UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI
Maiduguri, Nigeria
CENTRE FOR DISTANCE LEARNING
ARTS
HIS 107:
UNIT: 2
FOUNDATION OF WESTERN CIVILIZATION
HIS 107 – FOUNDATIONS OF WESTERN CIVILIZATION
Published
UNIT: 2
2009©
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any
form, by mimeograph or any other means without prior permission in
writing from the University of Maiduguri.
This text forms part of the learning package for the academic
programme of the Centre for Distance Learning, University of
Maiduguri.
Further enquiries should be directed to the:
Coordinator
Centre for Distance Learning
University of Maiduguri
P. M. B. 1069
Maiduguri, Nigeria.
This text is being published by the authority of the Senate, University
of Maiduguri, Maiduguri – Nigeria.
ISBN:
978-8133-
ii
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HIS 107 – FOUNDATIONS OF WESTERN CIVILIZATION
UNIT: 2
PREFACE
This study unit has been prepared for learners so that they can do
most of the study on their own. The structure of the study unit is
different from that of conventional textbook. The course writers have
made efforts to make the study material rich enough but learners need
to do some extra reading for further enrichment of the knowledge
required.
The learners are expected to make best use of library facilities and
where feasible, use the Internet. References are provided to guide the
selection of reading materials required.
The University expresses its profound gratitude to our course writers
and editors for making this possible. Their efforts will no doubt help
in improving access to University education.
Professor M. M. Daura
Ag. Vice-Chancellor
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HIS 107 – FOUNDATIONS OF WESTERN CIVILIZATION
UNIT: 2
HOW TO STUDY THE UNIT
You are welcome to this study Unit. The unit is arranged to
simplify your study. In each topic of the unit, we have introduction,
objectives, in-text, summary and self-assessment exercise.
The study unit should be 6-8 hours to complete. Tutors will be
available at designated contact centers for tutorial. The center expects
you to plan your work well. Should you wish to read further you could
supplement the study with more information from the list of
references and suggested readings available in the study unit.
PRACTICE EXERCISES/TESTS
1. Self-Assessment Exercises (SAES)
This is provided at the end of each topic. The exercise can help
you to assess whether or not you have actually studied and understood
the topic. Solutions to the exercises are provided at the end of the
study unit for you to assess yourself.
2. Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA)
This is provided at the end of the study Unit. It is a form of
examination type questions for you to answer and send to the center.
You are expected to work on your own in responding to the
assignments. The TMA forms part of your continuous assessment
(C.A.) scores, which will be marked and returned to you. In addition,
you will also write an end of Semester Examination, which will be
added to your TMA scores.
Finally, the center wishes you success as you go through the
different units of your study.
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HIS 107 – FOUNDATIONS OF WESTERN CIVILIZATION
UNIT: 2
INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE
In this study, you will learn about the Foundation of Western Civilization. It is
about the civilization of classical and Hellenistic Greece and its legacy, the Romans
and their empire, the rise of Christian Europe, Feudalism, the Middle Ages and the
development of towns, trade and nation states. The course will also introduce you to
the voyages of exploration, the Renaissance and the reformation.
The course is divided into nine topics as follows: Topic I highlights Greek
Civilization. Topic 2 discusses Early Athens, from Solon to Cleisthenes. Topic 3
dwells on the Delian League and its transformation into an Athenian Empire. Topic 4
deals with the First and Second Peloponnesian Wars. Topic 5 is on Alexander the
Great. Topic 6 focuses on the Romans and their Empire. Topic 7 deals with the Rise
of Christian Europe. Topic 8 discusses Feudalism, the Middle Ages and the
development of towns, trade and nation states. Topic 9 is concerned with the
Voyages of exploration, while Topic 10 examines Renaissance and the Reformation.
