THE GOOD, THE
BAD AND THE
FUNGI
TEACHER’S NOTES
Compiled by Liz Holden (Grampian Fungus Group) in association with
Aberdeen Environmental Education Centre, Aberdeenshire Council Health and
Safety Unit, Aberdeenshire Council Ranger Service, British Mycological Society
and Buchan Countryside Group. With support from Scottish Natural Heritage.
These documents may be copied freely for educational purposes only
Contents
Introduction ......................................................................................... 3
Background Information
Some useful terms for the children to know ............................ 4
Fungi – the essentials ............................................................... 5
Fungal history and folklore ...................................................... 6
Fascinating fungal facts ........................................................... 7
Fungi in the school curriculum ................................................ 8
Mycological education on the Web ......................................... 9
General references on fungi ................................................... 10
Health and Safety - General Recommendations ............................... 12
Fungi in the classroom – some ideas to try before the activity day
Activity 1 Looking at fungi ................................................. 14
Activity 2 Making a spore print ........................................... 15
Fungi in the classroom – some ideas for follow up work
Activity 3 Understanding fungi ........................................... 17
Activity 4 Why study fungi? ................................................ 18
Activity 5 Where do fungi grow? Making a habitat collage 19
Activity 6 Growing mushrooms .......................................... 20
Activity 7 Experimenting with fungi ................................... 21
Activity 8 Making paper with fungi .................................... 22
Activity 9 Dyeing wool with fungi ...................................... 23
Activity 10 Drama ‘The Circle of Life’ ................................. 26
Appendices ..................................................... (in a separate document)
Risk Assessment Work Sheets
Appendix 1 Activity 1 Looking at fungi
Appendix 2 Activity 2 Making a spore print
Appendix 3 Activity 5 Where do fungi grow? Making a habitat collage
Appendix 4 Activity 6 Growing mushrooms
Appendix 5 Activity 7 Experimenting with fungi (including COSHH)
Appendix 6 Activity 8 Making paper with fungi
Appendix 7 Activity 9 Dyeing wool with fungi
Additional guidance notes
Appendix 8 Guidelines for collecting wild fungi
Appendix 9 Scottish wild mushroom code
Appendix 10 Outings
Appendix 11 Scottish Office guidance notes ‘E.coli 0157 and open farms’
Classroom worksheets
Appendix 12 ‘Identifying Fungi – What To Look For’
Appendix 13 ‘Parts of a Fungus’
Appendix 14 ‘Understanding fungi/Understanding fungi in the forest’
Appendix 15 ‘Fungi and food chains’
2
Teacher’s Notes
‘The Good, The Bad and The Fungi’ is a day of interactive learning
and fun finding out about the kingdom of the fungi.
Introduction
Why should we bother to teach children about fungi?
Something is seriously lacking in our educational system when 150 out of
170 Year 10 children at a recent Summer School in England think that
fungi are bacteria. By restricting the curriculum to a comparison of plants
and animals, our children can leave school knowing next to nothing about
the largest kingdom of higher organisms which are neither plant nor
animal. With their own unique lifestyles the fungi are crucial to the
functioning of every food web on the planet and a vital component of
many human commercial activities. Without fungi the supermarket
shelves would be bare and many of our medicines would disappear. Most
higher plants would not survive and the carbon cycle would be severely
compromised. Fungi are far more than just mushrooms, yeasts and
moulds and it is time that we challenged our cultural inhibitions by giving
fungi the attention that they deserve. What better place to start that in our
primary schools?
The Good, The Bad and The Fungi
Feedback from schools that participated in the first activity day during
2001 suggested that the children’s learning experience would be greatly
enhanced if a small amount of preparation had been done in advance of
the visit. These notes should make this possible and also enable teachers
to undertake a range of follow up activities if they wish.
The following notes include sections on ‘Background information’,
‘Health and Safety recommendations’ and ‘Fungi in the classroom’ –
ideas to try before and after the activity day. The appendices contain
‘Risk Assessment Work Sheets’ for every relevant activity; additional
guidance notes that include information on the collection of wild fungi
and a series of classroom worksheets for use in follow up activities.
These notes have been produced with the help of Aberdeenshire Council
Health and Safety Unit and in consultation with Aberdeen City and
Moray Councils, to ensure that all the necessary Risk Assessments and
Health and Safety recommendations are in place. Many of the activities
and background notes have been adapted from How the Mushroom got its
Spots – an explainers guide to fungi by Sue Assinder and Gordon Rutter.
There are other ideas and activities in this publication which you can read
3
online on the fungi4schools website (see the entry under ‘General
References about Fungi’ below on page 11).
Background Information
Some useful terms for the children to know
EXCHANGER Exchanger fungi live with many of our trees and plants
and the tree and the fungus exchange foodstuffs.
FUNGUS (singular) FUNGI (plural) is what the whole organism is
called.
HABITAT Different kinds of fungi live in different places. The place
where we find a fungus is called its habitat.
HYPHAE Fungi are composed of minute threads called hyphae (singular
is hypha).
KINGDOM A fungus isn’t a plant or an animal. Fungi have their own
kingdom.
