from there. For
example, an unknown mineral, which is soft, should be scratched with your fingernail
first, working your way up through the harder minerals or items until you find the
hardness. In your instructions, let the students know which “unknown” minerals are
to be tested for hardness. Whether a mineral is harder or softer than glass is a
property thoroughly ingrained in geology. There is less error involved than when
using minerals and other items.
HARDNESS SCALE (Moh's and Field Hardness Scales)
HARDNESS MINERAL
HARDNESS
TEST ITEM
1
talc
Fingernail will scratch it
Cannot scratch glass
2
gypsum
Fingernail will scratch it
Cannot scratch glass
3
calcite
Penny will barely scratch it
Cannot scratch glass
4
fluorite
Penny will scratch it
Cannot scratch glass
5
apatite
Will scratch penny; cannot
Cannot scratch glass
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scratch glass
6
7
8
9
orthoclase
feldspar
quartz
topaz
corundum
10
diamond
Can barely scratch glass
Will scratch glass
Will scratch glass well
Will put deep incision in
glass
Will scratch all of the above
Used to cut glass
SPECIFIC GRAVITY: Each mineral has its own value or range of values for specific
gravity, which is the density of the mineral compared to the density of water (1 gram
per cubic centimeter or 1 g/cc)
The specimens used in this section should be small enough to fit in your graduated
cylinder. If a graduated cylinder is not available, a beaker may be used, however,
there will be a larger margin of error without the accuracy of the graduated cylinder.
If beakers are being used to find volume, larger specimens may be used. Small
cubes of hematite and galena, as well as native copper work well for this activity.
Step one: Find the mass of the mineral using the scale or balance. This should be
done first, before the mineral gets wet.
Step two: Find the volume of the mineral by determining the volume of water that
gets displaced. If a mineral with all right angles between sides is available (i.e
pyrite), students can determine the volume by measuring the sides. This result can
be compared with the one derived by the displacement of water.
Step three: Calculate the specific gravity (mass divided by volume) and compare
results with the actual specific gravity listed in the rock and mineral guidebook.
COLOR: Color is easy to observe, but is not always a reliable characteristic for the
identification of minerals. A mineral may come in a variety of colors or change due
to environmental conditions.
LUSTER: A mineral's luster describes the way light is reflected from its surface.
Examples of luster include - metallic, nonmetallic, brilliant (adamantine), glassy,
greasy, pearly, or silky. Pyrite and galena have metallic lusters. Quartz and fluorite
have glassy lusters.
STREAK: The streak of a mineral is the powder left behind when the mineral is
rubbed onto a streak plate. It is the color of the mineral in a powdered form. As in
the case of pyrite, a mineral’s streak may be different from the color of the mineral
itself. The softer minerals (less than 7) generally leave behind a streak on a streak
plate.
CLEAVAGE OR FRACTURE: These two characteristics describe the way a mineral
breaks. If a mineral exhibits a fracture, the breakage is uneven and rough. Glass,
for example, does not break evenly, rather it fractures. Cleavage means to break
along a smooth, defined plane. It can occur in only one direction, i.e. mica or in as
many as 4 directions, i.e. fluorite. A mineral specimen may have one or more
smooth, defined surfaces. This does not necessarily mean that the mineral exhibits
cleavage. For example, a quartz crystal may have smooth, defined surfaces,
Earth/Environmental Science- Unit 3
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however, if it breaks, will shatter like glass (fracture). The smooth, outside surfaces
are the actual crystal faces, which had formed when the mineral finished growing.
Distinguishing between crystal faces and cleavage comes with experience.
CRYSTAL SHAPE: When the atoms come together to form a mineral, a pattern of
planar surfaces often develops on the outside which is the mineral’s crystal shape.
This is often difficult to determine when identifying minerals. The following link
discusses crystallography in detail. It is a good resource for advanced students.
http://webmineral.com/crystall.shtml
CRYSTAL HABIT: Crystal Habit is the general size and shape (or appearance) of
the mineral. The following link illustrates many of the known crystal habits
http://www.galleries.com/minerals/property/habits.htm
Crystal habit and crystal shape are terms that can be confusing to students.
Mineralogists often use “crystal form” to describe the situation when the outward
appearance of a mineral takes on a regular geometric shape. Crystal habit is related
to how a mineral breaks, whether it has a regular geometric shape or not.
MINERAL CLEAVAGE
MINERAL
sphalerite
fluorite
calcite
halite
galena
# OF
CLEAVAGE
DIRECTIONS
6
4
3
3
3
ANGLE OF
CLEAVAGE
DIRECTION
Not 90 degrees
Not 90 degrees
Not 90 degrees
90 degrees
90 degrees
muscovite
1
flat
BASIC MINERAL IDENTIFICATION WORKSHEET
Name: ___________________
You will be working with 16 different minerals (listed below). Your job will be to
identify the minerals based on their physical properties. Each mineral has a number.
The minerals you will be working with are listed in a scrambled order below. The
minerals with an asterisk (*) after their name are the ones for testing hardness. Your
teacher will tell you the numbers of the hardness minerals in your kit. Write those
numbers in the left column of the data table (below)
____ PYRITE
____ TALC*
____ HEMATITE
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____ CORUNDUM *
____ COPPER
____ MAGNETITE
____ MUSCOVITE
____ KAOLINITE
____ GALENA
____ HALITE
____ CALCITE *
____ QUARTZ *
____ ORTHOCLASE *
____ FLUORITE *
____ BORNITE
____ GYPSUM *
PART ONE – HARDNESS
Your instructor will tell you the numbers of the minerals used for the hardness tests.
Write these numbers in the column on the far left.
Hardness of objects: fingernail is 2.5; copper penny is 3; glass is 5.5
Identify the mineral quartz. This mineral is one used in the following hardness test.
Use the following questions as guide for each mineral you test. Write “Yes” or “No”
in columns 2-5.
Can the mineral be scratched by your fingernail?
Can the mineral be scratched by a penny?
Is the glass plate harder than the mineral?
Is quartz harder than the mineral?
MINERAL
FINGERNAIL PENNY
GLASS
PLATE
Yes or No
Yes or No
Yes or No
Yes or No
QUARTZ
quartz
gypsum
orthoclase
corundum
talc
calcite
fluorite
HARDNESS SCALE:
According to your data write the hardness scale (1-10)
1. ____________________
Earth/Environmental Science- Unit 3
6. ____________________
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23
2. ____________________
7. ____________________
3. ____________________
8. Topaz
4. ____________________
9. _____________________
5. Apatite
10. Diamond
+ When doing the scratch test, it is important to observe what is actually being
scratched and what is doing the scratching! How could you tell?
PART TWO - STREAK
Two of your minerals have characteristic streaks, which is the powder left behind on a
non-glazed porcelain streak plate. The two minerals are pyrite and hematite. What
color is the streak for each mineral?
Pyrite is mineral # _____ and has a ___________________ streak.
Hematite is mineral #
_____ and has a ___________________ streak.
PART THREE - CRYSTAL SHAPE AND CLEAVAGE
Inspect the minerals in your collection. Some of them appear to have been broken
unevenly, or fractured, while others appear to have been broken along specific planes
and at specific angles. The minerals in the latter group exhibit cleavage. List four
minerals that appear to have cleavage and determine how many directions or planes of
cleavage exist.
MINERAL #
NAME OF MINERAL
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DESCRIPTION OF CLEAVAGE
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24
Quartz and fluorite can look very similar if cleavage and fracture are not readily
apparent. Both come in a variety of colors. What other test can be used to distinguish,
without a doubt, the quartz from the fluorite?
PART FOUR – LUSTER
Luster describes how the mineral reflects light. Write the term which best describes the
luster of each mineral. The most common terms used to describe luster are as follows:
vitreous
metallic
earthy
silky
PYRITE __________________________
pearly
adamantine
HEMATITE ________________________
TALC ____________________________ CORUNDUM ______________________
BORNITE _______________________
KAOLINITE ________________________
HALITE _________________________
QUARTZ _________________________
FLUORITE ______________________
GYPSUM __________________________
COPPER _________________________
MUSCOVITE ______________________
GALENA _________________________
CALCITE __________________________
FELDSPAR _______________________ BORNITE _________________________
PART FIVE - OPTICAL PROPERTIES
Materials: clear rhombohedral calcite specimen, clear ulexite specimen, thin pieces of
muscovite, polarizing filters, scotch tape (the old-fashioned clear kind)
1) Place your piece of clear ulexite over printed words and look through it. Describe
what you see.
2) Place your piece of clear calcite over printed words and look through it. Describe
what you see.
3) Peel a thin sheet of muscovite and look at a light source through it. Describe what
you see.
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25
4) Place the muscovite between two polarizing filters. Hold it up to the light source
while spinning the polarizing filters. Describe what you see.
PART SIX – SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Materials: 100 mL graduated cylinder, scale, samples of galena, pyrite and copper
(small enough to fit inside graduated cylinder), rock and mineral guidebook.
FYI: The most common unit for the density of solids is grams per cubic centimeter (g/cc)
This translates to grams per milliliter for liquids (g/mL). The average density of water =
1 g/mL = 1 g/cc
Procedure:
1) Select one of the designated samples. Determine the mass of the specimen.
Record the mass on the data table.
2) Pour water into the graduated cylinder up to the 50mL mark
3) Measure the volume of the sample by carefully dropping it in the graduated
cylinder. Record the amount of displacement in mL
4) Calculate the specific gravity by the following formula: mass / volume
5) Compare your calculated specific gravity with the actual specific gravity as shown
in your rock and mineral guidebook.
Mineral
Mass (g)
Volume (mL)
Earth/Environmental Science- Unit 3
Specific
Specific
gravity
gravity from
(mass/volume) field guide
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26
ROCK ROULETTE
Teacher Notes:
Ease of preparation is difficult for first time set-up. We recommend laminating and
saving materials as a kit for future use.
This activity was developed by Stan M. Schmidt and Courtney Palmer. It provides an
opportunity for students to examine the rock cycle and see it realistically – as a
collection of interrelated systems. The developers identified eleven transitional stages
through which earth materials might pass during the rock cycle. The term “earth
materials” consists of all possible types of earth matter: sediment, the three types of
rocks (sedimentary, metamorphic, igneous), lava, etc. There is a station for each of the
components of the rock cycle. Materials might remain at a station briefly or for a very
long period of time before eventually moving on to another stage.
Each station has a six-sided die, which is marked according to the probability of what
happens to the earth material at that stage. The station “Igneous Rocks” is used as an
example and the six-sided die at this station is marked in the following way: two sides
are marked weathering and erosion,” two sides are marked “high temperature and
pressure,” and the last two sides are marked “melting.” In other words, there is a
33.33% chance that igneous rock will weather and erode, a 33.33% chance that the
rock will be subjected to high temperature and pressure, and a 33.33% chance that the
rock will melt. The probability closely matches what happens in the “real world.” A
student rolls the die and goes to the station indicated by that role. The developers
suggest the stations are arranged in a large circle. A sign is placed at each station to
go along with that station’s specific six-sided die. Let students know that they are to
think of themselves as particles of soil or mineral grains in rock moving through the rock
cycle.
Instruct students to draw a map of the stations in their notebooks and identify their
starting point station. Students are to record their movements through the stations.
This can be done by drawing arrows that trace their moves. Since some of the sides of
the die at various stations are marked “stay where you are,” students should also keep
a record of how long they stay at a particular station. This can be done using tally
marks. Each step of the rock cycle may take as little as 200,000 years or as much as
several million years. Each roll of the die has been defined as 200,000 years. Students
can multiply the total number of dice rolls to calculate the total time of their pattern from
beginning to end. The developers recommend 20 minutes to maximize student
involvement an interest. The eleven die should be constructed with heavy construction
paper so they can be reused many times. Below is a list of stations and how each
station’s die should be labeled:
NAME OF STATION
STATION 1:
COMPACTION AND
# OF DIE
SIDES
MARKED
WITH GIVEN
“GO TO”
OPTION
3
3
Earth/Environmental Science- Unit 3
GO TO:
Sedimentary rock
Compaction and cementation
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27
SEDIMENTATION
STATION 2:
HIGH TEMPERATURE
AND PRESSURE
STATION 3:
SEDIMENTS
STATION 4:
IGNEOUS ROCKS
STATION 5:
TO THE SURFACE
STATION 6:
METAMORPHIC ROCK
STATION 7:
SEDIMENTARY ROCK
STATION 8:
MELTING
STATION 9:
COOLING AND
HARDENING
(CRYSTALLIZATION)
STATION 10:
MAGMA
STATION 11:
WEATHERING AND
EROSION
3
3
2
4
2
2
2
4
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
2
4
3
3
(stay where you are)
Metamorphic rock
High temperature and pressure
(stay where you are)
Compaction and sedimentation
Sediments (stay where you are)
Weathering and erosion
High temperature and pressure
Melting
Weathering and erosion
To the surface (stay where you are)
Melting
To the surface
High temperature and pressure
High temperature and pressure
Melting
Weathering and erosion
Magma
Melting (stay where you are)
Igneous rock
Cooling and hardening (stay where you
are)
Cooling and hardening
Magma (stay where you are)
Sediments
Weathering and erosion (stay where
you are)
LOCATING PATTERNS OF EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANO DISTRIBUTION
Problem: What is the worldwide pattern of Earthquake and Volcano Distribution?
Materials: A world map showing latitude and longitude (on back)
Four different colored pencils
Procedure:
1. Use the information in the table to plot the location of each earthquake. Use one
of the color pencils to label on the world map each earthquake location with the
letter E inside the circle.
2. Use another color pencil to plot volcano locations and place the letter V inside
the circle.
3. Using a 3rd color, lightly shade the areas in which earthquakes are found.
4. Using a 4th color, lightly shade the areas in which volcanoes are found.
5. Then answer the questions that follow.
Key:
Earthquake Color
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Volcano Color
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Earthquake Zones
Volcano Zones
Define the following terms from the notes:
Magma, Volcanism, Lava, Vent, Crater, Volcano
Observations: Answer the following questions.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Are earthquakes scattered randomly over the surface of the Earth or are they
concentrated in definite zones?
Are volcanoes scattered randomly over the surface of the Earth or are they
concentrated in specific zones?
Are most earthquakes and volcanoes located near the edges of continents or
near the center of continents?
Are there any active volcanoes near your home?
Have there been any earthquakes near your home?
Discussion: In 2-3 sentences, describe any patterns you observed in the distribution of
earthquakes and volcanoes. Describe the relationship between the locations of
earthquakes and volcanoes.
PUSHING AND PULLING MOUNTAINS
http://www.nps.gov/brca/forteachers/landformact4.htm
Summary: Mountains and valleys are created by huge tectonic
activity, or movement in the Earth. This movement occurs in many
different ways, over millions of years. This lesson will show how
mountains and valleys form as the result of tectonic forces.
Instructional Method: Activity
Goal: To experiment with how tectonic forces form mountains.
Objectives: Students will be able to:

