Kelly’s Covariation Model of Attribution:
Harold Kelly identified that there are two parties involved in attribution:
 Actors: Person whose actions are being appraised
 Observers: Those who make attributions
According to Kelley, whether or not someone makes an internal or external attribution depends on
consensus, consistency and distinctiveness.
1. Consensus is the degree to which other people’s behavior is similar to that of the actor
2. Consistency is the degree to which the behavior is the same across time and/or situations.
3. Distinctiveness concerns the extent to which similar stimuli draw the same behaviors from the
actor.
Each of these three factors are rated as high or low. Three questions can be asked to help determine
whether consensus, consistency and distinctiveness are high or low:
For consensus, ask: “Do others engage in the same behavior?”
If yes, consensus is high
If no, consensus is low
For consistency, ask, “Does (person) always behave this way when
If yes, consistency is high
If no, consistency is low
For distinctiveness, ask, “Does (person) tend to
If yes, distinctiveness is low
If no, distinctiveness is high
(this particular situation) ?
(behavior) ?
Practice: For the following scenario, identify what would be high and low examples of consensus,
consistency and distinctiveness: John got every question correct on his psychology test.
Scenario:
John got
every
question
correct on
his
psychology
test.
Consensus
High
Consistency
High
Distinctiveness
High
Low
Low
Low
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The most common patterns of consensus, consistency, and distinctiveness that lead people to attribute
other people’s behavior to internal or external causes. Say a person is enjoying him / herself at a
restaurant:
Low
consensus
Few people
like the
restaurant
High
consensus
Other people
like the
restaurant
Low
consensus
Few people
like the
restaurant
High
consistency
The target
person
enjoys the
restaurant
every time he
or she goes
there
High
consistency
The target
person
enjoys the
restaurant
every time he
or she goes
there
Low
consistency
the target
person
disliked this
restaurant in
the past
Low distinctiveness
The target
person likes
most
restaurants
Internal
attribution
Enjoyment
attributable to
something about
person
High distinctiveness
The target
person
seldom likes
restaurants
External
attribution The
restaurant is
good.
High distinctiveness
The target
person
seldom likes
restaurants
External
attribution
Person is eating
at restaurant for
external reason:
maybe good
company or
wine.
Three combinations of this information:
1. Low consensus, high consistency, low distinctiveness: If a perceiver knows that 1) most people
do not like the target person's restaurant, 2) the target person enjoys the restaurant each time s/he
goes there 3) the target person likes most restaurants and. Target person's enjoyment at restaurant
attributable to something about him/her (likes to eat out) not something unique about the
restaurant.
2. High consensus, high consistency, high distinctiveness: The target person's judgment of the
restaurant (it is a good restaurant) should be perceived as valid if the perceiver knows that 1)
other people like the restaurant, 2) the target person enjoys the restaurant every time he or she
goes there 3) the target person seldom likes restaurants, and. The restaurant is good.
3. Low consensus, low consistency, high distinctiveness: If a perceiver knows 1) few other
people like the restaurant, and 2) the target person disliked this restaurant in the past, and 3) the
target person seldom likes the restaurant. More than likely the target person's liking this
restaurant is attributable to the person liking the company or wine rather than the food.
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Attribution Covariation Model Practice
Complete Kelly’s covariation model of attribution with the statements that are provided. You are filling
in the boxes that are blank under the category “Examples”.
Suppose you are home for the weekend. You want to invite your friend Ralph to stay for dinner, but your
father says no. The question is whether your father refused as a result of internal causes or external
causes. Understanding the reasons for your father’s behavior requires information about three key
variables: consensus, consistency, and distinctiveness. Use the terms below to answer the question.
Please circle HIGH or LOW for each “Type of Information”.
Place in the available boxes (external and internal).
1. Most people dislike Ralph
2. Dad is always rude to Ralph
3. Dad is rude to all your friends
4. Few people dislike Ralph
5. Dad is never rude to your other friends
6. Dad is always rude to Ralph
INTERNAL
Type of Information
Consensus (low/high)
Consistency (low/high)
Distinctiveness (low/high)
Questions asked about the
behavior
Do other people act in the
same way to the same
stimulus at different
times? Is the action staple
over time and location?
Does this person act in the
same way in response to
the same stimulus?
Does the person act
similarly in other similar
situations?
Examples
EXTERNAL
Type of Information
Consensus (low/high)
Consistency (low/high)
Distinctiveness (low/high)
Questions asked about the
behavior
Do other people act in the
same way to the same
stimulus at different
times? Is the action staple
over time and location?
Does this person act in the
same way in response to
the same stimulus?
Does the person act
similarly in other similar
situations?
Examples
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Review / explanation of practice
1. Consensus is the degree to which other people’s behavior is similar to that of the actor – in this
case, your father. If everyone you know avoids Ralph, your father’s behavior has a high degree
of consensus, and you would attribute his reaction to an external cause (probably something
about Ralph). However, if everyone else likes being with Ralph, your father’s negative response
would have low consensus. Accordingly, you would probably attribute it to something about
your father, such as hi being a grouch or his personal dislike for Ralph.
2. Consistency is the degree to which the behavior is the same across time and/or situations. If
your father has invited Ralph to dinner several times in the past but rejects him this time, the
consistency of his behavior is low. Low consistency suggests that your father’s behavior is
attributable to external causes, such as the fact that Ralph has just returned from a camping trip
and hasn’t showered for 2 weeks. Conversely, if your father’s behavior toward Ralph is always
hostile, it has high consistency. But is your father’s consistent behavior attributable to an
internal cause (his consistent grouchiness) or to an external cause (Ralph’s consistent
offensiveness)? This question is difficult to answer without information about distinctiveness.
3. Distinctiveness concerns the extent to which similar stimuli draw the same behaviors from the
actor. If your father is nasty to all your friends, his behavior toward Ralph has low
distinctiveness. Behavior that is low in distinctiveness is usually attributable to internal causes,
such as personality traits. However, if your dad gets along with everyone except Ralph, his
behavior has high distinctiveness, and your attribution about the cause of his behavior is likely to
shift toward a cause other than your father’s personality, such as how Ralph acts (or smells).
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