MUSHROOM/TOADSTOOL These two words are used interchangeably
to refer to the part of the ‘umbrella shaped’ fungi that you see
above ground. This is sometimes referred to as the ‘fruit body’.
Many people think that mushrooms are edible and toadstools are
poisonous. There is no scientific division of the two names on this
basis.
MYCELIUM The main part of the fungus is a dense network of hyphae
called the mycelium. This is often hidden from sight.
PARASITE A parasitic fungus gets its food by attacking a living
organism (e.g. a tree) and can sometimes kill it.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS Plants get their energy from the sun by the process
of photosynthesis. Fungi do not contain chlorophyll and so cannot
photosynthesise.
RECYCLE Recycler fungi break down dead plant material and recycle
the nutrients back into the woodland ecosystem.
SPORES Fungi reproduce by producing millions of tiny (microscopic)
spores. These have the same function as tiny plant seeds but they
do not have the food reserves that a seed contains.
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Fungi - the essentials
Fungi used to be regarded as plants but they are now placed in their own
kingdom. They range in size from single celled organisms that can only
be seen with a microscope through to the largest living organism. They
can be found everywhere, from the deserts to the Arctic Circle, and even
proved a hazard on the Russian Space Station Mir. The fungal kingdom is
vast, with nearly 100,000 different species known to date and estimates of
over a million left to be discovered.
To exploit new habitats, fungi produce countless millions of spores,
which are equivalent to the seeds of plants but without the massive food
reserves. Most fungi grow in the form of microscopic filaments called
hyphae that extend and branch at their tips to form a vast network or
mycelium. The cell walls of fungi are made of chitin – the same material
found in an insect’s exoskeleton. What we normally think of as fungi –
mushrooms and toadstools – are the fruiting bodies that arise from the
mycelial network. The mushroom is just a device to spread the spores of
particular types of fungi at certain times of the year. The mycelium, in
some species, is present year in, year out and it produces a fruiting body
only when the conditions are suitable. The reproductive structures of
many fungi do not have the characteristic mushroom shape at all (e.g.
puffballs, earthstars and fairy clubs).
Fungi do not possess the green pigment chlorophyll found in plants, so
they have to gain their food from other sources in much the same way
that an animal does. Many are saprotrophs, living on dead organic matter
such as leaf litter, whilst others are parasitic and may in extreme cases kill
the host. Fungi play a vital role in recycling by breaking down lignin.
Without this action, all the nutrients locked in plants would remain there,
nutrient cycles would stop and plants would no longer have enough raw
materials to survive. Many fungi form symbiotic associations with trees
and other plants (mycorrhizal fungi), which extend the plant root system
assisting in the uptake of water and nutrients. Over 90% of plants have a
fungus associated with their roots and many would not survive without
their fungal partner. Fungi may also form symbiotic relationships with
algae, known as lichens.
Fungi are used by humans for a variety of processes – from alcohol and
bread production (with yeast) to genetic engineering. Some of the most
important organisms used in biotechnology are fungi. Fungal
fermentation has been harnessed to manufacture important therapeutic
compounds, such as antibiotics, and enzymes for use in the food, textile
and other manufacturing industries.
5
Fungal history and folklore
Here are some interesting anecdotes about fungi:
 It was not always so easy to go on fungal forays. In ancient Egypt,
the consumption of mushrooms was a privilege restricted to the
pharaoh and his family – a commoner was forbidden even to touch
one!
 Mushroom poisoning was a problem even in ancient Rome.
Emperor Claudius died at the hand of his third wife Agrippina, who
fed him a poison mushroom in order to ensure that her son Nero
would become the next emperor.
 People have also been using fungi for purposes other than food for
thousands of years. Tinder material prepared from the bracket
fungus, Fomes fomentarius, was found with the frozen remains of a
Neolithic man in an alpine glacier in 1991, and have been dated to
3350 – 3100BC
 Fairy rings in Germany are allegedly caused by dragons flying in
circles and scorching the earth beneath them with their tails.
 To discover the fungal story behind Santa and his reindeer see
http://www.uio.no/conferences/imc7/NFotm99/December99.htm
 It is said that the ancient highlanders used to pack their circular
shields (targes) with dried material from the Birch Bolete
(Piptoporus betulinus). The fungus is light and tough and is a good
shock absorber. It was also used for honing blades (the Victorians
called it the ‘razor strop’ fungus and cleaned and sharpened their
old fashioned razor blades on it. Good job that this fungus also has
some antiseptic qualities!
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Fascinating fungal facts
 A piece of a ‘death cap’ sufficient to cover the tip of a knife has
enough poison to kill 100,000 mice.
 An individual honey fungus is claimed to be the world’s largest
and oldest living organism – estimated to be some 1,500 years old
and more than 10,000 kg in weight, its underground network of
hyphae occupies 15 hectares. The rings that it makes are visible
from space!
 The first discovered antibiotic – penicillin – is from a mould. The
discovery was probably one of the greatest medical advances of the
20th century and it came about entirely by accident. Some of the
wonder drugs of today are also derived from fungi (e.g. statins that
control cholesterol levels, and cyclosporin to control rejection in
transplant patients).