Recreate each landform made by drawing it on paper or using the foam strips

Perform each force needed to create different landforms

Label on paper the direction of the movement of the rock corresponding to each
force

Locate these landforms in nature or in photos
Time:
Set up: 40 min.
Experiment: 20 min.
Cleanup and discussion: 20 min.
Materials Needed:
Earth/Environmental Science- Unit 3
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
Foam of different thickness and color (craft and camping pad foam)

String

Rope

4x4 piece of wood 2 feet long

Saw

Scissors
Vocabulary:
basin
batholith
fault
fold
graben
hill
horst
igneous intrusion
laccolith
mountain
normal fault
tectonic
thrust fault
valley
Background:
Mountains and valleys form in many ways. Two types of tectonic forces can result in
mountains and valleys: compression (squishing) and extension (pulling apart). These
forces commonly associate with mountain building but also form valleys.
Compressing continents occur when two continents collide. In crustal collision, the
buckling action of rock is similar to what happens to the hoods of cars in a head-on
collision. The buckles form mountains and valleys. In rock the buckles can fracture and
slide on top of each other, causing that area to increase in thickness.
An example of two continents compressing into each other resulted in the Himalayan
Mountains. This happened when India collided with Asia millions of years ago. They are
still compressing into each other and the mountains are still growing today.
An older example of the same thing happening in the United States is the Appalachian
Mountains. North America and Africa collided about 200-300 million years ago forming
this great mountain system. They are no longer growing but diminishing due to erosion
over time. Great Smoky Mountains National Park is located in the heart of the
Appalachians.
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Stretching a continent causes it to thin and break in the same way silly putty breaks
when it is cold and stretched quickly. Faults form throughout the stretched portion of the
crust and allow large blocks of solid rock to move up or down as dictated by magma
movement in the mantle. These massive blocks of rock are called fault blocks.
Fault blocks are divided into two categories: horsts and grabens. A horst is an uplifted
fault block and a graben is a fallen or down dropped fault block. A geographic region in
the western United States known for horst and graben fault block structures is the Basin
and Range. This region begins at Zion National Park and extends into eastern
California. A national park sharing the region's name and located within the Basin and
Range is Great Basin National Park.
The Plateau region in the Four Corners area of the American southwest (southern Utah,
northern Arizona, southeastern Colorado and northwest New Mexico) may have uplifted
by the collision of two tectonic plates. However, this area did not get mangled and
buckle like the Appalachian Mountains. Buckling occurred close to the plate contacts
forming the Sierra Nevada mountains.
The Pacific Plate is thought to have slid under the American plate for a long distance
until it sunk deep into the mantle. Once it was deep enough, it melted and the melted
rock rose towards the surface. Rising magma uplifted the entire area forming the
Colorado plateau. Much of the rising magma remained below the flat-lying crust.
Laccoliths and batholiths formed in locations on the Colorado Plateau where the magma
did not break through the surface. These two landforms are like "blisters" of magma
under the rocks. Eventually, the magma cooled and hardened forming a solid core of
igneous rock. These igneous "blisters" exposed at the surface form batholiths and
laccoliths. Batholiths are igneous intrusions with irregular shapes, top and bottom.
Laccoliths are rounded on top and have a flat bottom. Scientists believed that because
the igneous intrusion was pushed into flat lying horizontal layers the bubble's bottom
spread along a bedding plane, giving it a flat bottom.
These blisters form the Henry mountains, Manti-La Sal mountains, San Francisco
mountains and Navajo Mountain, among others. Each one of these mountain ranges
can be seen from surrounding national parks; Arches National Park, Bryce Canyon
National Park, Capitol Reef National Park, Canyonlands National Park and Hovenweep
National Monument.
Many times a combination of extension and collision is responsible for the creation of
landforms.
Instructional Procedures:
1. Instructional Procedures for Creating Activity Tools:
1. Cut foam into strips 2-4 inches wide and 8-12 inches long.
2. Cut two small holes into each end with scissors or a paper punch.
Earth/Environmental Science- Unit 3
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3. Alternate thickness and color to create a stack of 3 to 5 pieces.
4. Thread string through the holes cut in the foam to fasten the pieces together
forming a foam sandwich.
5. Make sure the string is loose enough that the foam pieces can slide when bent.
6. Cut wood into angled pieces of 45 degrees or more.
7. Drill a hole through each piece so they line up.
8. Slide a rope through the blocks and tie a knot at each end. Make sure to leave 3
to 4 inches between the knot and the end of the block.
2. Activity Instructions:
1. The foam layers represent layers of rock.
By pushing and folding the foam you can
imagine how rock layers respond to the
same forces. Obviously, folding and
buckling mountains in nature takes a very
long time, but the process is replicated
quite well with foam.
2. Wood blocks represent portions of the crust as it responds to extensional forces.
Start with the blocks pushed together forming a flat surface and then pull them
apart to form mountains and valleys. In nature, the higher portions are called
horsts and the falling portions are called grabens.
3. Explain what the layers of foam represent and what the wood blocks represent. If
possible show pictures of landforms that show the rock layers with folds or
bends. A topographic or geologic map of Nevada would be helpful to show the
mountains and valleys formed by stretching the crust.
4. Demonstrate to the class the different types of mountain building processes.
5. Give a demonstration on how they can use each tool to build their own
mountains.
6. Break students into as many groups as possible so that each group can have
their own foam and blocks.
7. Recreate each landform they have studied.
8. Draw on a paper the forces, noted by arrows, that are responsible for creating
each landform.
Discussion:
Earth/Environmental Science- Unit 3
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What are the different forces that build mountains? How do they work? Are there any
mountains near you? If so, do you know how they formed? Can we ever feel mountains
moving (yes, earthquakes)? What do we call the shaking we feel when there is
movement along a fault?
Variation:
If foam is not available, try using short stacks of different color paper. Each stack of
paper should represent one rock layer. Stacks should be at least 1/8 inch thick and no
more than 1/2 inch thick. Each stack should be a different color. Follow steps 2-5 of
procedures for building tools in order to create paper rock layers, then proceed with
activity.
Extension:
Have students hypothesize what may happen if forces were placed in different locations
or from only one side, etc. Write down the hypotheses. Perform the hypotheses on the
foam layers and blocks. Write down what happened to the foam and blocks ( i.e. what
landforms they created).
SLICE OF THE EARTH
Essential Question:
How can the earth’s internal structure be inferred through the interpretation of seismic
data?
In this activity you will construct a scale model of a “slice” of the earth. With this slice, you will
illustrate the layers of the earth and their components.
Materials:
 two 11 x 17 inch sheets of paper
 meter stick
 ~ 70 cm long string with loop at one end
 tape
 pencil
Procedure:
1. Tape the two sheets of paper together at the short end to make one sheet that is
11 x 34 inches.
2. Draw a light center line and “width lines” on the 11 x 34 paper as short dashed
lines to construct a scale model of a slice of the earth’s interior (like a pizza
slice). The scale is 1:10 million of 1 cm = 100 km. This results in a slide with a
Earth/Environmental Science- Unit 3
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3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
radius of 63.7 cm which corresponds to the earth’s actual radius of 6371 km.
Using the dimensions shown in Figure 1 and Table 3, construct your slice.
Draw the surface arc line by using the string with a loop and a pencil with the
length from the center point to the pencil in the loop being 63.7 cm.
Draw the angle line using information from Table 3. Now erase all light pencil
lines.
Complete your scale model slice by drawing arcs at the appropriate radii
corresponding to the Moho, Lithosphere-Asthenosphere, Transition Zone, CoreMantle, and Outer Core-Inner Core boundaries as given in Table 1 and illustrated
on Figure 2.
Label the boundaries and layers of the earth and color the various layers.
Once your slice is complete, stick it on the wall so that as a class you will create
a scale model of the whole earth and its layers.
Questions: Answer the following questions in complete sentences.
1. What does it mean to make a “scale” model of the earth?
2. What would our classroom earth look like if you did not make your slices to
scale?
3. Describe how this activity simply describes the layers of the earth.
4. What observations have scientists made that tell us about the different layers of
the earth?
5. Is the earth really divided into layers that have distinct boundaries and are
uniform throughout the entire earth? Describe why or why not.
Table 1: Measurements for Slice of the Earth
Actual
Value
Scale Value
(1:10 million Scale)
6371 km
63.7 cm
Depth* to base of the crust (average)
35 km
0.35 cm
Depth* to base of lithosphere (average)
100 km
1.0 cm
Depth* to base of upper mantle
670 km
6.7 cm
Depth* to core-mantle boundary
2885 km
28.9 cm
Depth* to outer core-inner core boundary
5155 km
51.6 cm
Radius of Earth
*Measure downwards from the surface after drawing the arc representing the surface at
a distance of 63.7 cm from the Earth’s center and drawing the diagonal lines completing
the “pie-shaped slice” of the Earth.
Table 3: Measurements of Width Lines to Produce Slices of Different Angles for
Different Class Sizes.
Earth/Environmental Science- Unit 3
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Angle of Slice (degrees)
Number of Slices (Class
Size) to Make a Full Circle
Distance From Center
Line to Width Line (see
Figure 1)
12
30
6.7 cm
15
24
8.3 cm
20
18
11.1 cm
24
15
13.2 cm
Figure 1. Dashed lines are light pencil lines (draw first) that can be erased after the
solid lines of the "slice" are drawn.
Figure 2. Earth's interior structure.
Earth/Environmental Science- Unit 3
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Earth/Environmental Science- Unit 3
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36
FINDING THE EPICENTER OF AN EARTHQUAKE
Background Information: Movement within the earth along a fault or between plates causes
seismic shock waves to spread out in all directions. The point at which the movement occurs is
called the focus. Above the focus, on the surface of the earth is the epicenter. There are two
distinct types of seismic waves that are used to determine an earthquake’s epicenter: P-waves
(primary waves) move in a push and pull fashion, travel the fastest and arrive at seismic stations
first. S-waves (shear waves or secondary waves) move in a side-to-side fashion, travel slower
than P-waves and arrive at a seismic station after the P-waves. Each type of wave is affected by
the density of the earth material in which it travels. P-waves can travel through both the solid
crust and mantle and the molten outer core. S-waves can also travel through the solid parts of
the earth, but not through liquid or molten material. Seismic stations throughout the world can
detect distant earthquake waves. The key is to determine, from the seismograph reading, the
time lapse between the arrival of the first P-wave and the first S-wave. A seismologist can then
use data from multiple seismic stations to determine an earthquake’s epicenter. Data from three
stations are necessary to do this. When seismograph data from stations at three different
locations is compared, the precise location of an earthquake’s epicenter can be determined.
Materials:

Drawing compass with pencil

Graph that plots distance to epicenter (X-axis) and difference in arrival time between P and S
waves

United States map
Procedure:
1. Examine the three seismograms and record the time difference in minutes between the
arrival of the first P-wave and the arrival of the first S-wave. Do this for each seismic
station.
Earth/Environmental Science- Unit 3
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37
2. Use the Travel-Time graph to determine the distance in miles each station is from the
epicenter of the earthquake. To do this, find the time in minutes (Y-axis) and go
horizontally across to the curve. Now go vertically downward to the X-axis and record
the corresponding distance in miles.
3. Use the distance from the epicenter in miles for the first seismic station. Place the
compass point exactly on the “0” mark of the scale. Widen the compass so the pencil
point matches the distance.
4. Maintaining the compass width, place the point of the compass on the map at the location
of the first seismic station. Sketch a complete circle.
5. Repeat steps 2-4 for the remaining two seismic stations.
6. The three circles should intersect at a point. This is the location of the earthquake’s
epicenter.
Seismograph
Station
Arrival (clock time)
“P” wave
“S” wave
Difference
in arrival
time
min & sec
Distance
to
epicenter
Oklahoma City
Earth/Environmental Science- Unit 3
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Denver
Tampa
Chicago
Earth/Environmental Science- Unit 3
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Earth/Environmental Science- Unit 3
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40
CHOCOLATE CHIP COOKIE MINING
Background: Rich deposits of minerals from which valuable metals can be recovered profitably
are called ores. If an ore is to be economical (profitable to mine considering the costs of
extraction, transport and selling price) it must have a certain level of concentration. The mining
industry has practical concerns: How long until the mineral “reserve” is exhausted? Are there
yet-to-be-discovered deposits out there? When higher grade deposits are mined out, is it feasible
to rely on lower-grade deposits, which are often more costly to recover?
Following the procedure are descriptions of the various types of mineral deposits.
Materials:
several varieties of chocolate chip cookies (high, medium and low-end)
paper money (tens, fives and singles)
grid paper
toothpicks (flat and round)
paper clips
Procedure:
1) Each player starts with $19.00 of play money, a Cookie Mining sheet, and a sheet of grid
paper.
2) Each player must buy his/her own mining property, which is a cookie. Only one “mining
property” per player. Players can choose from three different types of cookies. The most
desirable cookie (and the most expensive) has the largest (or most) chocolate chips.
PRICES OF MINING PROPERTY AND EQUIPMENT:
Low-end cookie
$3.00
Medium grade cookie
$5.00
High-end cookie
$7.00
flat toothpick
$2.00
round toothpick
$4.00
paper clip
$6.00
3) After the mining property (cookie) and mining equipment are bought, the player places the
cookie on the grid paper, and, using a pencil, traces the outline of the cookie. The player must
count each square that falls inside the circle. Put together partial squares to make full squares.
4) While mining the cookie (removing the chips from the cookie) use only the mining tools.
Each student should time his/her operation. Mining costs are $1.00 per minute and this will be
factored in to the spreadsheet.
5) When mining ceases (allow a maximum of five minutes), each student should record the total
time spent mining the cookie.
6) After the cookie has been “mined,” the cookie should be placed back into the circled area on
the grid paper. This can only be accomplished using the mining tools – No fingers or hands
allowed! Reclamation costs are $1.00 per square over the original count.
7) The chips (ore) should be separated so they can be redeemed for cash. Sale of a chocolate
chip mined from a cookie brings $2.00 (broken chocolate chips can be combined to make one
whole chip).
RULES
Only the mining tools and the paper may touch the cookie.
Earth/Environmental Science- Unit 3
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Players should allow a maximum of 5 minutes for mining. Mining may be completed before the
five minutes are used up. Students are charged only for the amount of time used in mining
($1.00 per minute).
A player can purchase as many mining tools as the player desires, and the tools can be of
different types.
If a mining tool breaks, they are no longer usable and a new tool must be purchased.
COOKIE MINING SPREADSHEET
1. Name of mine: __________________________________________
2. Price of mine: ___________
3. Size of mine: ______ squares covered
4. Equipment:
Flat toothpick
____ x $2.00 = ___________
Round Toothpick ____ x $4.00 = ___________
Paper clip
____ x $6.00 = ___________
5. Mining: _____ minutes x $1.00 = ___________
6. Reclamation: ______ squares x $1.00 = ___________
TOTAL COST OF MINING = ______________
7. Chip removal: _____ chips x 2.00 per chip
VALUE OF ORE MINED = _______
MONEY LEFT OVER FROM BEGINNING = _______
NET GAIN OR LOSS FROM MINING
(Value of ore + money left over from beginning) – Total cost of mining =
Earth/Environmental Science- Unit 3
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TYPES OF MINERAL DEPOSITS
HYDROTHERMAL DEPOSITS
These deposits form in hot aqueous solutions. Vein deposits (also called “veins”) are tabular or
sheet-like. Ores may be found in veins or in adjacent country rock Examples of vein ores: pyrite
(FeS2), galena (PbS), sphalerite (ZnS), cinnabar (HgS), covelite (CuS) and chalcocite (CuS)
Hydrothermal solutions reaching the Earth’s surface appear as hot springs and geysers.
Precipitated mineral ores (pyrophyllite and sericite) from ancient hot springs and geysers occur
in Hillsborough, NC.
DISSEMINATED DEPOSITS
These deposits are scattered throughout much larger volumes of rock, rather than being
concentrated in veins. Porphyry copper deposits can be found in the American Southwest and
Chile as well as other places. Igneous intrusions may occur in numerous scattered fractures over
a large volume of rock. Hydrothermal solutions may penetrate cracks and precipitate ore
minerals over a large volume of rock. Open pit copper mines near Tucson, AZ produce
chalcopyrite, malachite and chalcocite. A lot of replacement deposits such as skarns are massive
and disseminated. Carbonates dissolved by hydrothermal solutions and replaced with sulfides
produce minerals such as galena and sphalerite.
IGNEOUS ORE DEPOSITS
Minerals crystallize from molten magma, settle and accumulate on the floor of a magma
chamber – ex. Cr and Pt ores in S. Africa and Montana. Bushveldt complex – South Africa –
dark chromite layers
PEGMATITES
Coarse-grained, intrusive rocks (granitic) found in veins, dikes and lenses in granitic batholiths.
and formed by fractional crystallization of granitic magma. As magma cools, the last melt to
freeze solidifies as a pegmatite where minerals present in trace amounts are concentrated. Rare
mineral deposits rich in boron, lithium, fluorine, Niobium, Uranium. Examples of pegmatite
gemstones: emerald, tourmaline. Unusually large mineral grain size is found in some
pegmatites.
KIMBERLITES
One of the most valuable minerals, diamonds, originates chiefly in ultramafic igneous rocks
called kimberlites, named for Kimberley, South Africa, where they are found in relative
abundance. Rocks forcefully intruded to surface from deep in the crust and upper mantle in the
form of a long, narrow pipe. Diamonds (and other minerals found in kimberlite pipes) can only
be formed under the conditions of extremely high pressure that exist at such depths. Kimberlites
erupt to the surface at high speeds, propelled by pressurized volatiles such as water and carbon
dioxide. No one has ever seen a kimberlite eruption. Diamonds and other kimberlite minerals
have been found long distances from their pipe of origin, carried by erosional agents (surface
water, glaciers)
SEDIMENTARY MINERAL DEPOSITS
Include some of the world’s most valuable mineral sources. Many economically important
Earth/Environmental Science- Unit 3
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43
minerals segregate by chemical and physical means as an ordinary result of sedimentary
processes. (see chapter 7 – sedimentary rocks)
Non-metallic sedimentary minerals include:
 Limestones – chemically precipitated by marine organisms (cement, agricultural lime,
building stone)
 Pure quartz sands – left behind due to resistance to weathering (glassmaking, fiber optics)
 Coarse sands and gravels – abundantly distributed by Pleistocene glaciers in many areas
of the northern U.S. and Canada (construction purposes)
 Clays of high purity – prolonged weathering of feldspars (ceramics in both home and
industry)
 Evaporite deposits – separated from seawater by precipitation
Gypsum (plaster of paris), Sodium and Potassium salts (table salt, fertilizer), Phosphate
rocks – marine shales and limestones enriched in phosphate by chemical reaction with
deep seawater (raw material for the world’s fertilizer industry)
Metallic Sedimetary minerals – important sources of copper, iron and other metals. Chemically
precipitated in sedimentary environments to which large quantities of metals were transported in
solution. Kupferschiefer beds “copper slate” of Germany are Permian in age. May have
precipitated from hot brines of hydrothermal origin, rich in metal sulfides, that interacted with
sediments on the ocean bottom.
Banded iron formations - Major iron ores have been found in Precambrian sedimentary rocks.
At that time in the Earth’s history, the atmosphere was poor in oxygen. This allowed an
abundance of iron in its soluble (lower oxidation state or ferrous – Fe2+) form to be leached in
great quantities from the land surface. The ferrous iron was transported in solution by
groundwater to broad, shallow marine environments where it could be oxidized to its insoluble
ferric form (Fe3+) and precipitated. In many of these basins, iron was deposited in thin layers
alternating with layers of siliceous sediments (called “cherts”). Such iron ores are called “Banded
iron formations.” In the U.S., the Lake Superior iron deposits are of this type.
PLACERS
Many rich deposits of gold, diamonds and other heavy minerals such as magnetite and chromite
are found in placers; ore deposits that have been concentrated by the mechanical sorting action of
river currents. The heavier minerals tend to accumulate on river bottoms and sandbars, where
the current is strong enough to keep the lighter minerals suspended and in transport, but too weak
to move the heavier mineral. In a similar manner, ocean waves preferentially deposit heavy
minerals on the beach or on shallow offshore bars. Inspect “heavy sand” samples (bags of
illmenite sand and/or sand composed of minerals containing manganese) from the inner coastal
plain of Virginia. Some placers can be traced upstream to the location of the original mineral
deposit, usually of igneous origin, from which the minerals were eroded. The “Mother Lode,” an
