讲稿
院 系: 动物医学院
任课教师: 姚 宝 安
授课对象: 动物科技 2002 级 1-4 班
动物医学 2002 级 1-4 班
总 学 时: 40
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2005
前 言
按照大多数高等院校兽医本科专业的教学计划及培养目标，在畜牧兽医本
科专业学生完成 2 年基础英语学习的基础上，一般于三年级第一学期开设《畜
牧 兽 医 专 业 英 语 》 (English for Students of Animal Science and Veterinary
Medicine) 选修课程。有的高等农业院校也给硕士研究生开设《畜牧兽医专业英
语》。该课程的教学目的与要求是：学生通过本门课程的学习，达到借助专业
词典等工具书能熟练阅读畜牧兽医专业英语书刊并掌握畜牧兽医专业文献英译
汉、汉译英的基本技能。
本课程重点阐述了动物科技和动物医学的科技英语阅读和翻译的基础知
识、科技英语的特殊性、科技词汇的基本结构和构词法、动物科技和动物医学
科技英语论文及摘要的撰写、参考文献引录 ; 以及动物科技和动物医学相关的英
语文章 , 包括动物科技、动物医学基础知识和专业知识。
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Section 1 The important of Study English
for Science and Technology
1.1 Foreign languages for Science and Technology is a individual subject
Foreign languages for Science and Technology
Languages for special Purposes ( LSP)
English for Science and Technology
English for Special Purposes (ESP)
1.2 The important of Foreign languages for Science and Technology
1.3 Request of study in Foreign languages for Science and Technology
1.
3.1 Study English book and magazine using dictionary
1.3.3
Translation English book and magazine using dictionary
1.3.4
Know how to write abstract for English paper
1.4 Study methods of English for Science and Technology
1.4.1 Understand study aim and plane
1.4.2 Study methods
1.4.3 Mastery the pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar
Pseudotuberculosis Pseudo-tuberculo-sis
Immunoassay Immuno-assay
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Immunochemical Immuno-chemical
1.4.4 Reading methods
Section 2 The formation and development of several foreign language in normal using in the world
2.1 The major language in the world
There are 2700 nationality and 5651 languages, but there are not words in three fourth. There are 500 languages studied by philologist.
There are 70 different kind words published in foreign countries.
English 60%
German 11%
Russian 11%
France 7%
Japanese 3%
Spanish 2% Others 8%
2.2 The origin and development of several major languages
in India and Europe
希腊 东希腊文 斯拉夫文 俄文
腓尼基文 古希腊文
法语
西希腊文 拉丁文
意大利语
西班芽语 英语
日尔曼语
德语
2.3 The significance of study foreign languages for science and
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technology from study languages in India and Europe
Section 3 The general character and individual character in
English for science and technology and public English
3.1 The general character in English for science and technology and public English
The English for science and technology is the branch of general English.
The basic words are come from general English. The grammar is as same as general English.
3.2 The difference of English for science and technology and public English
3.2.1 The character of comma language in English for science and technology
.
The meaning of vocabulary is proprietary and stability
do, make, take
There is no feeling in English for science and technology
There are no figure of speech, overstate and parallelism
It is a written language
3.2.2 The characteristic of vocabulary in English for science and technology
.
International There are 70% vocabulary come from Latin and
Greece in medicine and veterinary.
.
Using normative written verb
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discover ( find out) observe ( look at)
.
Using derivative adjective verb add -able, -ed, -ing, -ive breath breathing, breathed, breather, breathless noun add -al, -ic, -ious electron electronic, electropolar, electropositive
3.2.3 The character of grammar structure in English for science and technology
1) Using noun and word group
The title of paper
(1) Methods of detecting drug-resistance in chicken coccidian
(2) The pathway of cell death induced by lead in Wish cells
(3) Establishment of a Radiorecepter Assay (RRA) capable of measuring serum bioactive LH/CG in a wide variety of species
2) Using passive voice
The Toxplasma gondii infection were found in animals as early as in
1950s in Fujian province of China. During the next twenty-odd years much progress was made and more than 100 papers were published.
3) Using participle and non-predicate as adjective
(1) The sounds heard in the heart are due to the closing of the valves.
(2) A zoonotic disease is defined as a disease shared by animals and humans.
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4) Using more than two clause
(1) Such use as we are able to make of helpful bacteria and such control as we have of harmful ones depend upon our knowledge of their habits.
(2) Water provided to the hogs was sampled and soil from the site of most recent slurry spread was collected.
5) Using it as antecedence subject
(1) It makes no difference to take this medicine before or after meals.
(2) It can be concluded that bovine embryo recloning is similar to the embryos cloning except for the embryo’s low in vitro development ability.
6) Using preposition word group
These cases are grouped by the severity of the disease.
7) Using as guidance active and positive sentences
As the illustration shows
As has been stated
As follows
Pronunciation vocabulary grammar
Section 1 Pronunciation
Section 2 Word-formation in words of science and technology
2.1 The derivational expansion of general English words
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2.1.1 The basic general words
Basic words : 3500-4500
Morpheme (word element), basic words: prefix, stem, suffix
The basic Chinese words : 3500
There are only 2900 different Chinese words in Chairman Mao florilegium.
2.1.2
Formation of words
New words: skylab moonquake E-mail
There are three methods of formation words:
1) Compounding
Using two or more words form one new words.
(1) Compound noun
A. Noun + noun newspaper test-tube bookworm
B. Adjective + noun
green-house White-house darkroom
C. Gerund + noun
Sleeping-bag freezing-point working-table
D. Verb + noun
Grindstone workshop sawdust
E. Adverb + noun
Outbreak overcoat overbridge
F. Pronoun + noun He-goat she-wolf
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G. Verb + adverb
Make-up break-down get-together
Noun + preposition
Editor-in-chief father-in law son-in-law
(2)Compound adjective
A.
Adjective + noun
First-hand second-hand low-temperature high-temperature
B. Adjective + Adjective light-blue red-hot
C. Noun + Adjective color-blind world-wide
D. Adjective + noun + ed (d) small-sized open-minded
E. Noun + participle man-made snow-covered
F. Noun + present participle
Man-eating earth-shaking
G. Adverb + participle far-reaching well-informed
H. Adverb + preposition + noun
Up-to-date out-of-date
I. Numeral + noun (+ed) five-year (plan) four-cornered
J. Adverb + adjective ever-green over-sensitive
K. Adjective + participle ready-made good-looking
L. Noun + noun + ed iron-willed strong-willed weak-willed
(3) Compound pronoun
Pronoun objective case or possessive pronoun + self (selves)
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Himself ourselves
Indefinite pronoun (some, any, no, every) + body (one, thing )
Everybody, anybody something, nothing
(4) Compound verb
A. Adverb + verb : overcome uphold
B. Noun + verb sunbathe
(5)compound adverb
A. Noun + noun sideways
B. Noun + adverb headfirst
C. Adjective + noun meanwhile
D. Preposition + noun before-head
2) Affixation
It is called derivative method to change the meaning with prefix or suffix.
A. Prefix can case the meaning change without change of parts of speech.
Unfair, dislike, amoral, superman, cooperate, foretell,
Bicycle, tricycle, pentagon, sexangle
B.
Suffix can case the change of parts speech, and sometimes the meaning of word changed.
Piglet, armlet, friendship, happiness, childless
3)Conversion
Parts of speech change
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(1) Noun turned to verb: form to form, heat to heat
(2) Adjective turned to verb: slow to slow, direct to direct
(3) Adjective turned to noun:
Wounded the wounded, beautiful the beautiful
(4) Adverb turned to verb: down to down
2. The word of special purpose extension in vertical and horizontal
1) The words of special purpose in vertical extension
(1) The words from Greece and Latin word element
50-70% English words are come from Greece and Latin.
A.
The compound method from Greece and Latin word elements
Many derivative words are compounded from more than three word elements
Polyavitaminosis poly- a- vita- amin(o)- osis
Polyuria polytrophy aminoacid acidosis leucocytosis
Leucocyt(a)emia
B.
One stem of organ can composed to new word with suffix of disease, symptom, skill
terminology organ -algia -rragia -otomy -rrhaphy -plasty -it is -oma -osis -cele
Entero- entero- entero- entero- entero- entero- entero- entero- entero- entero-
algia rragia tomy rrhaphy plasty tis cele gastro- gastro- gastro- gastro- gastro- gastro- gastri- gastro- gastro-
algia rragia tomy rrhaphy plasty tis sis cele
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hepato hepatal- hepato- hepato- hepato- hepati- hepato- hepato- hepato-
gia rragia tomy rrhaphy tis ma sis cele
C.Vertical extension in some hematology noun terminology haemocyte haemocytoblast myelo- myeloblast lympho- -blast lymphoblast mono- monoblast megacaryo- megacaryoblast erythro- erythroblast pro- + myelo + cyte promyelocyte meta- + myelo + cyte metamyelocyte
Furthermore, above mentioned the cell words can added with other suffix , e.g. –blast(o)osis, -cytohaemia, -oma etc.
2) The character of Greece and Latin and rule of synthesis
(1) The morphem of Greece and Latin is as same as common English word structure, and it is divided into prefix, root and suffix.
A.
Prefix: Greece and Latin preposition, number or word derivation
e.g. a- aleukia, anti- antibody, dys- dyscontrol,
B. Root: Greece and Latin words change
e.g. entero- enterotoxin, thoraco- thoracotomy,
haemo- haemorrhagia
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C.
Suffix: Greece or Latin suffix or word change
D.
e.g. –itis enteritis, -osis babesiosis, -tomia enterostomy
(2) Divided into primary word derivative and compound words
Primary word: entero-, stoma-
Derivative word: primary + prefix or suffix anti- + toxinum antitoxin
Compound word: compound from two or more words
Haemo- + thorax haemothorax
(3) The major rule of formation and connection in stem
A. Stem and prefix mostly come from single meaning
Take off the suffix of single meaning word , if the end of word is consonant, it need s to connect “o”. But if it is vowed, it does not need to change. But spleen is coming from Greece spleen, the suffix is needing to add “o” , splenoo-.
B. When the stem has prefix, there is a vowel in front of the stem, the vowel is taken out in the end of prefix . If there is a vowel in front of the stem, the vowel is kept.
Enter (o) + it is, “o” meet “i”, take out “o” enteritis
Entero + rrhagia, “o” meet “r”, keep “o” enterorrhagia
C. If “o” take out , two consonant add “o”, it is difficult to know the stem, adding “-” in the middle.
Chondro-osteodystrophia, intra-abdominal
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D. gastro- + -enter(o)- +-it is, “o” meet with “e”, keep “o” gastroenteritis
2) Come from general English words with new meaning energy, base, normal, cell
3) New words
(1) Compound new words from Greece and Latin
atom, a + tomos , bicycle (bicyclette France)
(2) Condensation from first word
Laser Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
Rader Radio Detection and Ranging
(3) Compound from head and tail of words
Transfer + resistor transistor, Positive + electron positron
(4) Take part word instead of whole word
Gram-molecular-weight mole or mol
(5) Change word
Television televise, laser lase , diagnosis diagnose
(6) Reverse the word
Frequency quefrency, filter lifter
(7) Condensation word
Atom-bomb a-bomb, undersea boat u-boat
(8) Condensation of Latin
Et al. (et alifi), e.g. (exampli gratia), ie. (id est)
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2. Horizontal extension of special words
Using Greece and Latin stem
1) Latin For the name of animal, plant, microorganism, parasites and drugs etc.
Nephritis haemorrhagicaaa, Bacillus mallei zopf,
Natrium chloratum
2) Translate to special words from Latin by different countries
Avitaminosis (L. E. W.), Avitaminose(F. G. ), Avitaminosi(I.)
Septicaemia haemorrhagica suum (L.)
Haemorrhagic septicemia swine (E.)
Septicemia (haemorphagique) du pore (F.)
Haemorrhagische septikamie der schweigne (G.)
3. Harf English wors and phrasse of Science and technology
It means that using and meaning are changed from general English.
Specimen, sample, germ, case, carrier
Section 3 Grammar for English of science and technology
1. Using passive voice One third verbs are using passive voice in
English for science and technology. Because the article of science and technology are introduced the outcome and results.
1) The sentence without person
Using passive voice is more confidence.
Research was being done.
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Parasites have to be controlled. Parasites have controlled.
2) expression the necessary and responsibilityThe instruments need to be sterilized.
There are several factors to be considered.
3) Expression item, plan and aim
The results of research are to be published soon.
The results of research are (was) published.
4) Expression the probability and tendency
These animals are liable to be attacked by germs.
5) Expression the performer in passive voice
The operation was performed by the surgeon.
6) Expression the method and manner
The solution is weakened by the addition of more water.
7) The subject is animal, plant and other substance
Decay is accelerated by enzymes.
8) Expression inverted sentence order
By the addition of water, the solution is weakened
2. Using noun and noun word group instead of verb or adjective noun> verb, preposition> adjective and adverb
If we compare Type A with Type B, we will find that Type A is more advantageous to our purpose.
* A comparison of Type A with Type B shows that Type A has more
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advantageous to our purpose.
3. Using more non-predicate verb phrase
To determine the number of cells, a sample is put under a microscope.