 When fungi are collected from tropical rainforests approximately
one in every eight types collected is a species completely new to
science.
 The stinkhorn has been recorded as elongating to a length of 20 cm
in only 2-3 hours.
 One bracket, the Dryad’s Saddle, is recorded as reaching a weight
of 14 kg in only 3 weeks
 Field mushrooms have been found with a cap circumference of 115
cm.
 Mushrooms are quite capable of forcing their way up through
asphalt and lifting paving stones. Two mushrooms growing beneath
a 35 kg paving stone that had been cemented into place were able
to push the slab up by nearly 4 cm.
7
Fungi in the school curriculum
The guidelines for the Science component (Scotland) of Environmental
Studies (5 – 14), include an attainment outcome ‘Living Things and the
Processes of Life’. At the earliest stages of primary (P1 –P3), studies of
the local environment are encouraged to allow children to appreciate how
living things depend upon each other, whilst later stages of primary (P4 –
P7) should introduce the importance of conservation and recycling. Older
pupils (S1/S2) should be able to give the main distinguishing features of
micro-organisms and describe their harmful and beneficial effects, and
also create and use keys to identify living things.
Fungi can be used in many other areas of the curriculum, or in cross
curricular activities and these activities should lend themselves well to the
new 3 – 18 curriculum proposed in Scotland. For example, practical work
can provide useful quantitative data for analysis in maths lessons. There
is scope for creative writing, artwork and drama.
Although fungi do not currently feature strongly in the National
Curriculum for Science (England, Wales and Northern Ireland), because
many of the units are limited to comparisons of plants and animals,
aspects of fungal biology can be introduced in relevant areas to provide a
properly balanced view of biology in the real world. In Science at Key
Stages 1 and 2, Units 4B (Habitats), 5-6H (Enquiry in environmental and
technological contexts), 6A (Interdependence and adaptation) and 6B
(Micro-organisms) lend themselves particularly well. Simple recording of
fungal form and habitat presents an opportunity to begin working on
investigative skills at primary level. Interesting scientific studies can be
undertaken using fungi to enable children to evaluate and present
evidence (see Activity 7, page 21 below and refer to the fungi4schools
website [www.fungi4schools.org/] for ideas and resources from primary
through to post-16 level). Further information on the National Curriculum
for Science can be found on the National Curriculum online website at
www.nc.uk.net
8
Mycological education on the Web
 British Mycological Society teaching resource website at
www.fungi4schools.org/. Lots of excellent material here, including
background information and work sheets for secondary schools.
 The WWW Virtual Library: Mycology. Probably the most
comprehensive listing of mycological resources on the internet,
including an invaluable section on teaching and learning about
fungi (URL = http://mycology.cornell.edu/).
 Fungi images on the Net (www.in2.dk/fungi/) A metadirectory
from which you can locate and view nearly 1600 beautiful and
informative images of fungi.
 North American Mycological Association (www.namyco.org/)
Includes an excellent teaching section with downloadable lesson
plans and handouts and a comprehensive bibliography
 Tom Volk’s Fungi (http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/toms_fungi/) A
‘one stop shop’ for mycology, featuring a ‘fungus of the month’
column, with entertaining text and good photos, plus a plethora of
other information, including tips for teachers on ways to use the
internet for teaching about fungi
 Northern Ireland Fungus Group website offers lots of good links
and ‘fascinating facts’ at http://www.nifg.org.uk/home.htm
 Royal Botanic Gardens Edinburgh, Flora Celtica site
(http://www.rbge.org.uk/research/celtica/fc.htm) has information on
fungal uses in the section on Scottish Plant Uses.
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General references on fungi
Fungi
An excellent and easy to read book (96 pages) on the biology of fungi and
their relationships with people written by Roy Watling. Published by the
Natural History Museum in their Life Series, ISBN 0565091824).
Fungi for Schools
The BMS fungi4schools website is the ultimate source of resources for
the school classroom. Visit http://www.fungi4schools.org/ to find
material for all Key Stages, and post-16, to compensate for the lack of
fungal biology in the National Curriculum. Here you can access resources
teachers can use within the current National Curriculum because they
address National Curriculum topics and also give proper representation to
fungi. For FREE download you will find ready-to-use lessons and
classroom activities, teacher’s guides, pupil class sheets, and much more.
All classroom tested and well received by pupils.
Fungi Name Trail
This new key by Liz Holden and Kath Hamper is in the form of a fold-out
chart. It is designed to be used by teachers and students as an introduction
to some of the more easily recognised fungi present in our woods and
fields. It will also be of interest to any non-expert wanting to find out
more about fungi. For this key, fungi have been grouped according to
their shape. The Fungi Name Trail takes you through a series of yes or no
questions to help you identify your fungi. The chart also contains lots of
fascinating information such as ‘What are fungi’, ‘How do fungi feed?’ as
well as some ‘Fun things to do with fungi’. Published by the Field Studies
Council (FSC) in their Name Trail series, The Fungi Name Trail was
produced in partnership with the BMS. Order on-line through the FSC
(http://www.field-studies-council.org/publications) or by mail-order using
an order form you can download from the British Mycological Society
(http://www.fungi4schools.org/Reprints/BMS_Publ_orderform.pdf).