extensive gold-bearing vein system in the western flanks of the Sierra Nevada batholith (large
igneous intrusion) produced the placers that were discovered in 1848 and lead to the California
Gold Rush. Examine the publication – “Gold Deposits in North Carolina.” The nation’s firstever gold rush occurred at the turn of the century (~ 1800) near Charlotte after a gold nugget was
found by a teenager, Conrad Reed.
Earth/Environmental Science- Unit 3
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44
Goal 2.01
Activities
(*** - 90 min days)
MINERAL
FAMILIES AND
FORMATION
Guiding Question:
How are the
physical properties
of minerals
dependent on their
bonding
formation?
Teacher Notes
Supplementary
Notes
Notes: If you have a fairly substantial mineral collection and
many of your students have already taken chemistry, this
activity is a nice extension for understanding and developing
an appreciation for how minerals form. Prepare for this
multiple-day activity by organizing your mineral collection
according to mineral families. Common mineral families
include: the silicates, the carbonates, the oxides, the sulfides,
the sulfates and the halides. There are numerous smaller
mineral families.
Activity time:
90 min
Before Activity: gather minerals and be proficient in the
mineral families. Review with students how the notebook
should be organized.
AD CAMPAIGN
FOR A MINERAL
Guiding Question:
After activity: have students create posters to share with the
class or lead in a group discussion of their findings. Collect
the notebooks for grading.
Notes Challenge the students to design an ad campaign for a
mineral, which will appear on a large highway billboard or on
two pages of a popular magazine. You could also give
students the option of doing a skit, a radio ad or
television/info commercial. The product should highlight one
or more of the mineral’s important features.
Preparation
Time: 30 min
Background
information: go
to MINERAL
FAMILIES
document at
the end for
additional
information on
the mineral
families.
Activity time:
90 min
Preparation
Time: 30 min
Before Activity: students should know characteristics of
minerals so they can classify them. They also need to
understand how to utilize guide books.
After activity: posters should be presented to the whole class
and then displayed
Notes Questions for rock identifications are provided on the
ROCK
IDENTIFICATION following web site:
USING FLOW
http://www.rockhounds.com/rockshop/rockkey/index.html
Each station has one card that asks a question. A student
CHARTS
Guiding Question: proceeds to the next station based on his/her answer. Each
station is numbered and many of them have one distinct rock.
Is the rock cycle
If the station’s question requires the use of a tool or materials,
truly cyclical?
provide it at that particular station.
Activity time:
30 min
Preparation
Time: 30 min
Before Activity: The teacher needs to be sure students
understand how to move around the room through the stations
and the purpose of the activity.
Earth/Environmental Science- Unit 3
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45
A ROCK IS A
ROCK
Guiding Question:
How are rocks
classified? What
are their differing
characteristics?
HISTORY ROCKS
Guiding Question:
What rock or
mineral has had
the greatest
influence or impact
on human society?
After activity: students can write a story about their journey
as a rock or they can discuss in whole group their findings
Notes: This is a web based activity; SAS in School is a free
resource for teachers in North Carolina. Find out if your
school has already set up an account. If not, write to SAS:
inschool@sasinschool.com to request an account.
Activity time:
90 mins
Preparation
Time: 15 min
Before Activity: The teacher should be proficient in this web
activity and schedule computers for the class. The students
should be aware of Internet etiquette and procedures for
computer use. The SAS-in-School Curriculum Pathways
Earth Science > Rocks, Minerals and Soil > Web lesson: “A
Rock is a Rock”
After activity: students will share their electronic reports
and/or quiz
Notes The teacher will need to be prepared to re-teach
characteristics of writing or preferably partner up with the
English teacher to ensure successful papers. More information
on HISTORY ROCKS following this section of the document
Before Activity: the teacher should have rubric for grading
which is accessible to students
After activity: Students should be able to present their
findings to the class
OREO COOKIE Notes: all the directions to this activity are on the website.
You will need to emphasize that the cookie is eaten after the
ACTIVITY
Guiding Question:
How can you
simulate and relate
plate movements?
exercise is complete.
Before Activity: purchase sandwich cookies and be sure
students are acquainted with the terminology
Goal *** Activities
(*** - 90 min days)
Teacher Notes
LOCATING
PATTERNS OF
EARTHQUAKE
AND
VOLCANO
DISTRIBUTION
Notes: See Locating Patterns of Earthquates details at the end
of this section of the document for more detailed information.
Before Activity:
Activity time:
90 min class
period but
students will
need more
time to write
and revise
essays
Preparation
Time: 5 min
Activity time:30
min
Preparation
Time: 5 min
After activity: discuss as whole group or in written
descriptions of the experience and how modeling has helped
to understand plate movement.
Supplementary
Notes
Activity time:
Preparation
Time:
After activity:
Earth/Environmental Science- Unit 3
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46
Guiding Question:
What is the
worldwide pattern of
Earthquake and
Volcano
Distribution?
EVIDENCE
FOR PLATE
TECTONICS
Guiding Question:
Notes SAS in School pathway: Earth Science > Plate
Tectonics > InterActivity: “Evidence for Plate Tectonics”
Earth Science > Plate Tectonics > Project: “Patterns of Fury”
SAS-in-school is a free resource for teachers in North
Carolina. Find out if your school has already set up an
account. If not, write to SAS: inschool@sasinschool.com
Before Activity: The teacher should use the website to
practice the activity. The students should be aware of the
theory of plate tectonics.
DENSITY OF
IGNEOUS ROCKS
Guiding Question:
After activity: A whole group discussion concerning what was
learned through this activity
Notes This activity is on the Spring Valley High School (New
York) Earth Science website
http://www.eram.k12.ny.us/education/components/docmgr/
default.php?sectiondetailid=17511&fileitem=2453&catfilter=5
67
Before Activity: The teacher needs to be sure students
understand the difference between density and weight. The
students may need a quick refresher on how do calculate.
VIRTUAL
EARTHQUAKE
Guiding Question:
After activity: Students will be able to calculate mineral
percentages in a variety of igneous rocks using the Scheme for
Igneous Rock Identification tables.
Notes:
The following website has step-by-step instruction and
practice for determining the epicenter of an earthquake using
real data.
http://vcourseware5.calstatela.edu/VirtualEarthquake/V
QuakeExecute.html The result of the triangulation at the end
indicates whether or not the student has gained mastery. This
would be a good activity to include in a computer lab packet.
Activity time: 90
min
Preparation
Time: none but
be sure to have
computers
available
Activity time:45
mins
Preparation
Time: none but
you will need to
reserve
computers
Activity time: 50
min
Preparation
Time: none
Before Activity: The teacher should become familiar with the
possibilities presented in the website. Students need to review
vocabulary.
Earth/Environmental Science- Unit 3
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47
LOCATING THE
1989 “WORLD
SERIES
EARTHQUAKE”
EPICENTER
Guiding Question:
How do scientists
calculate the
epicenter of an
earthquake?
Guiding Question:
After activity: students should submit a written explanation of
their experience with the virtual earthquakes.
Notes: This website gives students more practice finding an
epicenter using real data.
http://www.classzone.com/books/earth_science/terc/
content/ investigations/ es1003/es1003page02.cfm
Activity time: 50
min
Preparation
Time: none
Before Activity: Students should be aware of how a
seismograph operates.
After activity: Students should be able to relate their findings
to the entire class or in written form.
Activity time:
Notes
Before Activity:
Preparation
Time:
After activity:
Goal ***
Activities
(*** - 90 min
days)
Teacher Notes
Supplementary
Notes
USING
DISASTER
TO TEACH
SCIENCE
Notes: Students will use a real-life eample of a natural-gas
pipeline explosion to explore
http://www.quantumsimulations.com/pdfs/ EBS_Article.pdf
Activity time: 60
Guiding
Question:
Preparation Time:
none
Before Activity: The teacher needs to practice the web-based
lesson before using it with the students.
After activity: The students will be able to understand the math
relationship that allows scientist to create models to forecast
possible events.
MINERAL FAMILIES AND FORMATION
If you have a fairly substantial mineral collection and many of your students have already taken
chemistry, this activity is a nice extension for understanding and developing an appreciation for
how minerals form. Prepare for this multiple-day activity by organizing your mineral collection
according to mineral families. Common mineral families include: the silicates, the carbonates,
the oxides, the sulfides, the sulfates and the halides. There are numerous smaller mineral
families.
Materials: Mineral specimens from the families listed above grouped according to mineral
family. Hand lenses. Rock and Mineral guidebooks (Simon and Schuster’s guidebook does
a good job covering mineral families and environment of formation). Students may do their
work in notebooks, journals or scrapbooks. Provide colored pencils and extra fine-tipped
markers if they are available.
Earth/Environmental Science- Unit 3
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48
Directions: Each page or section in the student notebook will represent one type of mineral
formation. The categories of mineral formation are as follows:
1 - ACCESSORY MINERAL IN BOTH IGNEOUS AND/OR METAMORPHIC ROCKS
2 - COMPONENT OF MAFIC AND ULTRAMAFIC IGNEOUS ROCKS
3 - COMPONENT OF FELSIC IGNEOUS ROCKS
4 - MINERALS THAT FORM UNDER METAMORPHIC CONDITIONS (contact or
regional)
5 - FORMATION IN PEGMATITES
6 - FORMS IN HYDROTHERMAL MINERAL VEINS
7 - FORMED BY THE CHEMICAL ALTERATION OF ANOTHER MINERAL
8 - FORMS IN THE OXIDATION ZONE OF A MINERAL DEPOSIT
9 - FORMS DURING VOLCANIC OR ERUPTIVE EVENTS
10 - OCCURS IN PLACER DEPOSITS
11 - FORMS BY MAGMATIC SEGREGATION
12 - FORMS BY WEATHERING
13 - FORMED AS A PRECIPITATE BY EVAPORATION OF WATER
14 - FORMED AS A PRECIPITATE IN SEA WATER
15 - MINERAL PRECIPITATED AROUND HOT SPRINGS OR GEYSERS
The student starts by selecting a mineral in the mineral family box from which he/she is
working. Use on of the guidebooks or other resource to determine how the mineral is
formed. This may also be referred to as “environment” or “occurrence.” Once this
information is found, students will list the mineral on the specific mineral formation page.
All or some of the following information can be recorded for each mineral:

Name of mineral

Chemical formula and its “English” translation i.e. Halite, NaCl, sodium chloride

Geographic locations where mineral is found

Uses for the mineral

Associated minerals (commonly found along with mineral in question)
The following are notes on mineral occurrence for selected minerals. Minerals are grouped
according to family. Copy and laminate these notes if you do not have enough guidebooks.
Included are the following families: silicates, carbonates, oxides and sulfides. Sulfates,
halides and others are not represented in these notes.
SILICATE FAMILY OF MINERALS (The “Rock-formers”)
OLIVINE - Magnesium iron silicate
Transparent variety called Forsterite (Mg2SiO4) is faceted as a gem.
Peridot is gem-quality olivine not limited to the forsterite; it includes Fe2SiO4
A main constituent of mafic and ultramafic igneous rocks such as basalt, gabbro and
peridotite
ALMANDINE (Garnet Group) - Iron aluminum silicate
Common mineral in medium-grade metamorphic environments
Detrital mineral in sedimentary rocks due to its hardness and resistance to weathering
Earth/Environmental Science- Unit 3
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49
Used in medium-grade sandpaper; inexpensive gemstones.
Crystals can be collected on NC-98 a few miles west of Wake Forest, NC.
Formed when certain rocks undergo medium-grade metamorphism. Garnets often occur in
river and beach sands.
ZIRCON - Zirconium silicate
Typical accessory mineral of acidic igneous rocks
Found in beach sands; “heavy sand”
Common accessory mineral in many igneous rocks – also in schists and gneisses.
Rounded grains occur in placer deposits.
SILLIMANITE - Aluminosilicate polymorph (Al2SiO5)
Sensitive indicator of temp. and pressure at which host rock formed
Widespread in high-temp. regional metamorphic rocks
ANDALUSITE – Aluminosilicate polymorph (Al2SiO5)
Used in high-temp. electrical insulators and acid-resistant ceramics; Occurs with pyrophyllite
in Hillsborough. Very hard (7.5) Large crystals found in Andalucia, Spain.
Typical of low-temperature metamorphic rocks that are rich in aluminum
KYANITE - Aluminosilicate polymorph (Al2SiO5)
Two hardnesses: 6-7 (across cleavage planes) 4-5 (along cleavage planes)
Raw material for manufacture of high-temp. porcelain products and perfect electrical
insulators.
Found mainly in medium to high-grade regionally metamorphosed schists and gneisses.
Diagnostic blue color.
TOPAZ - Hydrous Aluminum silicate
Largest and finest crystals come from Brazil and Siberia
Deep golden-yellow variety is most highly regarded
Found with pyrophyllite in Hillsborough
Formation in pegmatites in felsic igneous rocks such as granites and rhyolites.
STAUROLITE - Hydrous iron magnesium aluminum silicate
Often found in alluvial sands due to insolubility. Very hard (7 – 7.5)
Found as single and twinned crystals (cruciform)
Forms in medium-grade metamorphic rocks. Also found in placer deposits.
TITANITE - Calcium titanium silicate
Large masses are worked as an ore of titanium
Accessory mineral in “intermediate” igneous rocks such as diorite and syenite
EPIDOTE - Calcium aluminum iron silicate
A very common constituent of rocks
This mineral filled what were once vesicles in basalts, which outcrop on New Hope Church
Road near the NC 86 intersection. In regional and contact metamorphic rocks of mafic
origin. Occurs in cavities in rocks such as gabbro, basalt and amphibolite.
Earth/Environmental Science- Unit 3
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50
BERYL - Beryllium aluminum silicate
Characteristic of granitic rocks and pegmatites, where it sometimes occurs as enormous
crystals
Aquamarine (light blue), heliodor (yellow), morganite (pink) and emerald (green) are
varieties of beryl. Spruce Pine, NC is a famous emerald locality. It is associated with quartz,
spodumene, columbite, cassiterite, tantalite and other rare minerals.
TOURMALINE - Complex borosilicate
Elongated prismatic crystals that vary greatly in color. Striations parallel to the long axis
resemble licorice. Can conduct electricity when strained (piezoelectric). Common accessory
mineral in igneous and metamorphic rocks.
AUGITE (pyroxene group) - Calcium magnesium iron aluminum silicate
Common mineral in mafic and ultramafic igneous rocks such as gabbro, basalt and
pyroxenite. Distribution very widespread. Cleavage angle of minerals in pyroxene group =
93 and 87 degrees.
SPODUMENE (pyroxene group) - Lithium aluminum silicate
Important industrial sourceof lithium. Valuable variety called “hiddenite” found in the
western Piedmont of North Carolina. Found in lithium-bearing pegmatites associated with
quartz, feldspars, lepidolite, beryl and tourmaline.
ENSTATITE (pyroxene group) - Magnesium silicate
Found in mafic and ultramafic plutonic and volcanic rocks, as well as in high-grade
metamorphic rocks and in meteorites.
ACTINOLITE (amphibole group) - Hydrous calcium magnesium iron silicate
Found in an area of ultramafic rocks next to Falls Lake, north of Raleigh. Common in mafic
metamorphic rocks.
HORNBLENDE (amphibole group) - Complex silicate
Green or black color with brown streak. Prismatic cleavage at 60 and 120 degrees.
Distribution widespread and very common. An important constituent of igneous rocks and
metamorphic rocks especially amphibolites.
PREHNITE (phyllosilicates) - Hydrous calcium aluminum silicate
Pale green; often found in “mammilary” aggregates. Found in fissures in igneous rocks and
in some low-grade metamorphic rocks.
PYROPHYLLITE (phyllosilicates) - Hydrous aluminum silicate
Most often found as rosettes (radiating crystals). Used in cosmetics and paints; a dry
lubricant and for heat and electrical insulation. Excellent specimens found in Hillsborough,
NC. Pyrophyllite found in the Carolina Slate Belt formed from the chemical alteration of
volcanic tuffs by geysers and hot springs.
TALC (Phyllosilicates) - Hydrous magnesium silicate
Very soft; Hardness=1 on Moh’s scale. Ingredient in paper and rubber; cosmetics and paints.
Alteration product of magnesium silicates in ultramafic rocks
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MUSCOVITE (Phyllosilicates)
Often called “mica.” One of the most common minerals in rocks. Used in electrical or heat
insulation. Garnet-mica schist outcrop on NC 98 between Durham and Wake Forest
Formation in intrusive felsic igneous rocks. Enormous crystals found in pegmatites.
Also found in some varieties of schists and gneisses
BIOTITE (Phyllosilicates) - Hydrous potassium magnesium/iron aluminum silicate
Often called “black mica.” Very large crystals (up to 70 square meters) found in pegmatites
Component of felsic igneous rocks, gneisses and schists.
VERMICULITE (Phyllosilicates) - Hydrated magnesium iron aluminum silicate
When partially heated, becomes a very light thermal and accoustical insulating material.
Used in the paper, paint and plastics industry. A hydrothermal alteration product of biotite
especially at the contact between felsic intrusive rocks and ultramafic rocks
KAOLINITE (Phyllosilicates, Clay Group) - Hydrous aluminum silicate
Essential in the china industry and also used as a filler for paper and rubber, and in medicines
and cosmetics. An alteration product of feldspar by chemical weathering and on a large scale
by hydrothermal activity.
CHRYSOCOLLA (Phyllosilicates) - Hydrous copper silicate
Soft; light green to bluish. Decomposes in HCl forming a silica gel.
Useful ore of copper; Found in Arizona and New Mexico. An important surface indicator,
pinpointing the presence of disseminated deposits (porphyry copper ore) In the oxidation
zone of copper deposits; associated with azurite, malachite and cuprite.
ORTHOCLASE (Tectosilicate, potassium feldspar group) - Potassium aluminum
silicate
H=6 on Moh’s scale. Usually colorless, white, pale yellow, pink, blue or gray. Perfect 90
degree cleavage. Easily altered thru action of hot water rich in carbonic acid. Porcelain,
ceramic glazes, electrical insulators, dental products. An essential component of many
intrusive, plutonic rocks formed at medium-to-high temperatures and cooled slowly (granites.
granodiorites, syenites, monzonites and pegmatities.
MICROCLINE (Tectosilicate, Orthoclase Feldspar group) - Potassium aluminum
silicate
Blue-green variety called “amazonite.” Frequently found as twinned crystals. In granite
pegmatites and metamorphic rocks (gneiss) formed at low to medium temperatures.
ALBITE (Tectosilicate, Plagioclase Feldspar Group) - Sodium calcium aluminum
silicate. Used in ceramics and refractories. Essential constituent of many felsic, plutonic
igneous rocks.
LABRADORITE (Tectosilicate, Plagioclase Feldspar Group) - Sodium calcium
aluminum silicate. Sometimes strongly iridescent. Found in Labrador and Norway. Typical
of eruptive rocks (basalts) and intrusive (gabbros).
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QUARTZ (tectosilicate)
CARBONATE FAMILY OF MINERALS
MAGNESITE – magnesium carbonate
Semi-hard (3-3.5), heavy (over 3.0) and fragile. Microcrystalline, porcelain-like masses
with conchoidal fracture. Specimen is white. Effervesces with warm hydrochloric acid
(HCl) Large deposits in the Coastal Ranges of California. Important ore of magnesium and
its salts.Used in the manufacture of basic refractories capable of withstanding extremely high
temp. and for special types of cement and powders used in the paper, rubber and
pharmaceutical industries. Formed in talc schists and serpentinites (ultramafic rock) where
carbonated water has reacted with serpentinite, which is rich in magnesium.
SIDERITE – iron carbonate
Rhombohedral crystals with curved, striated faces. Semi-hard, heavy and fragile. Dissolves
in hot HCL with distinct effervescence. Large masses fond in veins in Lancaster County, PA
and Roxbury, CT. An important iron mineral (48% Fe) because it is free of sulfur and
phosphorus and sometimes rich in manganese. Very common in medium to low-temperature
hydrothermal veins, associated with galena, fluorite, barite, sphalerite.
RHODOCHROSITE – manganese carbonate.
Semi-hard, heavy and fragile with a perfect rhombohedral cleavage. Vitreous to pearly
luster. Pink coloration. Soluble in warm HCl. Found in many localities in Colorado. An
ore of manganese when found in large masses. Used as a semi-precious gem. Found in
medium-temp. hydrothermal veins associated with copper, silver and lead sulfides.
CALCITE – calcium carbonate
A limestone-forming mineral. Rhombohedral and “dogtoothed” varieties. Many colors.
Often intergrown or twinned. Semi-hard, light with perfect rhombohedral cleavage. Soluble
in cold, dilute HCl. Stalactites and stalagmites in limestone caves. A polymorph of calcite is
aragonite. Calcareous rocks constitute 4% of the earth’s crust by weight and cover 40% of
its surface. Golden-yellow crystals up to 1 meter in length found in Joplin, Missouri. Clear
crystals were formally used to make polarizing prisms for petrological microscopes. Used in
building (cement lime and ornamental stone), manufacture of fertilizers, and in the chemical
industry. Formed in numerous geological situations. Most calcites have marine origins.
May be formed by chemical precipitation through evaporation of solutions rich in calcium
bicarbonate. Where lime-rich waters run through underground cave systems, calcite is
deposited as stalactites and stalagmites. Also found in low-temp. hydrothermal veins
associated with sulfides.
ARAGONITE – calcium carbonate
Small, elongated prismatic crystals often in radiating groups. Easy to see individual crystal.
Many colors. Semi-hard, heavy and fragile. Found in deposits of hot springs (travertine).
Fort Collins, CO, Arizona, New Mexico. Of interest to scientists and collectors. A highpressure polymorph of calcite, only stable in metamorphic rocks formed at high pressure and
low temperature. Many marine organisms initially precipitate their shells as aragonite, which
later convert to calcite.
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DOLOMITE – calcium magnesium carbonate
Colorless, white, pink or yellowish rhombohedral crystals. Semi-hard; vitreous and
sometimes pearly luster. Dissolves slowly in cold HCl. Finest crystals come from Piedmont,
Italy. In USA: Joplin, MO, Iowa, Vermont, Michigan and NJ. Formation as a hydrothermal
mineral and also by the replacement of limestones by the action of magnesium-rich solutions.
Frequently considered a rock-forming mineral.
STRONTIANITE – strontium carbonate
Needle-like (acicular) crystals, generally in bundles or sheaves. Colorless or white. Semihard, heavy and fragile with good prismatic cleavage. May be fluorescent blue under UV
light. Soluble in dilute HCl. Economic deposits at Strontium Hills, CA. An ore for
strontium, used in making fireworks (purplish-red flame). Used in sugar industry and for
special types of glass. Typical of low-temp. hydrothermal veins associated with calcite,
celestite and sulfides. Found in geodes.
CERRUSITE – lead carbonate
Colorless or white crystals with gray tints. Elongated and generally twinned. Semi-hard,
very heavy and very fragile. Insoluble in HCl, however dissolves in nitric acid. Splendid
crystals found in Dona Ana, NM, Phoenixville, PA and Leadville, CO. One of the ores for
lead. Occurs in the oxidation zones of lead deposits, produced by the chem. alteration of
galena (lead sulfide) through the actions of waters rich in carbonic acid.
AZURITE – hydrous copper carbonate
Semi-hard, heavy and fragile. Distinctive deep blue color. Often intergrown or grouped in
radiating aggregates. Also earthy, granular or concretionary masses. Soluble in ammonia
and effervesces in dilute acids. Pale-blue streak. The “copper district” of Arizona (SE
corner, near Bisbee) A secondary mineral which occurs in the oxidized zones of copper