The cell units were found to be filled with living substances.
4. Using more participle as attribute
The quantity of oxygen liberated to atmosphere by growing vegetation is obviously very large.
5. Using subjunctive mood
But for the heat of the sun (if there were no heat of the sun), nothing could live.
6. Using fixture sentence
It is ( or verb) + adjective(or noun) + that (clause)
It is common knowledge that water is made from oxygen and hydrogen.
Section 1 Stylistics in English for science and technology
A. Chinese is different from English on oral expression.
E.g. # I want to ask you a question.
* I’d like to ask you a question. * May I ask you a question?
B. Style in English is different from Chinese. The English for Science and technology has special individual character in word, grammar and structure of sentence.
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1. The structure of style is rigor, concision and briefness .
1) We made a hole in a cork and pushed into a narrow glass tube. Then we pushed this into neck of a bottle which we had filled with colored water. When we did this some of the colored water went up into the tube.
We marked the level of the colored water in the tube was marked. Then the bottle was placed into a pan of hot water.
Almost immediately, the water level in the tube fell slightly, but then it started to rise until the water overflowed.
* 2) After a hole was made in a cork, a narrow glass tube was inserted and the cork was inserted into neck of a bottle filled with colored water.
On doing this, some of the colored water rose in the tube. The level of the colored water in the tube was marked. Then the bottle was placed into a pan of hot water.
Almost immediately, the water level in the tube fell slightly, but then it started to rise until the water overflowed.
2. The article of science and technology is strictness, refine, in focus and concision.
1) This piece of metal expanded when it was heated. It will contract when cooled.