Fungus Fred goes Foraying
How do you tell young people about fungi? Why should you want to tell
them about fungi anyway? Fungus Fred has the answers! Fungus Fred
goes Foraying is a book for children by Maggie Hadley. You can buy by
mail-order from the BMS using an order form from the website at this
URL (http://www.fungi4schools.org/Reprints/BMS_Publ_orderform.pdf)
or read the whole book online on the fungi4schools website at this URL
http://www.fungi4schools.org/fred_pages/fred_contents.htm.
10
How the Mushroom got it Spots
How the Mushroom got its Spots: an explainers' guide to fungi, written by
Sue Assinder and Gordon Rutter, is published for free and distributed by
the BMS. It is aimed at anyone who wants to tell children, or non-experts
of any age, more about the fascinating world of mushrooms, toadstools,
moulds and other fungi. It will be useful for teachers, leaders of wildlife
groups and science clubs, and others interested in nature. You can read
the book online at this URL on the fungi4schools website:
http://www.fungi4schools.org/mushroom_pages/SPOTS_page01.htm
and/or download the COMPLETE text as a PDF file from the same site at
http://www.fungi4schools.org/Reprints/MUSHROOM_SPOTSwebsite.pdf. The printed version can be ordered by mail-order from the
BMS using the order form you can download from the website at
http://www.fungi4schools.org/Reprints/BMS_Publ_orderform.pdf).
Recommended English Names for Fungi
The Recommended English Names for Fungi provides an agreed list of
English names for fungi will help to give fungi the popular, accessible
identity that they deserve. It includes many names already in popular use
and creates a further 400 or so memorable new names for those with only
a scientific name. This list was compiled by E. M. Holden and funded by
the British Mycological Society, together with English Nature, Scottish
Natural Heritage and Plantlife International. It also has the support of The
Countryside Council for Wales and the Environment and Heritage
Service Northern Ireland. It can be downloaded free from the British
Mycological Society’s fungi4schools website at this URL:
http://www.fungi4schools.org/Reprints/ENGLISH_NAMES.pdf
Useful books for identifying fungi
The most comprehensive photographic field guide for collecting
mushrooms and other fungi is Roger Phillips’ Mushrooms (2006;
Macmillan, ISBN: 0330442376).
R. Gillmor, N. Hammond, P. Harding, T. Lyon, and G. Tomblin, Collins
How to Identify Edible Mushrooms, (1999; Harper Collins, ISBN
000219984X).
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Health and Safety
The Health and Safety Units of Aberdeenshire Council, Aberdeen City
and Moray have checked through the following activities and produced
generic risk assessments where appropriate (Appendices 1 –7). These risk
assessments are offered as examples that can be consulted and amended
as necessary to suit your own purposes prior to undertaking any activities.
General recommendations
 Complete a risk assessment before undertaking any activity.
 Fungi are a diverse and important group and many are considered
to be excellent to eat. Children should be made aware, however,
that some fungi contain toxins dangerous enough to cause death if
eaten.
 Read and make use of the guidelines on collecting and identifying
wild fungi.
 Never eat wild fungi in the classroom situation.
 Always wash your hands after touching fungi and do not allow
children to suck their fingers or chew their fingernails before doing
so.
 All demonstrations using wild fungi should be teacher lead.
 General class work should be undertaken using fungi from a
reputable source e.g. supermarket.
 Supervision Levels (Scotland) (see also Appendix 10): P1-3, 1 : 1
to 1: 10; P4-7, 1 : 8 to 1 : 15; S1, 1 : 30.
Disposal of used fungi and other materials from any of the activities
involving real fungi, i.e. looking at fungi in the classroom, making a
spore print, grow your own mushrooms, experimenting with fungi, dying
wool and making paper must follow appropriate guidelines. Guidelines
include double wrapping non-cultured waste and disposing in an outside
bin. Cultures should be sterilised prior to disposal. The most effective
method involves heating for 15 minutes in a pressure cooker. Where this
facility is not available, use freshly prepared disinfectant. Microsol or
Virkon is suitable and available in 50 g sachets from laboratory suppliers
– instructions included. Good quality domestic bleach, diluted with no
more than nine times its volume of water thus creating a 10% solution or
stronger, is another option. Gloves should be worn when handling all
solutions of disinfectant or bleach (see Appendix 5 COSHH guidelines).
Procedure: open the culture of microorganisms under the surface of the
disinfectant so as not to release live spores into the air. Soak the culture
for at least one hour or overnight. Pour away the disinfectant, place the
12
culture in an opaque polythene bag, seal it and place it within a second
opaque polythene bag, seal this and place in an outside dustbin. Glass or
other reusable containers can be washed and recycled after soaking.
Disinfectant powders or solutions should be kept locked away until
required (COSHH guidelines).