deposits. Forms at lower temp. than malachite, which often replaces it as a pseudomorph
through hydration.
MALACHITE – hydrous copper carbonate
Commonly occurs as green film on other copper minerals. Grape-like (botryoidal) masses.
Distinctive bluish-green color. Light-green streak. Tintic district in Utah, and Bisbee, AZ.
A very valuable, decorative stone used in polished slabs for tables, boxes and ornaments. In
the past, it was crushed and used as an inorganic pigment. A copper ore. Found in oxidation
zone of copper deposits. Sometimes occurs in large masses with a core of azurite.
OXIDE FAMILY OF MINERALS
ZINCITE- Zinc manganese oxide
Crystals are rare. Usually massive, color ranges from orange to dark red. Semi-hard, very
heavy, perfect cleavage. Translucent with subadamantine luster. Orange-yellow streak.
Infusible. Soluble in hydrochloric acid. Found almost exclusively in Franklin and Sterling
Hill (Sussex County, New Jersey), where it is associated with white or pink calcite, green
willemite, grey tephorite and black franklinite. Crystals are sought after by mineralogists and
collectors.. Formation in rocks of contact metamorphism where zinc is present.
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FRANKLINITE-Zinc manganese iron oxide.
Rare octahedral or dodecahedral crystals. Massive black aggregates with metallic appearance
and reddish tints. Hard ( 5.5-6.5) , very heavy, fragile, no cleavage but good conchoidal
fracture. Opaque with metallic luster. Reddish brown streak. Weakly magnetic. Infusible.
Soluble in hydrochloric acid. Found in Sussex County, New Jersey along with zincite. In the
past, used as extraction of zinc and manganese, which were then alloyed with iron.
Formation in contact metasomatic conditions of zinc deposits in crystalline dolomite or
limestone.
SPINEL- Magnesium aluminum oxide
Small, perfect octahedrons, frequently twined. Also common in aggregates of round grains.
Colorless, white, pink, light blue, and black. Very hard (8). Heavy, poor cleavage.
Transparent to nearly opaque with vitreous luster. White streak. Infusible and insoluble.
Color is related to composition. Found in New York and New Jersey. Are semi-precious
gemstones. Formation in contact metamorphosed limestones and in mafic to ultramafic
igneous rocks; Also found in placer deposits.
MAGNETITE- Iron Oxide
Black, shiny, perfect octahedrons or dodecahedrons with striated faces. Iron black, compact
and granular masses with bluish iridescence. Hard (5.6-6.5), very heavy, no cleavage.
Opaque with metallic luster. Black streak. Strongly magnetic and sometimes acts as a natural
magnet. Infusible. Soluble in very concentrated hydrochloric acid. It is the richest ore of
iron. A very widespread accessory mineral in igneous rocks. Formation in high temperature
mineral veins and as an accessory mineral in many mafic and ultramafic igneous rocks. Also
found in banded iron formations.
CHROMITE – Iron chromium oxide
Rare, small black octahedral crystals, usually in compact granular masses. Hard and heavy
with no cleavage. Dark brown streak. Weakly magnetic. Exclusively in mafic and
ultramafic rocks. Found in South Africa, the Stillwater Complex, Montana, and in
serpentines in Texas, Pennsylvania and California. The main ore for chromium. Steel alloys,
stainless steel and leather tanning. Formation in mafic or utramafic igneous rocks; also
occurs in placer deposits.
CORUNDUM – aluminum oxide
Hexagonal, barrel-shaped crystals with either tapered or stubby terminations. Variable in
color. Very hard (H=9) Gem quality red corundum is called “ruby.” The blue gem quality
corundum is called “sapphire.” An accessory mineral in silica-poor igneous rocks. Found in
silica-poor and aluminum-rich metamorphic rocks. Sedimentary concentrations are found in
alluvial or marine sands.
HEMATITE – Iron oxide
Most commonly found as granular masses, or sometimes found in an arrangement like the
petals of a rose. Found in banded iron formations. Hard (5.5-6.5) and heavy (5.2). Streak is
dark, cherry-red, which make it easy to distinguish from ilmenite and magnetite. Some of the
largest deposits in the world found around Lake Superior. Hematite is the most important
iron ore. Common mineral of many igneous rx., esp. lava. Common in pegmatites and
hydrothermal veins, but NOT found in plutonic rocks (granite, for example). Much hematite
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is formed under sedimentary conditions through diagenesis (the process by which sediments
are changed to sedimentary rock )retaining the concretionary or oolitic forms. Hematite can
also form as a sublimation product of volcanic exhalations.
ILMENITE – Iron titanium oxide
Dark mineral; hard, heavy, no cleavage. Weakly magnetic – becomes stronger when heated.
Black to brownish-red streak. It is mined along with zircon at several locations in the
Coastal Plain. A major ore of titanium. A common accessory mineral in plutonic igneous
rocks. Also forms by magmatic segregation. Due to its resistance to weathering, large
concentrations are found in marine sands. The black sand on North Carolina’s beaches is
most likely ilmenite)
RUTILE – Titanium oxide
Elongated prismatic crystals, often striated. Sometimes very slender crystals occur as
inclusions in other minerals. Hard and heavy with perfect cleavage. Nice specimens found
in pyrophyllite in Graves Mountain, GA, and in hornblende-bearing rocks of Nelson County,
VA A very common accessory mineral in a variety of igneous rocks such as granite. It is
founding metamorphic rocks such as schist and gneiss. It can grow as needle-like crystals
within quartz.
CASSITERITE – Tin oxide
Dark, stubby prismatic crystals, often twinned. Also found in black fibrous masses which
look like wood. Hard (6-7) and very heavy (7) Occurs in pegmatitie veins of Oxford County,
Maine and Custer County, South Dakota. Typical of hydrothermal veins around granite
bodies. Also found in alluvial deposits.
COLUMBITE – Iron manganese niobium tantalum oxide
Prismatic, stubby or tabular crystals, often in heart-shaped twins, striated, black with metallic
appearance and sometimes coated with iridescent film. Hard (6) and very heavy (up to 8)
with distinct cleavage. Principal ore of niobium and tantalum. Found in granite-rich
pegmatities rich in lithium silicates and phosphates, associated with spodumene and beryl
URANINITE – Uranium oxide
Occasionally found as black, cubic, octahedral or dodecahedral crystals. Usually in granular
masses or aggregates. Physical properties are variable depending on the degree of
radioactive decay of uranium into lead. Hard (5.5) and very heavy (up to 9.7) Shiny black
streak. Highly radioactive. Deposits mined in the Colorado Plateau region of the Southwest
(AZ, NM, CO, Utah) particularly on Navajo Indian lands. An Important source of uranium.
Found in medium and high temperature hydrothermal veins. Also in clastic sedimentary
deposits, which are sometimes gold-bearing.
BAUXITE – Hydrous aluminum oxides
Bauxite is a general term for a rock composed of hydrated aluminum oxides rarely found in
distinct separate crystals. Very soft (1-3), light and fragile with earthy fracture. Found in
Massachusetts and Arkansas. The main ore of aluminum. Also used in the synthetic
production of corundum. Formed by decay through weathering, under tropical conditions, of
rocks containing silicates of aluminum; heavy tropical rain leaches the silica and aluminum
hydroxides remain.
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LIMONITE – Hydrated iron oxides
Limonite is a field term used to describe a rock made up of a mixture of mainly amorphous
mineral-like substances. The term is also applied generally to any iron hydroxide which
cannot be identified compositionally without elaborate tests. It is widespread and occurs as a
secondary mineral in weathering zones but large masses develop as precipitates in both
marine and fresh water and in bogs.
SULFIDE FAMILY OF MINERALS
BORNITE – copper iron sulfide
Compact granular masses of a reddish-brown color, which quickly tarnishes on the surface
showing an iridescent purple and blue film (hence the nickname –“peacock ore”). Soft (3)
and heavy (5.7) Found at Butte, Montana and Bristol, CT. One of the most important
industrial copper ores. Found in the oxidation zones of copper deposits; associated with
malachite. Formation in hydrothermal veins and from magmatic segregation.
SPHALERITE – zinc sulfide
Variety of colors; aggregates of distorted crystals; octahedral twins with striated faces
common. Semi-hard (3.5-4) and heavy (4) Streak pale yellow or reddish. Soluble in HCl.
The world’s main deposits are in the Tri-State mining district (Missouri, Kansas, Oklahoma)
The main ore for zinc (one of the components of brass and other alloys) Found in
hydrothermal veins; associated with galena, chalcopyrite, fluorite and barite.
CHALCOPYRITE – copper iron sulfide
Generally in compact or microgranular masses; dark or brassy yellow in color, often with
iridescent film. Greenish-black streak; softer than pyrite. Found in Butte, Montana; Jerome,
AZ, and Bingham, Utah. One of the most important copper ores (80% of world’s copper
derived from this mineral) Yields the by-products – gold and silver. Formation in
hydrothermal veins, in porphyry copper deposits, as veins in diorites and in thermally
metamorphosed rocks.
PYRRHOTITE – iron sulfide
Crystals usually tabular with faces striated horizontally. Commonly in yellow-brown
massive, granular aggregates. Bright, metallic luster. Distinguished from pyrite by its
ferromagnetism. Fine crystals occur in Standish, Maine and Brewster, NY.
GALENA – lead sulfide
Cubic, lead-gray crystals, metallic luster. Soft (2.5-2.8) and very heavy. Perfect 3directional cleavage (90 degrees). Soluble when heated in HCl, giving off a hydrogen sulfide
odor (like that of rotten eggs). Found in abundance in the Tri-State mining district. The main
ore of lead. Typical hydrothermal vein mineral of medium temperature deposits.
CINNABAR – mercury sulfide
Normally occurs in scarlet microcrysalline earthy masses. Soft (2-2.5) and very heavy (8.1)
Volatile if heated above 580 deg. C (1076 deg. F) Occurs in very low temp. hydrothermal
deposits. Small, well-formed crystals found in Pike County, Arkansas. The most important
ore of mercury. It was used in the past as the mineral pigment known as vermilion.
Formation in association with realgar and pyrite. It occurs in hot springs and around recent
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volcanic vents. It has also been found in placer deposits from the erosion of mercury-bearing
rock.
PYRITE – iron sulfide
Striated cubic or octahedral crystals, sometimes occuring as “iron cross” twins. Hard (6-6.5)
and heavy (5) with poor cleavage. (the cubic shape of Pyrite is the result of the crystal itself.
If broken, it would fracture.) Produces sparks when hit with a hammer. Splendid crystals
occur all over the world. Some of the largest pyrite crystals in the world found imbedded in
the pyrophyllite of Glendon, NC (Moore County) Used in the manufacture of sulfuric acid.
Formation in a very wide-range of geological situations. Associated with sphalerite and
galena in hydrothermal veins. It can be an accessory mineral in igneous rocks. It can be
found in slates and dark shales where it often replaces fossils and forms nodules.
ARSENOPYRITE – iron arsenic sulfide
Elongated, striated, prismatic crystals; twins common. Also granular masses of silvery or
whitish-gray color with pink tints. Hard (5.5-6) and heavy (6). Produces sparks when hit
with a hammer and gives off a strong garlic odor. Roxbury, CT and Leadville, CO. The
principal ore of arsenic with tin, gold, silver and cobalt as by-products. Formation in veins of
hydrothermal origin often with gold, silver, tungsten and tin.
MOLYBDENITE – molybdenum sulfide
Bladed, foliated or finely interwoven masses common; bluish-gray color. Very soft (1-1.5)
and heavy (4.7); greasy feel; metallic luster; bright-blue streak. Leaves a grayish-green mark
on paper. Found in Edison, NJ and near Medoc Mountain State Park in eastern NC. The
main ore of molybdenum, a metal used in many special alloys. Also used as a dry lubricant
resistant to high temperatures. Found in granites as an accessory mineral and in quartz and
pegmatite veins.
REALGAR - arsenic sulfide
Normally found as compact aggregates and scarlet films. Soft (1.5-2) and fairly heavy (3.5).
Streak is red to orange. Fuses easily, giving off arsenic fumes with a garlic smell. If exposed
to light and air, it loses its scarlet color and turns into powdered orpiment. Used in
fireworks (bright white). A mineral deposited in hot springs and low temperature
hydrothermal veins, almost always associated with orpiment and antimony, silver, lead and
tin minerals.
ORPIMENT – arsenic sulfide
Found in crusts or bladed masses; soft and fairly heavy. Color and streak is yellow. Fuses
easily giving off arsenic fumes with a strong garlic smell. Found in Nevada. An ore of
arsenic; used in the tanning of hides to remove hair. Deposited in hot springs; associated
with realgar and sometimes cinnabar.
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HISTORY ROCKS
Thomas Rhindress - Croton-Harmon High School
ESSAY THOUGHT QUESTION - What rock or mineral has had the greatest influence or
impact on human society? Support your answer. For example, oil and water are not
minerals or rocks, but would be fantastic answers if they were. If you need ideas for a
choice, look at the rock and minerals charts in the Earth and Environmental Reference
Tables. Do NOT limit yourself to just those choices...
1. Write-up your answer to this question as a 1 to 2 page essay.
2. Type your essay - 12 pt font, double spaced, 1 inch margins.
3. Include a brief description of the mineral or rock:

General physical and chemical traits, etc.

Where it is found and/or how it is formed

How it is obtained - mined or extracted

What is it used for?

How has its use been important to human society?
How would society be different without it?
4. Cite any sources - Use Google to search for information on your choice. Then
include the web address as your citation. Put these on the back of your essay, or
on a separate stapled page. They do NOT count towards your length.
5. You may include ONE small picture, diagram, or illustration. Make sure it refers
to something you are writing about. Cite its source, too. If you include more
pictures, attach them on a separate sheet.
6. Essays will be graded on 1) scientific content and accuracy, 2) historical content,
and 3) grammar, spelling, organization, and originality.
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EVALUATE:
Sample Assessment Questions
1. What type of mineral grain would be abundant in a soil underlain by granite?
A) Quartz
B) Mica
C) Olivine
D) Feldspar
2. One of the most common minerals in beach sand is quartz. The following properties of
quartz account for its abundance except
A) Quartz crystals fracture rather than exhibit cleavage
B) Quartz is unreactive chemically
C) Quartz is a hard mineral
D) Quartz, over time, physically weathers into smaller and smaller pieces.
3. The data table below shows the composition of six common rock forming minerals.
Mineral
Mica
Olivine
Orthoclase
Plagioclase
Compostion
KAl2Si2O16
(Mg,Fe)2SiO4
KAlSi3O8
NaAlSi3O8
CaAl2Si2O8
(Mg,Fe)2 SiO6
(Ca,Mg)2SiO6
SiO2
Pyroxene
Quartz
4. What mineral family do the 6 common minerals belong?
A) Silicates
B) Oxides
C) Carbonates
D) Sulfides
5. How many different types of elements are found in the 6 common minerals?
A) 8
B)6
C) 4
D) 12
6. Which of the following substances is considered a mineral?
A) seawater
B) salt
C) cast iron
D) vegetation
7. Large crystals with well-formed crystal faces tend to form when_______.
A) molten rock cools quickly
B) rocks undergo melting
C) minerals have to space to grow, such as in open cavities
D) volcanoes erupt explosively
8. Iron and magnesium ions are similar in size and both have a “+ 2” positive charge.
Therefore, we would expect iron and magnesium to ____.
A) bond easily
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B) share electrons
C) magnetically repel each other
D) substitute for each other in a mineral’s chemical formula
9. Examples of substances that have exactly the same chemical formula but different crystal
structures are
A)
B)
C)
D)
orthoclase and plagioclase feldspar
diamond and graphite
mica and talc
quartz and fluorite
10. Most common rock-forming minerals are________.
A) carbonates
B) oxides
C) silicates
D) sulfides
11. The two most common elements in the Earth’s crust are:
A) calcium and carbon
B) chlorine and sodium
C) iron and sulfur
D) silicon and oxygen
12. The mineral property “cleavage” refers to _____.
A)
B)
C)
D)
The development of crystal faces during mineral growth
The splitting of a mineral along planar surfaces
The development of irregular fracture in a mineral
The density of a mineral
13. When a mineral does not break evenly is exhibits _____ (terms that describe this feature
include conchoidal, fibrous and splintery)
A)
B)
C)
D)
Habit
Frcture
Cleavage
Luster
14. When igneous rock is formed, the size of the rock crystals or grains is primarily
dependent on
a) cooling rate of the magma
b) volume of the magma
c) density of the magma
d) amount of impurities in the magma
15. Which would most likely occur during the formation of igneous rock?
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a) solidification of molten materials
b) compression and cementation of sediments
c) recrystallization of unmelted material
d) evaporation and precipitation of sediments
16. Rock A and Rock B are igneous rocks with identical mineral composition. Rock A has
large visible crystals and Rock B has no visible crystals. What can be inferred about
Rock A?
a) it cooled beneath the earth’s surface, more slowly than Rock B
b) it cooled at the earth’s surface, more slowly than Rock B
c) it cooled at the earth’s surface, more quickly than Rock B
d) it cooled beneath the earth’s surface, more quickly than Rock B
17. Which feature is characteristic of clastic sedimentary rocks?
a) layering
b) intergrown crystals
c) foliation
d) glassy texture
18. Which sequence of events occurs in the formation of a sedimentary rock?
a) source material eroded > sediments deposited > sediments compacted and cemented
b) sediments compacted and cemented > sediments deposited > source material eroded
c) sediments deposited > sediments compacted and cemented > source material eroded
d) source material eroded > sediments compacted and cemented > sediments deposited
19. Sedimentary rocks of organic origin would most likely be formed from
a) shells of marine animals
b) materials deposited by glaciers
c) sediments eroded from running water
d) particles removed from the atmosphere by precipitation
20. What is the main difference between metamorphic rocks and most other rocks
a) many metamorphic rocks exhibit banding and distortion of structure
b) many metamorphic rocks contain only one mineral
c) many metamorphic rocks have an organic composition
d) many metamorphic rocks contain a high amount of silicon-oxygen tetrahedral
21. Which characteristics are most useful for identifying the conditions under which a
metamorphic rock was formed?
a) composition and structure
b) color and luster
c) shape and mass
d) hardness and size
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22. What characteristic provides the best evidence about the environment in which a rock
formed?
a) the texture of the rock
b) the color of the rock
c) the size of the rock
d) the thickness of the rock
23. Which statement about the formation of a rock is best supported by geologic evidence?
a) sediment must be compacted and cemented before it can change to a sedimentary rock
b) magma must be weathered before it can change to a metamorphic rock
c) sedimentary rock must melt before it can change to a metamorphic rock
d) metamorphic rock must melt before it can change to a sedimentary rock?
24. Which of the following statements about transportation of sediment is false?
A) Smaller particles settle faster than larger particles.
B) As a current slows, the largest particles start to settle
C) Faster currents carry larger particles than slower currents
D) Rivers and ocean currents move much more material than do air currents
25. Fossils are usually found in
A) igneous
B) sedimentary
C) metamorphic
D) lava rock
26. Which set of Earth processes are thought to be most closely related to each other because
they normally occur in the same zones?
A) mountain building, earthquakes and volcanic activity
B) earthquakes, shallow-water fossil formation, and shifting magnetic poles
C) volcanic activity, rock weathering, and deposition of sediments
D) mountain building, shallow-water fossil formation and rock weathering
27. The occurrence of high temperature ocean floors at mid-ocean ridge centers is an
indication of
A) existence of rising mantle convection currents
B) destruction of ocean crust
C) destruction of continental crust
D) existence of ancestral mountains
28. Mid-ocean ridges such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the East pacific Rise are best
described as
A) sections of the ocean floor that contain the youngest oceanic crust
B) mountains containing folded sedimentary rocks
C) mountains containing fossils of present-day marine life
D) sections of the ocean floor that are the remains of a submerged continent
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29. Which observed feature would provide the best evidence of crustal stability?
A) horizontal sedimentary layers
B) folded, faulted and tilted rock strata
C) marine fossils at elevations high above sea level
D) changed benchmark elevations
30. Along the ocean floor near mid-ocean ridges, hot springs may be found. These hot
springs provide evidence that
A) convections currents exist in the asthenosphere
31. Which inference is best supported by the Moon’s apparent absence of continental drift?
A) The Moon lacks convection currents in its mantle
32. Molten rock below the Earth’s surface is called
A) magma
B) lava
C) mantle
D) gabbro
33. Which of the following types of lava flows downhill the slowest?
A) rhyolite
B) basalt
C) andesite
D) they all flow at about the same speed?
34. Which of the following statements about lava is false?
A) High temperature lavas are more viscous than low temperature lavas
B) The viscosity of a lava increases as the silica content increases
C) The more gas a lava contains, the more violent the eruption
D) all of the above statements are true?
35. Which of the following rocks is formed from volcanic ash?
A) tuff
B) pahoehoe
C) breccia
D) basalt
36. The general term for solidified fragments of volcanic material that are ejected into the air
and cool rapidly is
A) pyroclast
B) granite
C) obsidian
D) basalt
37. The slope of a cinder cone is determined by which of the following?
A) the maximum angle at which pyroclastic debris remains stable
B) the viscosity of the lava erupting from the cone
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C) the force at which the eruption occurred
D) the slope of the topography surrounding the volcano
38. Which of the following types of volcanic features does not result from an eruption from a
central vent
A) flood basalts
B) cinder cones
C) stratovolcano
D) volcanic dome
39. Which of the following gases is the chief constituent of volcanic gases?
A) water vapor
B) carbon dioxide
C) sulfur dioxide
D) oxygen
40.In which of the plate tectonic settings do most of the world’s active volcanoes occur?
A) convergent plate boundaries
B) divergent plate boundaries
C) transform plate boundaries
D) hot spots in the middle of plates
41. Which set of Earth processes are thought to be most closely related to each other because
they normally occur in the same zones?
A) mountain building, earthquakes and volcanic activity
B) earthquakes, shallow-water fossil formation, and shifting magnetic poles
C) volcanic activity, rock weathering, and deposition of sediments
D) mountain building, shallow-water fossil formation and rock weathering
42. The occurrence of high temperature ocean floors at mid-ocean ridge centers is an
indication of
A) existence of rising mantle convection currents
B) destruction of ocean crust
C) destruction of continental crust
D) existence of ancestral mountains
43. Mid-ocean ridges such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the East pacific Rise are best
described as
A) sections of the ocean floor that contain the youngest oceanic crust