Metals expand when heated and contract when cooled.
2) The chick embryos are chopped up and are put into a jar, then they are poured into a large flask. An enzyme is added to break
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down the tissue.
3) There is a choice in article for science and technology
A.
Tin resists corrosion by air or water.
B.
Tin is resistant to corrosion by air or water.
C.
Tin has a resistance to corrosion by air or water.
Section 2 Structure of sentence in English for science and technology
One sentence has subject, predicate verb, object and modifier parts.
The basic parts are subject and predicate. The modifier parts are attribute, adverbial and complement.
3.
Type of sentence
1) Simple sentence
All of us must learn Dr. Bethune.
2)Compound sentence
After liberation the incidence of occupational and epidemic diseases has dropped remarkably, the general health condition of the workers has greatly improved.
3)Complex sentence
That China is a big country with all kinds of resources is well known.
The question was whether it was common cold or influenza.
We are know that red blood cells carry oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body.
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The air that animals breathe is a mixture of different gases.
Every bit of food eaten must be dissolved in water before it can be absorbed and utilized.
4)Members of the sentence
A.Subject
Streptomycin preparations can be administered by a variety of methods.
B.Predicate verb
Our country has a great future.
First aid should always first be directed toward the control of haemorrhage.
One of the functions of bone is to protect important organs .
5)Predicative Most colds appear to be communicable.
6)Object
We must hold ourselves responsible to the people.
7)Complement
We call the new method acupuncture anaesthesia.
8)Attribute
Normally, each beat of the heart cause a pulse in the arteries.
9)Adverbial
On clinical examination no changes in the animal’s condition were found.
4.
Analysis of English for science and technology
To find the subject, predicate ( how many ) and other parts.
*e.g. In the early days of sea travel, seamen on long voyages lived
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exclusively on salted meat and biscuits. Many of them died of scurvy, a disease of the blood which causes swollen gums, livid white spots on the flesh and general exhaustion. scurvy: a disease (formerly common among sailors) marked by blooding and caused by not eating fruit and vegetables
(with vitamin C). livid: pale exhaustion: the state of being tired out
Section 1 Reading of English for science and technology
You must understand the article for reading.
The basic require for reading: pronunciation, words and grammar
The method of reading:
1) Extractive reading
2) Extensive reading
Section 2 Translation of English for science and technology
1. The calibrate of translation: confidence, clarity and volubility
1) Literal translation 2) Free translation
2. The method of translation
1) Understanding the words and sentences
From syntactical function to understand the meaning
A.Though usually of a round shape, the nucleus may sometimes be
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elongated and rod-shaped, as in nonstriated muscle cells, or irregular in shape, as in some white blood corpuscles.
B.An electron is an extremely small corpuscle with negative charge which rounds about the nucleus of an atom.
C.The encouraging news soon got round .
In making the rounds the medical workers attach great importance to the prevention of disease.
Red rash developed round the neck in the wake of two day’s fever.
2) The meaning of word according to article up and down
In recent reports of eight cases of viral hepatitis, four were seen with acute urticaria in the preicteric phase.
Massive bleeding may not be brought under control in time. Such being the case, prompt operation is indicated. lFurther improvements in the instrumentation includes the fitting of a small case containing ultrafine motor.
3) According to the partner of words known the meaning general anesthesia, general check-up, general outline, general peritonitis, general pathology, general secretary
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4) Words change and extension e.g. we, you, they
We have 365 days in a year. You can never tell.
They say it is so.
The activity of this enzyme in these sites can be maintained at normal levels by sulfate feeding.
2) Understand the sentence
(1) Some times the members of sentence are ellipsis
* Just think of the difficult.
To think that you should fail. (2) Using it , there
It is no use trying.
It is the people that are really powerful.
It is thought that……
It is supposed that…… ree kinds of bacteria in the tube.
(3) Using parenthesis
Even a slight lack of Vitamin C, for example, the vitamin most plentiful in fresh fruit and vegetables, is thought to increase significantly our susceptibility to colds and influenza.
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3) What kind of sentence
(1)Simple sentence
On meeting the ovum, the head of the spermatozoon penetrates it.
(2)Compound sentence
It has long been known to bacteria experts that the tubercle bacillus is the germ in milk which most strongly resists heat treatment.
4) known the word order
(1) Inverted word order in compound sentence
A. Only in our country can science serve the interest of the people.
B. It has been roughly estimated that forty percent of animal’s diseases are the result of infection by bacteria.
C. Nutritional experiments have made it evident that vitamins are indispensable for animal’s health and growth.
D. The lymph vascular system differs from the blood vascular system in that it is not a circulatory system but simply a drainage system and possesses no pump.
E. The truth is that men are developed from anthropoid apes.
F. There is a little doubt that antibiotics particularly those of the broad spectrum, can be used to reduce secondary bacterial infection.
(2) Inverted word order in passive sentence
A. Vitamin K is not absorbed from the upper intestine. verted word order in preposition sentence
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She treats sick animals with a needle
(3) Separating sentence and adding some pronoun and conjunction
A nearby object falling into a black hole is never heard of a gain.
4) Adding or reducing words
(1)Adding words
Some of the gases in the air are fairly constant in amount, while others are not.
(2)Reducing words
In the course of the same year, anthrax broke out in that area.
Microoganisms are so small that they cannot be seen at all with the naked eyes.
5) Changing translation
It was not until 1959 that chemists succeeded in obtaining this compound.
He can not read the book without a dictionary.
6) expression true meaning
The heart lies between the lungs, more to the left side than to the right.
7) Logic relation
There substances pass from the tissue fluid into the cells, while waste products pass in the opposite direction.
8) Using Chinese custom
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He is too wise not to understand such things.
Section 3 Translation for long and difficult sentences
English sentence is longer than Chinese, especially using article for Science and technology.
1) Analysis long sentence needs to find central words and sentence pattern.
However great the joy with which he welcomed a new discovery in some theoretical science whose practical application perhaps it was as yet quite impossible to envisage, he experienced quite another kind of joy when the discovery involved immediate revolutionary changes in industry, and in historical development in general.
2) Known the subject and predicate and separation sentence
To separate long sentence for simple sentence and finding central words. reactions may occur in a large percentage of normal individuals without evident hereditary predisposition. we say that heat has been added to it.
3) Known the relation parts of sentences by conjunction
While the process meets the presently accepted definitions of emphysema, it may be simply anatomic consequence of aging.
Just as a disturbance in metabolism of one metabolite will affect all other metabolites, so a deficiency in the intake of one nutrient affect all
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others.
There is little doubt that antibiotics, particularly those of the broad spectrum can reduce secondary bacterial infections.
As has already been mentioned above, patients differ in their tissue sensitivity.
Aggressive dosage of penicillin as high as 40,000,000 units per day in the absence of untoward effects are required, which it can do only by applying “push” doses.
What has been found by necropsy is of almost importance.
4) Translation of Modifier attached to subject and predicate
(1)Attribute translation * cardiac failure
The advanced world levels to the factors responsible for this upset. aken in though the mouth, where it is chewed and mixed with saliva, then it passes down the esophagus to the stomach, where the food collects.
(2) Adverbial translation early in life. rotene which is a precursor of vitamin A can be given in such large amounts that it causes a yellowish discoloration of the skin which often is
27

mistaken for jaundice.
5) Translation for long sentence
(1) Translation by order of sentence
* Here the emphasis is on disease as a process, and an effort is made to explain the clinical picture by the pathological changes found in the tissue, not only in the surgical pathology laboratory, but, it may be, in the autopsy room, where the object is not merely to determine the cause of death, but to study the particular disease in all its aspects and various, and to correlate it with the signs and symptoms observed during life.
(2) reverse translation ed the infection may be demonstrated seven to ten days after the onset of illness, the maximal antibody response is observed two to four weeks after onset.
6)Renew and separating translation um of patients in the early stages of acute viral hepatitis of varying proportions
(13-18%) of an antigen variously referred to as the Australia antigen, the
SH antigen and the hepatitis antigens.
Section 1 writing title
1.Title
1) Simple and understand
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2)Using noun without predicate
3)Using whole sentence for title without period
-carcinogenic for human colon cancer
4)Interrogative sentence for title with note of interrogation
5)Methods of written title:
(1) Capital the first word of first denominator of title
(2) Capital every word of first denominator of title without some empty word, article and three denominator word ( conjunction and preposition) but capital more than fore denominator word (with, from, after, before, during, against and between etc.)
Outlook into the future: new perspectives to safeguard insecticides
The Pathway of Cell Death Induced by Lead in Wish Cells
2. Subtitle
To project some contains of paper e.g. cases, research method or different parts of long paper topic. The title and subtitle can separated by different size of words or colon.
Abdominal pain in the emergency room: A study of 100 consecutive cases
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Fatty liver syndrome in dairy cattle: A review
I. Oestradiol-17 β
Factors Affecting Uterine and Cervical Involution in the Cow and Ewe: II.
Progesterone
3. Compare the different of characteristic of title in Chinese and
English
1) # Study of……,
Study on……,
Investigation of……,
A report of……
Ultrasound in the diagnosis of cholestatic jaundice
2) Translation some Chinese Title to English
(1) Discussion, evaluation, approach, study and investigation etc.
Discussion on treatment for fracture of
An evaluation of patella by combined Chinese
An approach on traditional and Western
Study on Medicine
(2) Experience
-negative organisms
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(3) Problem, aspect membrane
(4) Preliminary liver transplantation
4. Ellipsis front article of title and collocation of noun
1)Ellipsis article
-negative shock (the treatment)
2)Collocation of noun
(1) Study + of, on, in
study studies
(2) Report + of, on
(3) Survey + on or of
(4) Observation + of, on, or in
(5) Duce to,
caused by
# because of ,
owing to
(6) After following
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wing) liver surgery.
Section 2 Written name, position and address
1.Name of author
Alfred--first name,
Bernhard—second name, Nobel—last name
Albert Einstein Albert—first name, Einstein—last name
To write the name of writer:
Whole words of first and last name, ellipsis for second name e.g. Alfred B. Nobel
2. Degree
The degree after name of article e.g. Gary W. England, MD,
Joseph L. Allen, MD, PhD
M.B.(MB)=Bachelor of Medicine, M.S.(MS)=Master of science
Ph.D.(PhD)=Doctor of Philosophy
Abbreviate of membership of association of institute
FRCP=Fellow of the Royal College
of Physicians
MRCVS=Member of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons
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3.Organization
1)Department e.g. Dept. of Physiology, University of California,
SanFrancisco, Califorlia 94143
But in China using Teaching and Research Group department e.g. Normal Human Body Teaching and Research Group, Hubei Collage of Traditional Chinese Medicine
Department of Histology and Embryology
Departments of Medicine and Surgery, Washington University, School of
Medicine
2) China using Group
English using division, section or unit e.g. Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine
Laboratory in China
Lab. or Research group
Section 3 Contents and structure of English summary
1.Voice
More using passive voice of third personal pronoun (90%)
Because it is emphasized in resorts or facts, it does not talk about think of writer in article for science and technology.
In general it does not using first or second personal pronoun.
33