If you are worried about doing practical work with fungi, helpful
information can be obtained from the Microbiology in Schools Advisory
Committee (MISAC). MISAC helps teachers recognise the potential of
micro-organisms as educational resources and provides authoritative
advice on the safe use of micro-organisms in schools. It can also provide
information on where to find resources and offer many suggestions for
suitable and safe investigations. Information about MISAC can be found
on the Microbiology Online web site, hosted by SGM at this URL:
http://www.microbiologyonline.org.uk/misac.html.
13
Fungi in the classroom – some ideas to try before the activity
day
ACTIVITY 1
Looking at fungi
This activity can be undertaken with mushrooms bought from a reputable
supplier such as a supermarket. Oyster mushrooms, Shiitake mushrooms,
Lion’s Mane mushrooms and more familiar flat cap Agaricus species
would all be suitable. A selection of wild fungi would give a more varied
and interesting range of shapes, colours, textures and smells but attention
should be given to the guidelines on collecting and identification
(Appendix 8).
Reference to the ‘General Recommendations’ in the section on ‘Health
and Safety’ (page 12) must be made and a risk assessment undertaken
(Appendix 1).
Supervision Levels (Scotland) (see also Appendix 10): P1-3, 1 : 1 to 1:
10; P4-7, 1 : 8 to 1 : 15; S1, 1 : 30.
Methodology
Investigate the colours, smell, size and texture. Simple tests can be
carried out - are the gills brittle and crumbly? (see notes under ‘Russula’
in Appendix 8) Does the damaged flesh produce a milky fluid? (see notes
under ‘Lactarius’ in Appendix 8) Does the flesh change colour when
exposed to the air or bruised? (see notes on ‘Boletes’ in Appendix 8)
Drawing, painting and labelling the different parts are all good ways of
focusing attention on these organisms. The worksheet ‘Identifying Fungi
– What To Look For’ (Appendix 12) will help.
N.B. Don’t leave wild fungi for more than a day in a warm environment
as they often contain the larvae of fungus gnats that have a habit of
abandoning their home when stressed!
 Disposal of used fungi and other materials from any of the
activities involving real fungi i.e. looking at fungi in the classroom
must follow appropriate guidelines (details on page 12). Guidelines
include double wrapping non-cultured waste and disposing in an
outside bin.
 Guidelines on collecting wild fungi (Appendix 8). Collection is
envisaged as a teacher only activity and reference should be made
to Appendix 8. Russula, Lactarius, Bolete species and the Fly
Agaric (Amanita muscaria) are all suitable for this activity.
Obtaining the permission of the landowner and following the
countryside and access codes are recommended (see also Appendix
14
11). Other general guidelines are given in the ‘Scottish Wild
Mushroom Code’ (Appendix 9).
ACTIVITY 2
Making a spore print
This activity can be undertaken with mushrooms bought from a reputable
supplier such as a supermarket. Oyster mushrooms (spore print white),
Shiitake mushrooms (spore print white) and more familiar open cap
Agaricus species (spore print dark brown) would all be suitable. A
selection of wild fungi would give a more varied and interesting range of
spore colours but attention should be given to the guidelines on collecting
and identification (Appendix 8).
Reference to the ‘General Recommendations’ in the section on ‘Health
and Safety’ (page 12) must be made and a risk assessment undertaken
(Appendix 2)
Supervision Levels (Scotland) (see also Appendix 10): P1-3, 1 : 1 to 1:
10; P4-7, 1 : 8 to 1 : 15; S1, 1 : 30.
Methodology
You will need a mushroom, sheet of white paper, sheet of black paper,
sticky tape, empty yoghurt container or similar, hairspray (optional).
N.B. Don’t leave wild fungi for more than a day in a warm environment
as they often contain the larvae of fungus gnats that have a habit of
abandoning their home when stressed!
What to do
 Overlap the two sheets of paper and join them at the back with the
sticky tape
 Gently remove the cap from the mushroom and place it face down
on the joined paper so that half is on each colour.
 Cover the mushroom cap with the pot or jar to stop it drying out (a
couple of drops of water dripped onto the top of the cap can help
maintain humidity).
 Leave everything where it is for at least two hours.
 Carefully remove the pot or jar and the mushroom cap. The spore
pattern should be visible on one side of the paper (depending on the
colour). With practise arrangements of different coloured prints can
be created.
 To prevent smudging, the teacher can spray the spore print with
hair spray.
15
 Disposal of used fungi and other materials from any of the
activities involving real fungi i.e. making a spore print, must follow
appropriate guidelines (details on page 12). Guidelines include
double wrapping non-cultured waste and disposing in an outside
bin.
 Guidelines on collecting wild fungi (Appendix 8). Collection is
envisaged as a teacher only activity and reference should be made
to Appendix 8. Russula, Lactarius, Bolete species and the Fly
Agaric (Amanita muscaria) are all suitable for this activity.
Obtaining the permission of the landowner and following the
countryside and access codes are recommended (see also Appendix
11). Other general guidelines are given in the ‘Scottish Wild
Mushroom Code’ (Appendix 9).