B) mountains containing folded sedimentary rocks
C) mountains containing fossils of present-day marine life
D) sections of the ocean floor that are the remains of a submerged continent
44. Which observed feature would provide the best evidence of crustal stability?
A) horizontal sedimentary layers
B) folded, faulted and tilted rock strata
C) marine fossils at elevations high above sea level
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D) changed benchmark elevations
45. Mineral-rich superheated waters due to proximity to magma form ores through this
process
A) hydrothermal activity
B)
46. Which pair of metals are the ones used the most on Earth?
A) iron and aluminum
B) zinc and copper
C) silver and gold
D) brass and lead
47. What is the difference between a reserve and a resource?
48. How is the exploration of minerals supported by geological maps?
A) They show the type of bedrock that lies beneath the surface
B) They show exact spots where drilling should take place
C) They show how deep the mineral deposits are located
D) They show the mineral composition of the bedrock
49. What is the advantage of using aluminum for beverage containers?
A) Making aluminum from recycled products is not expensive
B) Of all the metals, aluminum is the only one that can be recycled
C) Less energy is needed in the manufacturing of aluminum compared to steel
D) It does not require much energy to turn aluminum ore into aluminum
50. Which of the following types of bedrock would make the best oil reservoir?
A) sandstone
B) granite
C) shale
D) salt
51. Which fossil fuel produces the least amount of carbon dioxide per unit of energy?
A) oil
B) natural gas
C) coal
52. What are the prerequisites for oil traps to contain oil?
53. Which of the following geological conditions is least likely to create an oil trap?
A) s syncline
B) a fault
C) an anticline
D) an igneous pluton
54. PROVIDE DIAGRAM – UNDERSTANDING EARTH TEST BANK P. 239
Below is a cross-section of an oil trap. J, K and L represent three layers of fluids, each
layer having a slightly different density from the other.
(DIAGRAM)
55. The oil trap depicted above is a(n)
A) anticlinal trap
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B) salt dome trap
C) stratigraphic trap
D) fault trap
56. If the pore spaces in layer B contain oil, what will the pore spaces in layer C likely
contain?
A) water
B) natural gas
C) coal
D) air
57. Which type of sedimentary environment would most likely produce coal?
A) swampy environment
B) shallow ocean environment
C) volcanic environment
D) desert environment
58. Which of the following problems is not directly associated with the burning of coal?
A) global warming
B) ash with metal impurities
C) carbon dioxide
D) acid rain
RESOURCES for part 1 - Minerals
The Earth Revealed
http://www.learner.org/resources/series78.html
A video instructional series on geology for college and high school classrooms and adult
learners; 26 half-hour video programs and coordinated books
This series shows the physical processes and human activities that shape our planet. From
earthquakes and volcanoes to the creation of sea-floor crusts and shifting river courses, Earth
Revealed offers stunning visuals that explain plate tectonics and other geologic concepts and
principles. Follow geologists in the field as they explore the primal forces of the Earth. This
series can also be used as a resource for teacher professional development.
Mineral Links
http://www.minsocam.org/MSA/Research_Links.html#mineral_locality
Dana Classification of Minerals
http://webmineral.com/danaclass.shtml
Virtual Atlas of Opaque and Ore Minerals
http://www.smenet.org/opaque-ore/
Mineral Spectroscopy – California Institute of Technology
http://www.smenet.org/opaque-ore/
Minerals of Western North Carolina
http://www.mcrocks.com/index.html
USGS Mineral Resources web site
http://minerals.usgs.gov/
Mineral Gallery
http://mineral.galleries.com/
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USGS publication – The Life Cycle of a Mineral Deposit – a free online guide for
teachers
http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/2005/17/
RESOURCES for part 2 – ROCKS
The Earth Revealed
http://www.learner.org/resources/series78.html
A video instructional series on geology for college and high school classrooms and adult
learners; 26 half-hour video programs and coordinated books
This series shows the physical processes and human activities that shape our planet. From
earthquakes and volcanoes to the creation of sea-floor crusts and shifting river courses, Earth
Revealed offers stunning visuals that explain plate tectonics and other geologic concepts and
principles. Follow geologists in the field as they explore the primal forces of the Earth. This
series can also be used as a resource for teacher professional development.
EarthNet Rock Identification
http://earthnet-geonet.ca/activities/rock_id_e.php
Rock, Minerals and Soils
http://www.seafriends.org.nz/enviro/soil/rocktbl.htm
About Geology: Rock Identification Tables
http://geology.about.com/library/bl/blrockident_tables.htm
Igneous Rocks
http://www.gpc.edu/~pgore/geology/geo101/igneous.htm
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RESOURCES for part 3 – earthquakes
The Earth Revealed
http://www.learner.org/resources/series78.html
A video instructional series on geology for college and high school classrooms and adult
learners; 26 half-hour video programs and coordinated books
This series shows the physical processes and human activities that shape our planet. From
earthquakes and volcanoes to the creation of sea-floor crusts and shifting river courses, Earth
Revealed offers stunning visuals that explain plate tectonics and other geologic concepts and
principles. Follow geologists in the field as they explore the primal forces of the Earth. This
series can also be used as a resource for teacher professional development.
Mineral Links
http://www.minsocam.org/MSA/Research_Links.html#mineral_locality
Dana Classification of Minerals
http://webmineral.com/danaclass.shtml
Virtual Atlas of Opaque and Ore Minerals
http://www.smenet.org/opaque-ore/
Mineral Spectroscopy – California Institute of Technology
http://www.smenet.org/opaque-ore/
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Minerals of Western North Carolina
http://www.mcrocks.com/index.html
USGS Mineral Resources web site
http://minerals.usgs.gov/
Mineral Gallery
http://mineral.galleries.com/
USGS publication – The Life Cycle of a Mineral Deposit – a free online guide for
teachers
http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/2005/17/
RESOURCES for part 4 – plate tectonics
The Earth Revealed
http://www.learner.org/resources/series78.html
A video instructional series on geology for college and high school classrooms and adult
learners; 26 half-hour video programs and coordinated books
This series shows the physical processes and human activities that shape our planet. From
earthquakes and volcanoes to the creation of sea-floor crusts and shifting river courses, Earth
Revealed offers stunning visuals that explain plate tectonics and other geologic concepts and
principles. Follow geologists in the field as they explore the primal forces of the Earth. This
series can also be used as a resource for teacher professional development.
http://www.minerals.si.edu/tdpmap/
This Dynamic Planet (USGS map)
This is a very comprehensive plate tectonics map that shows earthquakes and volcanoes, as
well as plate movement (direction and distance in cm per year). You can order these maps
through USGS. Recommended: A class set consisting of one map for every four students)
American Geological Institute
http://www.agiweb.org/
Ring of Fire lesson plan
http://www.nationalgeographic.com/xpeditions/lessons/15/g912/ring.html
Plate tectonics animation
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/geology/anim1.html
USGS – Understanding Plate Motions
http://pubs.usgs.gov/publications/text/understanding.html
Discover our Earth - Plate Tectonics
http://www.discoverourearth.org/student/tectonics/index.html
A Model of Sea Floor Spreading – Teacher Guide
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/fosrec/Metzger3.html
Plate Tectonics with an orange peel
http://www.coaleducation.org/lessons/wim/10.htm
USGS Plate tectonics earthquakes – volcanoes
http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Glossary/PlateTectonics/description_plate_tectonics.html
Earthquakes, volcanoes and plate tectonics – slide show
http://www.science.sjsu.edu/scied/255/PPT02/PlateTectonics.htm
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Science links: earthquakes, volcanoes and plate tectonics
http://www.sciencespot.net/Pages/kdzethsci2.html
Interdisciplinary learning module – earthquakes, volcanoes and plate tectonics
http://www.neiu.edu/~llsander/earthquakes.html
Internet School library media center
http://falcon.jmu.edu/~ramseyil/plate.htm
tectonic applications
http://edc.usgs.gov/Tectonic/
Volcano Slide Show
http://volcano.und.nodak.edu/vwdocs/EOSslides/francis_slides.html
USGS Volcano Hazards Program
http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/About/Where/WhereWeWork.html
Cascade Volcano Observatory
http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/
USGS Yellowstone Volcano Observatory
http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/yvo/
USGS – Volcano Hazards Program: Long Valley Observatory
http://lvo.wr.usgs.gov/index.html#glance
Volcanic landforms, volcanoes and plate tectonics
http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/geol204/volclandforms.htm
The Physical Environment: Tectonics and Landforms
http://www.uwsp.edu/geo/faculty/ritter/geog101/textbook/tectonics_landforms/title_page.ht
ml
The Physical Environment: Volcanics and Landforms
http://www.uwsp.edu/geo/faculty/ritter/geog101/textbook/volcanic_landforms/title_page.htm
l
Dive and Discover’s Deeper Discovery
Hydrothermal vents interactive
http://www.divediscover.whoi.edu/vents/vent-infomod.html#
WEB RESOURCES for part 5 – economic development of the earth
NASA Earth Science web site
http://science.hq.nasa.gov/earth-sun/science/earth.html
USGS publication – The Life Cycle of a Mineral Deposit – a free online guide for teachers
http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/2005/17/
Minerals in the average home (State of Nevada – Division of Minerals)
http://minerals.state.nv.us/forms/educ/DidYouKnowHome_LH.pdf
Minerals needed “to maintain our standard of living” (State of Nevada – Division of
Minerals)
http://minerals.state.nv.us/forms/educ/Inoneday_LH.pdf
Fourth of July Fireworks (State of Nevada – Division of Minerals)
http://minerals.state.nv.us/forms/educ/FourthOfJuly.pdf
Ecological Footprint quiz
http://www.myfootprint.org/
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