Do not using
I feel……,
I think……,
I believe……
If needs to using first personal pronoun in summary, it can use as follows:
1)Using we instead of I
We still consider, due to the above, that the conservative method of treatment should be used for treating the cow with retained fetal membrane.
2)Using passive voice without writer
Level of serum calcium were measured in 85 postpartum cows.
Using author instead of I, the authors instead of we
*The author(s) presents (present) the experience of treating 210 cases of cows with clinical mastitis.
2.Tense
1)Past tense Because research work is finished when author write paper.
The effect of imipramine hydrochloride on blood pressure was examined in a prospective and a retrospective study.
2)Past perfect tense
The work beginning or finished before research
* Twenty six pluriparous Suffolk ewes, which had been inseminated,
34

were used to monitor uterine involution.
3) Present tense
Write or publish paper in present time that after slaughter indicates that such a method of monitoring uterine involution macroscopically in fairly accurate.
Using verb in present time : report, describe, present, discuss
, review, emphasize and stress etc. syndrome.
and safe surgical procedure is justified in selected cases.
4) Present perfect tense finish work before writinging that it completed averagely in 37 days after parturition.
5) Future tense
future work , predict result or future prospect determinations will increase.
3.Contains of abstract
Abstract (summary) is in front of text of article. There are about 200 words long. It contains purpose, methods, results and conclusion of
35

research. It is used past indefinite tense for research process and results, present tense for conclusion.
Effect of Exogenous PGF2a on Fertility of Postpartum Cow
Abstract
Twenty-five mg of prostaglandin F2a (PGF2a) was injected intramuscularly to each of the 20 normally calved dairy cows within six hours after calving to study the effect of the hormone on their subsequent fertility. The cows with PGF2a injection had shorter intervals both from calving to the completion of uterine involution and to the subsequent conception as compared with the control group. Results suggest that 25 mg of exogenous PGF2a can improve the fertility of the postpartum cow.
4. Sentence pattern in abstract
1)Sentence pattern for expression conclusion
*Our results suggest that……,
* The data obtained suggest that……,
These observation strongly suggest that……
In conclusion, we suggest that……,
*It is concluded that……
The data show that……,
*Data fail to confirm……
*It is recommended that……
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Above sentences have suggest, propose or recommend with that guidance clause, that clause uses subjunctive mood.
It is proposed that nonspecific ulcers of colon should be managed conservatively.
2) Sentence pattern for expression purpose of research
The objectives of this study were to…… s made to……
In an attempt to……
In order to……
In an effort to……
Expression approximate number
About, some, almost, nearly, over, above, more than, greater than,
Less than
The loss of water from the skin and respiratory tract approximates 750 ml per day.
-induced ovarian disorder which persisted for 2 years or so.
37

Section 4 Examples of Writing abstract for English paper
将以下论文标题和摘要写成英文
1.
标题 : 我国禽病流行新动态
2.
摘要 : 近 10 年来， 10 余种新禽病在我国出现，我国兽医科技工作者
对其进行了研究与报道。这些疾病大多为急性、烈性传染病，危害较
大，且大多病原没有确定。本文介绍了在我国出现并流行、危害养禽
业健康发展、可能尚未引起人们足够重视的几种新病，如鸡大肝大脾
病、雏鹅新型病毒性肠炎等，以期引起同行重视，并对禽病防治和研
究有一定的启发。
关键词 : 禽 ; 疾病 ; 流行动态
Gosling New poultry viral development enteritis disease epidemic enterprise liver spleen harmed occurred according recognize article appear recent harm veterinarian acute Epidemic Developments of New Poultry
Diseases in China
Abstract: With the development of poultry enterprises, more than ten new diseases which harmed the poultry farms occurred accordingly, such as big liver and spleen disease, new gosling viral enteritis, and some other diseases. This article is briefly introduced on some new diseases, which appeared and recognized in recent ten years.
Key words: poultry, disease and epidemic development 请将以下中文
译成英文
38

题目:中华竹鼠大肠杆菌分离与鉴定
摘要:从圈养状态下的中华竹鼠中分离出一株大肠杆菌，通过形态观
察、培养、生化试验、血清学鉴定和动物致病性试验，表明分离菌其
培养特性与生化特性为 O 血清型。它对中华竹鼠具有很强致病力。
关键词:
中华竹鼠; 大肠杆菌; 分离; 鉴定
Identification, isolation, bamboo, rat,Escherichia coli, strain, biochemical, serotype, pathogenicity, state, ring breeding Isolation and identification of Escherichia Coli in
Chinese Bamboo Rat
Abstract: One strain of Escherichia coli was isolated from Chinese bamboo rat in the state of ring breeding. It showed that the strain had almost the same cultural and biochemical characteristics, with O serotype and high pathogenicity by observation of biochemistry test, serotype identification and pathogenicity test.
Key words: bamboo rat; escherichia coli; isolation; identification 请将以
下中文译成英文:
题目:昆明小鼠体内寄生虫净化技术研究
摘要:本文用 0.04mg/kg 剂量的吡喹酮（Pyquton）对昆明小鼠体内寄
生虫进行了药物净化，从血液学、生化学和病理学等方面，对用药动
物进行了观察。结果表明:吡喹酮不但是一种有效、安全的的昆明小
鼠多种体内寄生虫净化药物，而且对昆明小鼠没有损害。因此它是一
39

种实验小鼠体内寄生虫净化的候选药物之一。
关键词 : 昆明小鼠 ; 吡喹酮 ; 药物净化 technique, cleaning, Kunming mice, safe, efficient, damage, choose, technique Study on Cleaning Technique for Endoparasite in Kunming
Mice
Abstract: Using dosage 0.04 mg/kg Pyquiton to clean endoparasite in
Kunming mice. The results indicated that Pyquiton is not only safe and efficient, but also is no damage to mice under observing hematology, biochemistry and pathology as cleaning drug for endoparasite.
Therefore, Pyquiton is one of choosing drugs for cleaning endoparasite.
Key words: kunming mice; pyquiton; endoparasite; cleaning tecnique
PROTECTIVE IMMUNE RESPONSES TO THEILERIA ANNULATA
OF RELEVANCE TO VACCINE DEVELOPMENT
PATRICLA M. PRESTON, ASTRID VISSER AND A. ABRAHAM
Division of Biological Science, University of Edinburgh, Scotland, U.K.
SUMMARY
A series of projects on Theileria annulata funded by the European
Union have provided convincing evidence that macrophage and natural killer (NK) cell-dependent immune mechanisms may directly control the proliferation of different stages of T. annulata in cattle. The evidence for this conclusion and the implications for vaccine development are discussed in the following paper. MACROSCHIZONTS OF THEILERIA
40

ANNULATA AS VACCINE AND DIAGNOSTIC TOOLS
J.S. Ahmed1, P. Shayan1, F.U. Hugel1, R. Biermann1,
Ch. Ewald2
1Forschungszentrum Borstel; 2Tierarztlische Ambulanz Schwarzenbek der Freien Universitat, Berlin
Summary
T. annulata-infected cells present infection-associated peptides.
These peptides represent target molecules of the cytotoxic acting cells.
Their preparation and characterization may help to develop a sub-unit vaccine. Our studies show that macroschizont-infected bovine cells can be used as parasite antigen in serology for the detection of arasite-specific antibodies in serum of infected animals. Primers derived from the macroschizont of T. annulata can be used as molecular tools for the detection of parasite DNA in blood samples of cattier cattle.
Lesson 1 THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
The circulatory system is the transport system that supplies O
2 and substances absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract to the tissues, returns
CO
2
to the lungs and other products of metabolism to the kidneys,
41

functions in the regulation of body temperature, and distributes hormones and other agents that regulate cell function. The blood, the carrier of these substances, is pumped through a closed system of blood vessels by the heart, which in mammals is really 2 pumps in series with each other .
From the left ventricle, blood is pumped through the arteries and arterioles to the capillaries, where the blood equilibrates with the interstitial fluid. The capillaries drain throuth venules into the veins and back to the right atrium. This is the major (systemic) circulation.
From the right atrium, blood flows to the right ventricle, which pumps it through the vessels of the lungs- the lesser (pulmonary) circulation- and the left atrium to the left ventricle. In the pulmonary capillaries, the blood equilibrates with the O
2
and CO
2
in the alveolar air.
Some tissue fluids enter another system of closed vessels, the lymphatic, which drain lymph via the thoracic duct and the right lymphatic duct into the venous system (the lymphatic circulation).
The circulation is controlled by multiple regulatory systems that function in general to maintain adequate capillary blood flow- when possible, in all organs, but particularly in the heart and brain.
New words and phrases
Circulatory system 循环系统 interstitial 间质的
Gastrointestinal 胃肠的
42

venule 小静脉 vein 静脉 atrium 心房 hormone 激素 pulmonary 肺的 vessel 脉管 alveolar 肺泡的 ventricle 心室 lymphatic 淋巴的 capillary 毛细血管 thoracic duct 胸导管 equilibrate 平衡
Lesson 2 Metabolism
The endocrine system, like the nervous system, adjusts and correlates the activities of the various body systems, making them appropriate to the changing demands of the external and internal environment .
Endocrine integration is brought about by hormones, chemical messengers produced by ductless glands that are transported in the circulation to target cells, where they regulate the metabolic processes .
The term metabolism, meaning literally “change”, is used to refer to all the chemical and energy transformations that occur in the body.
The animal organism oxidizes carbohydrates, proteins, and fats, producing principally CO
2
, H
2
O, and the energy necessary for life processes. CO
2
, H
2
O, and energy are also produced when food is burned outside the body.
43

However, in the body, oxidation is not a one step, semi-explosive reaction but a complex, slow, stepwise process called catabolism, which liberates energy in small, usable amounts.
Energy can be stored in the body in the form of special energy-rich phosphate compounds and in the form of proteins, and complex carbohydrates synthesized from simpler molecules. Formation of these substances by processes that take up rather than liberate energy is called anabolism.
New words and Phrases
Metabolism 新陈代谢 endocrine 内分泌 integration 综合 , 一体化 messenger 信使 oxidize 氧化 oxidation 氧化
Catabolism 分解代谢
phosphate 磷酸盐
anabolism 合成代谢
Lesson 3 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The respiratory system, is made up of the gas-exchanging organs
44