If you are having problems it might be that the fungus is too old or too
dry or maybe it has not been left long enough. Commercially grown
shop-bought mushrooms can be difficult to work with as they are often
stored upside down or tipped away from the vertical and the gills move to
try and get back to the vertical (now there’s an interesting discussion
point about growth and development!). Note that button mushrooms have
not usually developed enough to produce spores and will often still have a
protective membrane covering the gills completely.
16
Fungi in the classroom - some ideas for follow up work
ACTIVITY 3
‘Understanding fungi’
This is a normal classroom activity with no specific health and safety
requirements.
Complete the assessment worksheets ‘Understanding
Fungi’/‘Understanding Fungi in the Forest’ (Appendix 14) and also
‘Fungi and Food Chains’ (Appendix 15).
17
ACTIVITY 4
Why study fungi?
This is a normal classroom activity with no specific health and safety
requirements.
Fungi are important because –
 They are used to make medicines
 They help to recycle nutrients in the soil
 They help plants and trees to grow
 They cause diseases of plants and animals
 They are used to make food and drink
 They provide food and shelter for many insects
How many other reasons can you think of?
(If you need help with ideas, look through the pages of the fungi4schools
website at http://www.fungi4schools.org/).
18
ACTIVITY 5
Where do fungi grow? Making a habitat collage
Reference to the ‘General Recommendations’ in the section on ‘Health
and Safety’ (page 12) must be made and a risk assessment undertaken
(Appendix 3).
Supervision Levels (Scotland) (see also Appendix 10): P1-3, 1 : 1 to 1:
10; P4-7, 1 : 8 to 1 : 15; S1, 1 : 30.
Background
Fungi live in a variety of habitats and exhibit many different life styles.
‘Exchanger’ fungi can link up to the root systems and exchange nutrients
with the tree, ‘recycler’ fungi can break down stumps, twigs, leaves and
other dead plant material. Parasitic fungi can attack damaged or
weakened tree and even kill them. Don’t forget that the death of a tree can
be good for the insects and birds that need dead wood to live in. When a
dead tree falls over, it opens up a glade, allowing sunlight to reach the
woodland floor and encourage re-growth.
Methodology
A good way of reinforcing these ideas with a younger group is to make a
‘habitat collage’. Participants can draw a picture of their favourite fungus
(or colour in a prepared outline drawing). From their experiences in the
field, they can stick the pictures onto the appropriate part of a background
(the background should have a good range of habitats – maybe conifers
and broadleaved trees, dead wood and leaf litter) N.B. P1- 3 should draw
only, P4 upwards can use natural materials as long as they wash their
hands afterwards). For a 3D effect, plasticine or clay models could be
made and placed in the foreground.
19
ACTIVITY 6
Growing mushrooms
Reference to the ‘General Recommendations’ in the section on ‘Health
and Safety’ (page 12) must be made and a risk assessment undertaken
(Appendix 4).
Supervision Levels (Scotland) (see also Appendix 10): P1-3, 1 : 1 to 1:
10; P4-7, 1 : 8 to 1 : 15; S1, 1 : 30.
Methodology
It is possible to buy kits with full instructions and grow mushrooms
indoors on full toilet rolls or out of doors on pre-inoculated logs. One
such supplier is Ann Miller (ann@annforfungi.co.uk) Greenbank,
Meiklewartle, Inverurie, AB51 5AA.
N.B. Mushrooms grown in this manner should not be consumed in the
school situation.

Disposal of used fungi and other materials from any of the
activities involving real fungi i.e. grow your own mushrooms must
follow appropriate guidelines (details on page 12). Guidelines
include double wrapping non-cultured waste and disposing in an
outside bin.
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ACTIVITY 7
Experimenting with fungi
Reference to the ‘General Recommendations’ in the section on ‘Health
and Safety’ must be made (page 12) and a risk assessment undertaken
(Appendix 5)
Supervision Levels (Scotland) (see also Appendix 10): P1-3, 1 : 1 to 1:
10; P4-7, 1 : 8 to 1 : 15; S1, 1 : 30.
Methodology
Fungi offer many opportunities for experimental science and project work
at all levels. A simple idea is to examine the conditions necessary for the
growth of fungi. This is an excellent way of introducing the ideas of a fair
test and controlling variables. Place identically sized pieces of bread, or
soft fruit such a plum or peach, in clear jars or sealed plastic bags. Vary
the conditions within the containers (e.g. adding water) and place them in
a variety of locations (e.g. on a sunny windowsill, in the dark etc).
Examine the contents periodically (do NOT open the containers) and
record their appearance.
N.B. The disposal of any materials that you use in this experiment must
follow recommended guidelines:
 Disposal of used fungi and other materials from any of the activities
involving real fungi i.e. looking at fungi in the classroom, making a
spore print, grow your own mushrooms, experimenting with fungi,
dying wool and making paper must follow appropriate guidelines.