(the lungs and respiratory passages) and a pump that ventilates the lungs.
The pump consists of the chest wall, the respiratory muscles, which increase and decrease the size of the thoracic cavity; the centers in the brain that .control the muscles.; and the tracts and nerves that connect the brain to the muscles.
Respiration, as the term is generally used, includes 2 processes:
External respiration, the absorption of 0
2
and removal of CO
2
from the body as a whole; and internal respiration, the utilization of 0
2
and production of CO
2
by cells and the gaseous exchanges between the cells and their fluid medium.
The respiratory passages that lead from the exterior to the alveoli do more than serve as gas conduits. They humidify and cool or warm the inspired air so that even very hot or very cold air is at or near body temperature by the time it reaches the alveoli. Bronchial secretions contain secretory immunoglobulins (IgA) and other substances that help to resist infections and maintain the integrity of the mucosa.
The pulmonary alveolar macrophages (PAMS), the dust cells, are important components of the pulmonary defence mechanisms. Like other macrophages, these cells come originally from the bone marrow. They are actively phagocytic and ingest inhaled bacteria and small particles.
In addition to the gas exchange and defence, the lungs have a number of metabolic functions. They manufacture surfactant which
45

adjusts surface tension during breathing, helps to prevent pulmonary edema and aids to the infant respiration. They also contain a fibrinolytic system that lyses clots in the pulmonary vessels. In lungs, some biologically active substances are removed from the blood, but some axe synthesized and released into the blood. The lungs also activate one hormone; the physiologically inactive decapeptide angiotensin I is converted to the pressor, aldosterone-stimulating octapeptide angiotesin
II.
New Words and Phrases
Respiration.n
．呼吸 macrophage ． n ．巨噬细胞 to be made up of 由……组成 phagocytic.a
．吞噬作用的 respiratory passage 呼吸道 surfactant ． n ．表面活性剂 thoracic. a.
胸的、胸廓的 edema ． n ．水肿 tract ． n.( 神经 ) 径、束、道 fibrinolytic ． a ．血纤维蛋白溶解的 alveoli ． n. 肺泡 ( 复 ) decapeptide. n 十肽． bronchial ． a ．支气管的 angiotensin I 血管紧张肽 I immunoglobulin ． n ．免疫球蛋白 aldosterone ． n ．醛固酮 infection ． n ．感染 octapeptide ． n ．八肽 integrity ． n ．完整、完善 angiotensin II 血管紧张肽 H
Lesson 4 Digestion and Absorption
The gastrointestinal system is the portal through which nutritive
46

substances, vitamins, minerals and fluids enter the body. Proteins, fats, and complex carbohydrates are broken down into absorbable units
(digested) , principally in the small intestine. The products of digestion and the vitamins, minerals, and water cross the mucosa and enter the lymph or the blood (absorption).
Digestion of the major foodstuffs is an orderly process involving the action of a large number of digestive enzymes. Some of these enzymes are found in the secretions of the salivary glands, the stomach, and the exocrine portion of the pancreas. Other enzymes are found in the luminal membranes and the cytoplasm of the cells that line the small intestine.
The action of the enzymes is aided by the: hydrochloric acid secreted by the stomach and the bile secreted by the liver.
The mucosal cells in the small intestine have a brush border made up of numerous microvilli lining their apical surface. This border is rich in enzyrnes. It is lined on its luminal side by a layer that is rich in neutral and amino sugars, the glycocalyx . The membranes of the mucosal cells contain glycoprotein enzymes that hydrolyze carbohydrates and peptides, and the glycocalyx is made up in part of the carbohydrate portions of these glycoproteins that extend into the intestinal lumen. Next to the brush border mad glycocalyx is a 100- to 400µm unstirred water layer
(UWL) similar to the UWL adjacent to other biologic membranes.
Solutes must diffuse across the UWL to reach the mucosal cells. The
47

mucous coat overlying the cells also constitutes a significant barrier to diffusion.
Substances pass from the lumen of the gastrointestinal tract to the extracellular fluid and thence to the lymph and blood by diffusion, facilitated diffusion, solvent drag, active transport, secondary active transport (coupled transport), and endocytosis. Most substances must pass from the intestinal lumen into the mucosal cells and then out of the mucosal cells to the extracellular fluid, and the processes responsible for movement across the luminal cell membrane are often quite different from those responsible for movement across the basal and lateral cell membranes to the extracellular fluid.
New Words and Phrases
digestion ． n ．消化 pancreas ． n ．胰
absorption. n ．吸收 hydrochloric acid 盐酸
small intestine 小肠 bile ． n ．胆汁
muosa. n ．黏膜 brush border 刷状缘
enzyme ． n ．酶 microvilli ． n ．微绒毛
salivary gland 唾液腺 glycocalyx ． n ．腊梅糖
stomach ． n ．胃 glycoproteinn ． n ．糖蛋白
exocrine ． n ．外分泌 hydrolyze ． n ．水解 endocytosis ． n ．内吞噬作用 unstirred water layer (UWL) 稳定水层
48

Chapter 7 Specific
Lesson 1 Diagnosis of diseases
A cow lies in the middle of the pasture after the herd has moved in to be milked. The owner looks closely at the cow and urges her to get up.
She makes a feeble attempt to rise but is either unable or too depressed to try. Is the cow injured? Has she become intoxicated by something she ate?
Does she have a severe systemic infection? Is there some functional change in her nervous system, digestive system, or urogenital system?
The process of determining the nature of disease is diagnosis. Making a diagnosis is a systematic process of collecting all the facts and making an objective evaluation of them while considering all that is known about specific diseases and their signs .
Why make a diagnosis? In the example of the “downer” cow, a diagnosis is necessary for the protection of the rest of the herd, it must be eliminated to prevent further loss. Of secondary importance is the correct approach to restoring the cow to health, which depends on determining the nature of the disease.
Most diagnosticians have learned not to jump to conclusions, even when apparently clear-cut signs point to specific diseases. The chance for error from hasty and superficial evaluation is great. Facts to be evaluated
49

are collected by questioning the owner and examining records, if available, regarding all the information about the health of the herd, current production, reproduction status, nutrition, previous sickness and treatment, vaccinations, recent actions and behavior, and signs the owner may have noticed.
Then, a careful examination of the cow is made to collect signs of altered structure or function. This physical examination involves an appraisal of the overall appearance of the cow, her general condition, and mental attitude.
It also includes the collection of indices to her general condition by determining the body temperature, respiratory rate and quality, and pulse rate and quality. Increase in body temperature or fever may be an indication of systemic infection or may simply indicate high environmental temperature. Decrease in body temperature could indicate intoxication. An increase in respiration could indicate excitement
, fever, lung infection, or anemia. Pulse condition and rate are affected by pain, fever, blood volume, and general circulatory changes. Absence of changes from the normal in any of these values is just as important as the presence of a change.
The examination proceeds by evaluation of each system (i.e., circulatory, respiratory, digestive, nervous, musculoskeletal, urogenital), separately or concurrently, in as much detail as necessary.
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By doing so, the diagnostician continues to collect facts as to what is normal and what is altered. If the exact disease is still questionable after a complete physical examination is made, it may be necessary to collect tissues, blood, secretions, or excretions for laboratory analysis.
Other diagnostic tools, such as radiographs, may help but are inconvenient to use in an open pasture.
Once the diagnosis is made, the course of action selected to control or prevent the disease from affecting the rest of the herd and to treat the cow can be initiated.
If the disease is metabolic, nutritional changes can be made. If the disease
I infections, steps must be taken to prevent the other cattle from contact.
If the disease is intoxication, the source, plant or chemical, must be found and removed.
If the disease is due to a tumor or individual anomaly, the herds is not threatened. If the disease is traumatic, the cause must be determined and eliminated.
The need for and benefit from diagnosis of a sick animal or animals in a herd are obvious. But, what if the cow in the example were already dead?
The need to protect the herd is still present, perhaps even more urgently because the cause can kill. Since farm animals usually condesed into herds, the losses from disease can be rapid and severe unless immediate active steps are taken to remove or block the cause and protect
51

susceptible animals. Losses can be reduced by making certain that no sick or dead animal is undiagnosed. Veterinarians are trained in the art of diagnosis. The objective of their education and experience is fundamentally to develop an understanding of the signs of disease and the effects of disease processes.
Diagnosis n. 诊断 feeble a. 虚弱的 depressed a. 抑郁 Urogenital a. 尿生殖的 sign n. 症状 downer n. 卧地不起者
Climinate vt. 消除 restore vt. 恢复 clear-cut a. 明显的 Hasty a. 仓促的 superficial a. 肤浅 vaccination n. 接种
Appraisal n. 评价 mental attitude 精神状态
Anemia n. 贫血 concurrently ad. 共同 radiograph n. 射线照相 Traumatic a. 创伤性 carcass n. 尸体 postmortem a. 死后的
Necropsy n. 尸体解剖 veterinarian n. 兽医
Lesson 2 Use of drugs and control of diseases
Sick animals in a herd are an expensive nuisance and also may harbor, grow and shed organisms dangerous to the healthy animals. The obvious solution is to isolate them, get them well, or get rid of them.
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Getting rid of them while they are sick may be possible by unloading them on an unsuspecting buyer.
However, this not only may be illegal but also increases the possibilities of spreading and perpetuating a disease problem. Getting rid of sick animals by examination and burial may be practical in some instances, but it eliminates the possibility of their potential value.
If there is an economical cure for whatever affects the sick animal,it is usually feasible to attempt to restore the animal to health. Treatment or therapy to restore health is directed toward aiding the natural r3epair process to return the animal to normal function or structure. Treatment may be undertaken by using medicines or drugs, by surgical intervention, or by time and nursing. Frequently, the best method for restoration is patient nursing without any interference with the healing process except through enforced rest in a comfortable environment. The livestock producer is not usually inclined to be patient in dealing with sick animals.
Furthermore, his operation is tightly geared for maximum efficiency of production of healthy animals. The provision of extra labor and facilities for a sick bay or a hospital is not always feasible, and consequently, there is a strong tendency to seek a quick effective cure by a medicine or drug.
The use of medication, especially to suppress or cure infectious diseases, is frequently necessary as well as economically feasible. The use of medication, especially to suppress or cure infectious diseases, is
53

frequently necessary as well as economically feasible.
There are medicines or drugs for all purposes. Drugs can substitute for the function of organs, drugs can stimulate functions, drugs can slow down the actions or movement of structures, drugs can speed up movement, dugs can cause contraction or expansion, drugs can dilate and contract blood vessels, drugs can reduce pain, drugs can create euphoria or a sense of well-being, and so on.
There are medicines or drugs for all purposes. Drugs can substitute for the function of organs, drugs can stimulate functions, drugs can slow down the actions or movement of structures, drugs can speed up movement, dugs can cause contraction or expansion, drugs can dilate and contract blood vessels, drugs can reduce pain, drugs can create euphoria or a sense of well-being, and so on.
However, because these agents are added to nature’s effort to heal, they may cause damage (side effects) and they may remain in the body as a residue. Because the main purpose of farm animals is the production of food for human consumption, these residues of drugs are potentially a part of the human diet. Investigations have indicated that residues in meat, milk, or animal products are harmful to people if consumed.
As testing techniques because more sensitive and as knowledge of harmful effects increases, more and more restrictions are being placed on the use of drugs for food-producing animals. Regulations for withdrawal
54

time of drugs before marketing meat or milk are stringent. The antibiotics are most commonly used for livestock to control or cure infectious diseases. Antibiotics reduce the number of microorganisms (primarily bacteria) responsible for infections. Some antibiotics are effective against certain bacteria and ineffective against others. None is directly effective against viruses and some actually help to stimulate the growth of some types of bacteria. Some antibiotics can be given to animals either orally or by injection. Some can be given only by injection. When some antibiotics are given orally to ruminants, their effect is either harmful or nonexistent.
Some antibiotics can be effective when added to feed or drinking water.
All antibiotics have definite characteristics as to what type of organism they affect, how much is required to be effective, how they are eliminated from the body, and how long and where they remain in body tissues.
Present regulations require that no residues of antibiotics can appear in meat or milk sold for human consumption. Antibiotics are effective not only for restoring health but also for preventing infections. Extensive unnecessary use of antibiotics as a substitute for other management practices is unwarranted and unproductive.
However, they may by indicated as a means of precautionary support to stressed animals, e.g., after shipping. They are also indicated as support to an animal suffering from a viral infection to avoid secondary bacterial
55

infection. Their use as routine additions to feeds for growth stimulation or disease prevention is controversial and is considered by many to be a poor substitute for good husbandry.
The introduction of medicines to an animal’s body can aid in restoring normal function. However, the indiscriminate use and overuse of medicines may delay healing and can actually cause further damage to normal functions. In the subsequent lessons describing specific diseases, emphasis is places on means of prevention. In addition, if economical, effective, therapeutic measures can contribute to disease control, they will be indicated.
Specific dosages and techniques may not be given because the rapidly increasing knowledge of pharmacokinetics is continually altering the concept of drug administration. The purpose of this text is to increase the understanding of disease control and the understanding of the limitations of therapy. Specific dosages and techniques may not be given because the rapidly increasing knowledge of pharmacokinetics is continually altering the concept of drug administration. The purpose of this text is to increase the understanding of disease control and the understanding of the limitations of therapy.
New words and phrases
56

Burial 埋葬 residue 残留
Therapy 治疗 restriction 限制
Surgical 手术的 withdrawal 停药
Nursing 护理 antibiotic 抗生素
Suppress 抑制 Orally 口服
Contraction 收缩 injection 注射
Expansion 扩张 precautionary 预防的 euphoria 欣快症 pharmacokinetics 药物动力学
Stimulate 刺激 Side effect 副作用
Lesson 3 BOVINE VIRUS DIARRHEA
Bovine virus diarrhea is an acute or chronic contagious and infectious disease of cattle characterized by fever, nasal discharge, coughing, profuse watery diarrhea, rapid dehydration, and emaciation.
Bovine virus diarrhea was first described in New York in 1946 and has been found since that time by serological survey to be widespread through all countries where cattle are produced. Up to 56% of adult cattle have antibodies to this virus, and it is difficult to find baby calves, either dairy or beef, without demonstrable antibodies.
Cause
Bovine virus diarrhea is caused by one of several strains of a virus. All strains are serologically and immunologically related, although some are
57

cytopathogenic whereas others are not. Manifestations of the disease vary for each strain of the virus. The causative agent propagates in cell cultures of sheep, goats, cattle, and embryonating egg.
Transmission
The mode of transmission is through to be direct contact from infected to susceptible cattle, but the exact method of transfer is not known. The virus may be transmitted indirectly by contaminated feed, water, and bedding, and by contact with fecal matter during the stage of viremia. The disease often appears in a herd after the addition of replacement cattle or after subjection to the stress of shipment. Subacute signs appear in 1 or 2 animals, followed in a week to 10 days by a fulminating out break in the herd.
Clinical Signs
Bovine virus diarrhea is characterized by a chain of signs initially of a respiratory nature: serous or mucous nasal discharge, labored breathing, coughing, and elevated temperatures. In addition, an affected animal usually appears gaunt as a result of decreased feed consumption and diarrhea. Acute laminitis occurs occasionally. Other signs include fatal anomalies, weak calves, muscular tremors, and incoordination.
Bovine virus diarrhea has a course of several days in adult dairy cattle.
The course in feedlot cattle, on an individual basis, is usually from 10 days to 2 or 3 weeks in acute outbreaks and from 4 to 6 weeks on a lot
58

basis. Chronic cases extend over a period of months, and affected cattle are finally sold or eventually die.
The onset often is sudden, with temperatures ranging from 104 to
1060F. Because cattle can appear well with a high fever, the temperatures of several animals in the herd should be checked. Depression is moderate to severe; respirations and pulse are rapid. Affected cattle have almost no appetite, however, they drink large amounts of water.
Moderate to severe nasal discharge occurs shortly after onset and may be accompanied by a low, throaty, unproductive cough. The nasal discharge is serous at first but, in chronic cases, may become mucopurulent and, in severe cases, can cover the entire muzzle. The nasal mucosa may show marked hyperemia, and at this stage, the disease may be confused with infectious bovine rhinotracheitis or even shipping fever. In some outbreaks, there may be many subclinical cases.
During the early febrile stage, the feces are hard and dry, and may be covered with mucus and a few flecks of blood. Diarrhea may occur in about 10% of cases. When present, it begins after the peak of the febrile response has passed and may continue intermittently for 4 to 6 weeks or even longer. The feces are watery and fetid, containing many bubbles and long strings of mucus, they vary from yellowish to slate gray to red, when more erythrocytes are present. Because diarrhea occurs so inconsistently in affected cattle. The term “virus diarrhea” may be considered somewhat
59