Guidelines include double wrapping non-cultured waste and disposing
in an outside bin. Cultures should be sterilised prior to disposal. The
most effective method involves heating for 15 minutes in a pressure
cooker. Where this facility is not available, use freshly prepared
disinfectant. Microsol or Virkon is suitable and available in 50g
sachets from laboratory suppliers – instructions included. Good
quality domestic bleach, diluted with no more than nine times its
volume of water thus creating a 10% solution or stronger, is another
option. Gloves should be worn when handling all solutions of
disinfectant or bleach and COSHH procedures followed. Procedure:
open the culture of micro-organisms under the surface of the
disinfectant so as not to release live spores into the air. Soak the
culture for at least one hour or overnight. Pour away the disinfectant,
place the culture in an opaque polythene bag, seal it and place it within
a second opaque polythene bag, seal this and place in an outside
dustbin. Glass or other reusable containers can be washed and
recycled after soaking. Disinfectant powders or solutions should be
kept locked away until required (see COSHH procedures).
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ACTIVITY 8
Making paper with fungi
Reference to the ‘General Recommendations’ in the section on ‘Health
and Safety’ (page 12) must be made and a risk assessment undertaken
(Appendix 6). Suitable for P6 upward.
Note: when collecting wild fungi for this activity, consideration should be
given to the quantity collected. It is unlikely to be practical or
ecologically sound to collect enough material for each individual in the
class to undertake their own preparations.
The fibrous nature of many bracket fungi (i.e. shelf like fungi that grow
on trees) makes them particularly suitable for this activity but difficult to
chop up. It is recommended that only the teacher cubes the fungus.
Supervision Levels (Scotland) (see also Appendix 10): P1-3, 1 : 1 to 1:
10; P4-7, 1 : 8 to 1 : 15; S1, 1 : 30.
Guidelines on collecting wild fungi (Appendix 8)
Collection is envisaged as a teacher only activity and reference should be
made to Appendix 8. Although many fungi would give good results for
this activity the following are two common fungi growing on old birch
trees on Deeside: Hoof Fungus, Fomes fomentarius or the Birch
Polypore, Piptoporus betulinus. Obtaining the permission of the
landowner and following the countryside and access codes are
recommended (see also Appendix 11). Other general guidelines are given
in the ‘Scottish Wild Mushroom Code’ (Appendix 9).
Methodology
You will need: Bracket fungi, a tray (e.g. cat litter tray), heavy weight,
blotting paper, blender, pieces of cloth (larger that the paper being made,
the thicker and more absorbent the better), a mesh frame (specialised
paper-making frames can be bought from most art suppliers, but any
mesh will do provided it will keep back the fungus whilst allowing water
to pass through).
What to do
 Chop up clean bracket fungi into 2 cm cubes (N.B. teacher only)
and blend them with a small quantity of water in a blender. The
amount of fungus required is enough to make a fluffy marshmallow
–like consistency when blended with the water. The consistency is
important – too watery and the paper will end up too thin, too
concentrated and the paper will be lumpy.
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 Pour the mixture into the tray, along with some more water.
 Place the mesh frame into the tray until the mashed bracket covers
all of the mesh. Gently remove the mesh and hold it above the tray
until most of the water has drained away.
 Gently tip the mashed bracket on the mesh onto a piece of cloth.
Place another piece of cloth on top.
 Repeat until you have a pile of 10 –12 sheets of fungal paper. Place
the weight on top of the pile to squeeze out the remaining water.
 Hang the cloth sheets with the bracket paper up to dry.
 For final drying, press the sheets of fungal paper onto blotting
paper until dry.
 Disposal of used fungi and other materials from any of the
activities involving real fungi i.e. making paper must follow
appropriate guidelines (details on page 21). Guidelines include
double wrapping non-cultured waste and disposing in an outside
bin.
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ACTIVITY 9
Dyeing wool with fungi
Reference to the ‘General Recommendations’ in the section on ‘Health
and Safety’ (page 12) must be made and a risk assessment undertaken
(Appendix 7). N.B. Suitable for S1 upwards
Many fungi contain substances that enable wool to be coloured and these
include boletes and the root parasite of conifers Phaeolus schweinitzii.
The fibrous nature of the latter fungus makes it difficult to chop up. It is
recommended that only the teacher cubes the fungus.
Some fungi do not contain dye substances and will give a negative result.
It is possible to obtain results using dried fungi bought from a reputable
source such as a supermarket however the following notes will help in the
collection and identification of wild fungi that are known to contain dyes.
Supervision Levels (Scotland) (see also Appendix 10): P1-3, 1 : 1 to 1:
10; P4-7, 1 : 8 to 1 : 15; S1, 1 : 30.
Guidelines on collecting wild fungi (Appendix 8)
Collection is envisaged as a teacher only activity and reference should be
made to Appendix 8. Phaeolus schweinitzii and Boletes are suitable for
this activity. N.B. when collecting wild fungi for this activity,
consideration should be given to the quantity collected. It is unlikely to be
practical or ecologically sound to collect enough material for each
individual in the class to undertake their own preparations.
Obtaining the permission of the landowner and following the countryside
and access codes are recommended (see also Appendix 11). Other general
guidelines are given in the ‘Scottish Wild Mushroom Code’ (Appendix
9).
Methodology
You will need:
Mushrooms – different species give different colours (see above). The
amount of fungus used will affect the shade of colour.