of a misnomer.
Dehydration is severe, and some affected animals lose considerable body weight. The eyes are dull and sunken, and the skin becomes dry and scurfy. The skin changes are particularly severe on the neck.
There are three distinct forms of bovine virus diarrhea. The inapparent form is evidenced by mild symptoms and slightly elevated temperature.
However, because of the diphasic temperature pattern, the clinical examination may reveal a temperature of from 102 to 1070F without serious complications.
The acute or severe form is sudden in onset and involves an entire herd with the full gamut of symptoms.
The chronic form is likely to be an extension of the inapparent form.
It is characterized by rough hair coat, poor condition, persistent nasal discharge, failure to gain weight, and lameness. Diagnosis
A presumptive diagnosis can be made from clinical evidence and postmortem lesions. A definitive diagnosis can be made by isolating the virus from nasal discharges and blood during the acute febrile phase, before circulating antibodies are formed. The virus can also be isolated from the spleen and mesenteric lymph glands.
The most practical way to arrive at a definitive diagnosis is serologic.
Cross-protection or serum neutralization studies can be made with paired-serum samples. The first or acute blood samples should be taken
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when the sick animal is first observed. A second or convalescent blood sample should be taken 2 to 3 weeks later and processed the same way.
Ideally, there will be no bovine virus diarrhea antibodies in the first serum sample, whereas the second will contain demonstrable antibodies.
Prevention
The virus of BVD is ubiquitous. As a result, 60 to 80% of all cattle have antibodies to the virus. Those that do not have antibodies are either incapable of developing antibodies or have never been exposed to the virus. Because the disease is so widespread and can cause economic losses through abortions, weak or deformed calves, unthrifty cattle, and death loss, protection provided by vaccination is usually necessary. The exception to vaccination would be in the closed herd in which the disease have never been diagnosed and whose area is free of the disease.
Treatment
There is no specific treatment for cattle affected by BVD.
Appropriate supportive therapy to nourish and rehydrate severely sick animals and antibiotics to suppress secondary bacterial infection are indicated. Treatment of the acute and chronically affected cattle is disappointing. Treatment of mild or subclinical disease is unnecessary.
Prevention
The virus of BVD is ubiquitous. As a result, 60 to 80% of all cattle have antibodies to the virus. Those that do not have antibodies are either
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incapable of developing antibodies or have never been exposed to the virus. Because the disease is so widespread and can cause economic losses through abortions, weak or deformed calves, unthrifty cattle, and death loss, protection provided by vaccination is usually necessary.
The exception to vaccination would be in the closed herd in which the disease have never been diagnosed and whose area is free of the disease.
New Words and Phrases
Bovine a. 牛的 virus n. 病毒
Viremia n. 病毒血症 subacute a. 亚急性的
Nasal a. 鼻的 fulminating a. 急性的
Discharge n. 排出物 dehydration n. 脱水
Mucous a. 浆液的 emaciation n. 消瘦
Labored breathing 呼吸困难 gaunt a. 瘦削的
Strain n. 菌株、群 serological a. 血清学的
Laminitis n. 蹄叶炎 cytopathogenic a. 致细胞病变
Tremor n. 震颤 feedlot n. 饲养群（组）
Propagate vt. 传播 mucopurulent a. 粘液脓性的
Embryonating a. 胚胎的
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transmission n. 传播
Rhinotracheitis n. 鼻气管炎 susceptible a. 敏感的
Subclinical a. 亚临床的 febrile a. 发热的
Fetid a. 恶臭的 mesenteric a. 肠系膜的
Abortion a. 流产的 deformed calf n. 畸形犊牛
Lesson 4 LAMB MANAGEMENT
The majority of lamb deaths occur in the first two weeks of life.
There are numerous causes of these early deaths (as well as later ones) which may or may not be preventable through proper management. A list of some of the major causes of death and the management procedures which help overcome them follows.
Injuries sustained during birth such as collection of fluids in the head, liver rupture or fractured limbs or ribs can cause death in the new born lamb. These often occur if the ewe becomes excited so she should be left alone as much as possible during lambing. If assistance is required, it must he provided in an extremely careful and gentle manner. Before putting your hand into a ewe, wash your hands and arms and trim your fingernails. Lubricate your hand and arm with medicinal liquid paraffin or soap and water.
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If the newborn lamb is not breathing, dean its mouth and nostrils of mucus and membranes then blow gently into the nostrils then gently slap it over the heart.
If the newborn lamb does not suckle or if, for some reason, the ewe does not milk , the lamb will die of starvation. If the ewe will not allow the lamb to suckle or has no milk the shepherd must take corrective action. In many cases if .there has been a difficult or disturbed birth, the ewe tends to be nervous and will force the lamb away. She often will settle down within several hours and, if closely confined in a lambing pen with the lamb, will accept it. If' not, it may be necessary to tie the ewe's head and assist the lamb to suckle. Very small or weak lambs may also require help in: suckling
If the ewe has no milk, attempts should be made to force the lamb on a ewe which has lost her lamb, or on one which has sufficient milk to rear two lambs. There are several ways of fostering lambs including wrapping the foster lamb in the pelt of the dead lamb or, if both are alive, soaking both thoroughly in salt water to cover the smell of the lambs so the ewe does not know which lamb is hers. Some times smearing faeces from her own lamb on a ewe's nose will cause her to accept a foster lamb.
Carefully observe the ewes when fostering lambs as they may try to butt strange lambs and may injure them. Rearing orphan lambs on a bottle is not advised since the death rate is high and the problems encountered
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with these "pet" lambs are many. Bottle rearing also requires special ewe milk substitute if it is to be successful,
If the lambs are exposed to long periods of cold, wet weather, many may succumb to pneumonia. The obvious method of prevention is to provide shelter during such weather. As the lambs grow older, they become less susceptible to exposure.
The faeces which result from colostrums are very sticky. This may stick the tail to the anus and dry so the lamb is unable to defaecate.
Lambs should be watched and the faeces removed if it appears, to be a problem.
If the lamb suffers an open wound or if the ewe is assisted during lambing without proper sanitary precautions being taken, the organism
Clostridium tetani which causes tetanus may be introduced.
Prevention requires use of rigid sanitary procedures and, where tetanus is a problem, all ewes should be immunized with the toxoid with two injections 30 to 60 days apart. An annual booster should be given just prior to lambing.
Enterotoxemia (pulpy kidney, overeating disease, apoplexy) is caused by a sudden release of toxins by bacteria of the genus Clostridium in the digestive tract as a result of stress. The disease has high mortality and there is no cure.: Prevention depends on: good management i. e., make changes of feed slowly, minimize the worm burden in the lambs
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and be sure ample feed is available at' all times and vaccinate the ewes 6 to 8 weeks and again 2 to 4 weeks, prior to lambing. This confers immunity on the lambs for the first few weeks of life. All lambs should be vaccinated at 12 weeks of age. Do not deworm lambs before vaccination unless the ewes were vaccinated.
Dogs and other predators can create havoc in a lamb flock.
Precautions must be taken to keep such predators out of the flock. If, however, lambs are killed by predators, the carcass remains should be left as they are but injected with toxaphene which will poison the predators should they return to the kill as they often do . Do not forget to tell your neighbours that you are putting out poison. Before putting out poison check that iris legal!
As pointed out previously, if any sort of selection programme is to be carried out, it is imperative that each individual animal he identified and ree6rds kept, Sheep can be identified by ear tags, tattoos or ear notches.
For lamb production, records kept should include lambing results, birth weights and 12 and 18 week weights ； Comparison of these ， weights provides an indication of the quality of the lambs and the mothering ability of the ewes Tweleve weeks is a convenient time for weighing as the lamb can also be vaccinated against enterotoxemia at this time ． The l8 week weighing should occur at or just prior to weaning ． For wool type
Sheep, one should also keep records d the wool production of the lambs
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when shearlings ．
New words and phrases
Anus ([ 复 ]anus(es) ． n . 肛门 havoc .n. 大破坏 ; 浩劫 apoplexy ． n ．中风 lamb. n . 羊羔 butt ． vt ．抵触，顶撞 booster ． n ．辅助药剂，佐剂 limb. n . 肢 confine ． vt ．禁闭；舍饲 nostril. n . 鼻孔
Clostridium ． n ．梭状芽胞杆菌 noteh. n . (V 字形 ) 刻痕 ; 切迹 orphan. n . 无母幼畜 confer ． vt ．赋与；赐予；授与 paraffin. n . 石蜡 ; 石蜡油 deworm ． vt ．驱虫；灭虫 pelt n . 毛皮 ; 生皮 dock ． vt ．断尾 enterotoxemia ． n ．羊传染性肠毒病 fingernail ． n ．指甲 foster. vt . 护养 ; 扶养
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genus. n . 类 ; 属 shearling ． n ．剪过一次毛的羊；一岁半 toxaphene ． n ．毒杀芬；氯化莰烯 tattoo ． n ． ( 皮肢上的 ) 刺标；刺字 trim ． vt ．修剪；修整 pulpy kidney 髓样肾；肠毒血症；魏氏梭菌病 tetanus ． vt ．破伤风 toxoid ． n ．类毒素 extensive sheep farm 粗放式牧羊场．
Lesson 5 PARASITES
Livestock management is continuously challenged to control the effect of parasites. The job of achieving efficient production and maintaining healthy animals is difficult enough without the added disadvantage of feeding and nourishing a parasite population,
When an animal harbors a parasite that lives either in or on it, that animal is a host. Parasites can be considered in two general categories.
External parasites live on or are nourished by the outside of an animal.
These are arthropods, such as lice, flies, fleas , ticks, and mites. Internal parasites are usually associated with the digestive system and are commonly considered as worms or a larval form of them. Exampies of internal parasites are round worm, tapeworm, flukes and nematodes.
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Parasites reproduce themselves and may live parts of their stages of life free in the environment or on other hosts. As a consequence, they are difficult to control, difficult to eradicate, and are constantly affecting the growth and health of animals. Internal parasites not only deprive the host of nourishment required to sustain the parasite but also damage the tissues they invade.
Ostertagia Ostertagi (internal parasites):
Ostertagia ostertagi, the medium stomach worm of cattle, is an economically significant parasite. The adults are found on the mucosa of the abomasums, where male and female mate and produce eggs. Eggs are passed out of the digestive tract in feces. Depending on the conditions of temperature and moisture, the eggs will hatch and larval stages will develop. Adverse weather during winter reduces the chances of survival of :free living stages. Under ideal conditions, larvae reach the infective stage in 2 weeks or less. The infective stage could Survive in soil or vegetation for several months. Cattle, as the host, ingest the infective stage along with vegetation. The larvae enter and live in the mucosa of the abomasum for a varying period. Infective larvae can develop into the adult stage in 3 weeks. However, this development may be inhibited or delayed for as long as 6 months. This delay may be caused by the immunity of the host, but research indicates it is more likely caused by conditioning of the infective larval stage in a cold environment prior to
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ingestion.
Clinical signs of diarrhea and unthriftiness occur when the young adult parasites emerge from the gastric mucosa. At this time, there are considerable changes in the stomach wall, which becomes thickened and red around the white nodular areas where the adult emerged . The number of parasites determines the extent of damage and the severity of clinical signs.
This information suggests several possibilities for control. The first and most obvious is to deprive the free-living, infective stage of the larvae of a host for a sufficient time to, prevent survival. This would require removing cattle from potentially infected pastures for several months, possibly, over winter, and may not be economically feasible. The second possibility is to prevent the adult females from producing eggs to perpetuate the cycle. At present, the administration of drugs, to infected cattle destroys the adults. This relieves the host from the burden of supporting the parasites and reduces egg contamination. The larval stages remain embedded in the gastric mucosa and must: be dealt with as they emerge. In severe infestations, administering antiparasitic drugs every 10 days eventually eliminates supply of infective larvae.
Sheep Scab or Scablies (external parasites)
This disease has been economically significant and debilitating to sheep. The life cycle of the mite is short and is completed entirely on
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sheep as the host. The female and male adults feed on the skin of the host.
The female lays her eggs on the edge of the lesion on the skin. Tiny, six-legged larvae emerge from the egg and develop into eight-legged nymphs and then into eight-legged adults. Adults are 0.6 to 0.8 man in length and can be seen if scraped from the edges of the lesion, The mite is host specific and does not survive for long when not on the host.
Transfer from animal to animal is by direct contact.
The life cycle, which is completed on the host, gives no alternative for control. The mite must be killed while on the host. Because of the cycle, the mite cannot exist in any form. in the environment except on an infected sheep. Since there are no intermediate hosts or larval forms to perpetuate the mite other than on the animal, eradication is more possible.
Methods used include dipping or spraying with 0.5 % toxaphene and preventing movement of infected sheep.
Diagnosis of Parasitism
Such clinical signs as debilitation, progressive loss of weight, anemia, diarrhea, loss of hair coat or wool, itching, rubbing, or skin lesions are characteristic of many diseases. Such general signs should alert the diagnostician to the possibility of a parasitic disease.
Confirmation of parasitic disease must be made by finding direct evidence of the presence of parasites in or on the animal in sufficient numbers to cause disease.
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The evidence required for confirming the existence of internal parasites is usually available in the feces in the form of eggs or larvae or adult stages. There are various laboratory techniques and methods for recovering eggs and larval forms from feces, Adults may be grossly visible. Forms of external parasites may be seen in the form of eggs attachedto hairs, or the adult mite or louse may be seen on the skin.
Microscopic forms may be scraped from the edges of lesions caused by external parasites.
Effective control of any parasite depends on measures to interrupt its life cycle. To interrupt life cycles that have variable characteristics, one must, identify the parasite. A diagnosis of parasitism is not complete without identifying the specific parasite involved.
As noted in the examples cited, C0ntrol measures are adapted not only to the life cycle of the parasite but also to the susceptibility of forms of the parasite to various drugs. There are two critical considerations for using drugs to rid animals of parasites:
1. The drug used must be tolerated by the host at the level of dose required.
2. The drug must not leave residues in the animal that could be toxic or harmful to people if the animal is to be used for food production.
Lesson 6 PNEUMONIA OF CALVES
Calves develop pneumonia in a variety of circumstances and as a
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result of infection with various organisms. One pneumonia is a part of or :follows neonatal diarrhea of calves. This pneumonia is some times called a pneumoenteritis syndrome. There is a viral pneumonia of calves caused by the parainfluenza 3 virus. Another pneumonia is caused by bacterial complication of the viral pneumonia. Some pneumonias result from extension of viruses. Also, calves develop pneumonia as a sequel to any debilitating disease.
Pneumonia and Diarrhea
Neonatal diarrhea was described before as causing excessive fluid loss and dehydration. Tissue dehydration is detrimental to a defense mechanism against respiratory infections; The normal lining of the trachea and bronchii consists of specialized epithelial cells. with hairlike cilia. These hairlike projections create a reverse or outward current to expel foreign material and exudate from the lungs. If there is excessive fluid loss from tissue cells because of diarrhea, the cells of the lining of the trachea and bronchii are shrunken and cannot perform the function of removing exudate from the lungs. The result is the inability to repel infecting bacteria and the pooling of exudate in the lungs, For an already weakened calf,, this result is often fatal.
Signs of pneumonia in a newborn calf that is already suffering from a severe diarrhea may be insufficient to attract attention. When the calf starts to recover from the diarrhea, it is usually noticed to be breathing
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rapidly and to have, a temperature of 103 to,105 F. Appetite is poor, and the calf is dull and depressed. The muzzle may become dry, and a purulent nasal discharge develops. Unless signs of respiratory infection are noticed early; the calf usually dies.
Prevention is based on keeping the calf in a dry, well-ventilated area away from aerosol contact with other calves. Damp, poorly cleaned, and unventilated barns with a strong ammonia odor can cause respiratory infection even without the stress of; dehydration and diarrhea. Also, because these are nursing calve care must be taken to prevent inhalation of milk or electrolyte solutions. Nipples with large openings allow fluids to flow faster than calves can nurse, especially if the bucket or bottle is held too high above the calf's head.
Treatment for pneumonia must be combined with relieving the dehydration and correcting the fluid balance. Systemic antibiotics should be started at the first indication of pneumonia and continued for several days after: apparent recovery. Expectorants to loosen exudates and stimulate coughing are also indicated. Although a variety of organisms could be involved, a broad-spectrum 'antibiotic should be used unless there is 'tune to culture exudates
Viral Pneumonia or Enzootic Pneumonia of calves
The most common virus to cause pneumonia in young calves is parainfluenza 3. This virus is present in all countries, and 85% of adult
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cattle carry its antibodies. Maternal antibodies in colostrum give some protection but are either present for an insufficient time or incapable of defending against heavy exposure. Calves raised in a single building are most susceptible because of transmission by air. The disease is mild if uncomplicated and generally streets calves from 1 to 4 months of age.
Signs
Clinical signs after exposure run a course of 5 to 8 days.
Lacrimation , conjunctivitis, increased mucoid discharge, inappetence, mad general malaise are observed. Uncomplicated parainfluenza infection is characterized as an upper respiratory infection of sudden onset, with a temperature ranging from 104 to 108 F. Early in the infection, many animals show an initial high fever with no other evidence of clinical illness. In some animals, the elevated temperature persists for 25 to 48 hours and may be followed by prompt recovery. Most animals remaining febrile for more than 2 days show anorexia and mild depression and develop a dry, hacking cough with a clear, serous discharge.
An increase in respiration is a common clinical observation, and labored breathing is present in some cases. There appears to be no hypersalivation in uncomplicated eases, and diarrhea is, not noted.
Morbidity may reach 100%, although fatalities in uncomplicated cases
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are virtually nonexistent.
Diagnosis
Diagnosis can be confirmed ,by virus isolation and: tissue culture inhibition study. Presumptive diagnosis can be made from history, clinical signs, and failure to isolate any causal bacterial pathogens. An acute or mild upper-respiratory infection of short duration with concurrent leukopenia and absence of other findings is suggestive of parainfluenza.
Prevention
Because the disease is so easily transmitted to susceptible calves by inhaling air contaminated by the virus exhaled by infected calves, healthy calves must be separated from infected calves. Ventilation and sanitation for housed calves must be sufficient to "keep the air clean." Calf barns are notorious for air heavy with an ammonia odor and dampness. Although direct draft should be avoided, it is preferable to poor ventilation. I and many others believe that calves are healthier when staked out and widely separated atop a well-drained hill than when kept in a barn.
Vaccines are recommended for the protection of healthy animals against the respiratory disease. Because maternal antibodies may persist in calves until 4 or 5 months of age, vaccination is particularly recommended at 2 or 3 weeks prior to weaning of beef calves.
Treatment
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As with other viral diseases, there are no specific therapeutic agents.
Antibiotics are of value only in preventing complications caused by secondary bacterial agents, Uncomplicated parainfluenza pneumonia is best treated by avoiding all possible stress.
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