Wool
An aluminium, tin or copper pot
A mixing spoon
A means of heating water
N.B. boiling water constitutes a serious potential hazard
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What to do:
 Boil 3 litres of water in the pot and then add 100g of clean, sliced
mushrooms (reduce the water to 2 litres if dried mushrooms are
used). Simmer for 30 minutes and then remove the mushrooms.
 Add 100g of wool to the water and simmer for 30 – 60 minutes.
Add more water if the volume is getting low.
 Allow the wool to cool in the pot, wash in warm water and then dry
(e.g. outside on a sunny day or in an airing cupboard).
 Disposal of used fungi and other materials from any of the
activities involving real fungi i.e. dying wool must follow
appropriate guidelines (details on page 21). Guidelines include
double wrapping non-cultured waste and disposing in an outside
bin.
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ACTIVITY 10
Drama ‘The Circle of Life’
This is a dance activity with no specific health and safety requirements.
Try taking the ‘Build a Tree’ (notes given below) activity a bit further.
Allow a scaled down version (depending on numbers of children
available) of the tree to become old, or a limb to be blown off causing a
hole in the bark. The parasitic spore finds a way in and gradually the tree
will die and fall to the ground. Wood decomposing fungi and insects
(keep some children free to take on these roles) can start to break down
the parts of the tree and gently remove (literally) the various parts of the
now dead tree. Eventually the dead tree has completely rotted away and
there is now a clearing in the wood. During the process of decay, carbon
and other important ingredients which the seedling trees will need to
grow, will have been released from the old tree back into the system by
the decomposer fungi. This recycling of nutrients combined with the
sunlight that can now shine onto the forest floor will allow the seeds left
behind by the tree to germinate. The children could all come into the
‘clearing’ and complete the cycle by becoming a new generation of tree
seedlings.
This would probably need a narrator and could be embellished with
‘home-made’ fungus ‘coolie’ style hats and any amount of imagination!
Build a Tree
N.B. this activity is a development of Joseph Cornell’s activity ‘Build a
Tree’. Permission has been gained from J. Cornell to use his activity in
this format.
props:
spotty umbrella/s (optional but effective).
This can work for quite a large group but attention must be paid to how
many people need to be allocated for each part of the tree and fungus.
Introduce the activity by recapping how trees and fungi work together
exchanging food stuffs (sugars and mineral salts) for the advantage of
both, then set about building the tree:
Heartwood 1/2 people - The heartwood player/s need to stand in the
middle of the activity space. The heartwood holds the trunk and branches
upright so that the leaves can get their share of the sunlight. It is very
strong but has been around a long time, is completely dead…but well
preserved.
Taproot 1/2 people - The taproot player/s need to sit at the base of the
heartwood facing outwards, drawing their knees up to their tummies. The
taproots can go down as much as 10 metres and act as an anchor for the
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tree and also bring up water from deep in the earth (N.B. not all trees
have tap roots).
Lateral roots 2+ people - The lateral root players should lie down on the
ground with their feet towards the heartwood and spread out their arms
and fingers. A real tree has hundreds of lateral roots that spread out
through the soil. Each lateral root tip has tiny root hairs that grow into
every centimetre of soil around the tree. When they sense water the cells
at the tips grow towards it and draw water up for the tree to use. The tap
and lateral roots should practice slurping (noisily!!) to the instruction
from the leader ‘Let’s slurp’. Use fingers for root hairs – mind that they
don’t get trodden on!
Sapwood 3+ - the sapwood players need to form a circle around the
heartwood, facing inwards and holding hands - don’t tread on any of the
roots! The sapwood (or xylem) draws the water up from the roots into the
highest parts of the tree. On the leader’s instruction ‘Bring the water up’
the sapwood throw their arms up and shout ‘Wheeee!’
Cambium/phloem enough people to form a circle facing inwards outside
the sapwood. The phloem has to distribute the food that is manufactured
by the leaves to the rest of the tree. The phloem’s hands become leaves,
so leader says ‘Let’s make food’, phloem holds hands up and flutters
‘leaves’; leader says ‘Bring the food down’, phloem goes ‘Whooo’- a
long descending sound and drops down towards the ground.
Run through the activities - ‘Let’s slurp’; ‘Bring the water up’; ‘Let’s
make food’; ‘Bring the food down’
Bark enough people to make as complete a circle as possible outside the
phloem, facing outwards and working together to protect the tree
from….fires, insects or maybe the dreaded ‘Wood Cauliflower’ which
will infect and kill trees that are old or weak.
Fungus 1+ people, lying on the ground, stretch out their arms and use
their fingers as the tubes that will grow around the trees root hairs (the
fingers of the lateral roots) and enable the exchange of nutrients to take
place. The tree is complete now the mineral salts that it receives from its
fungal partner will enable it to grow in the poorest soils. The fungus is
also now receiving sugars from the tree - I think that it might hum and/or
put up an umbrella (fruit body) so that it can produce spores.
At this point the entire tree can run through its actions - probably without
instructions - the leader could remind the bark to watch out for the
ghastly, root gobbling, fungal spore and indeed become the spore if so
inclined! The whole group should be involved at this point and when
finished give itself a round of applause!
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