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HIS 107 – FOUNDATIONS OF WESTERN CIVILIZATION
HIS 107:
UNIT: 2
FOUNDATIONS OF WESTERN CIVILIZATION:
2 UNITS
T A B L E O F C O N T E N TS
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PREFACE
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1. GREEK CIVILIZATION-
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3. THE DELIAN LEAGUE AND ITS TRANSFORMATION
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9. THE VOYAGES OF EXPLORATION-
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6. THE ROMANS AND THEIR EMPIRE-
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10. RENAISSANCE AND THE REFORMATION
SOLUTION TO EXERCISES
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T O P I C 1:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
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GREEK CIVILIZATION
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1.0
TOPIC: THE LEGACY OF GREECE
1.1
INTRODUCTION
UNIT: 2
The history of Western civilization begins with the Greeks. In this study we
shall learn about the civilization of classical and Hellenistic Greece and its
legacy. Particular attention is focused on the social, economic and political life
of the Greek.
1.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic, the students should be able to:
i.
know where Greece is presently located;
ii.
understand the social, economic and political life of Greek citystates; and
iii.
appreciate people’s culture.
1.3
IN – TEXT
1.3.1 GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION OF GREECE
The Greek city-states were found around the Aegean and the Mediterranean
seas. Before 520 BC, the Greeks lived on mainland. When the mainland could
no longer support them, the people moved to tiny islands, separated from
each other by the sea and mountains. Some of the Greeks moved to Asia
Minor and the shores of the black sea and in the present day Italy and
Southern France. In all these places the Greeks built cities and set up their
own governments. It is important to note that the Greeks went with their
traditions, customs, etc. In their new settlements.
1.3.2 THE CITY-STATES
Greece was not a nation; it was a collection of city-states. The notable ones are
Thebes, Corinth, and Miletus. Athens, Sparta and Syracuse. The only citystates that are mostly remembered today are Athens and Sparta. In particular,
Athens was among the most powerful and important trading centers in the
Mediterranean Sea. The People of Athens copied the silver coins which the
Lydian’s had invented and with this silver currency, they bought goods to
enrich their city. In order to protect their city from foreign invasion, the
Athenians built a powerful navy at the sea port of Piraeus.
Education was taken seriously in Athens. Boys were taken to school by slaves
called pedagogues. Their teachers taught them how to read and write with a
pointed instrument called stylus on a table covered with soft wax. The
students learned to recite poetry, to speak well in public. Music masters taught
their students how to play on pipes or on flutes. The pedagogues, who sat and
waited until the lessons were over, listened as well, and they sometimes
become educated as their young masters.
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Like Athens, Sparta played a significant role in the history of Greece. But
while Athens evolved through the traditional stages of monarchy, aristocracy,
tyranny and democracy, Sparta acquired a peculiar mixed political system that
discouraged commerce, cultural inventiveness and the amenities of life for the
sake of iron discipline and military efficiency.
The lives of Spartans were tended and guided by the state from childhood to
adulthood. This was aimed at producing strong, courageous, highly disciplined
soldiers. Needless to say, the life of a Spartan was dedicated to the state. Free
citizens were not allowed to do any menial jobs. The lots (slaves) did all
manners of jobs in Sparta. This gave enough room for Spartans to be militarily
prepared. Even though the Spartans were the best warriors in Greece, yet they
employed their military advantage with care or restraint.
1.4
SUMMARY
With this well defined city-state, the Greeks were able to spread their
civilization all over the world. In fact they became famous in all areaspolitically socially and economically.
1.4
SELF – ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1.
2.
3.
Discuss Athens social life up to 700 BC.
What made the Greeks to move from their original homelands to Asia
Minor, shores of the Black sea and the present day Italy and Southern
France after 520 BC?
Was Classical Greece a nation state?
1.5 REFERENCE
Crane Briton, A History of Western Civilization (New Jersey: Englehood, 1967)
John L. Breathy and Oliver Johnson, Heritage of Western Civilization, Vol. I
(London, 1985)
Ruth Whitehouse and John Wilkin, The Making of Civilization: History Disserved
through Archaeology (New York Alfred 1986)
1.6
SUGGESTED READING
Warren Hollister, River through time. The Course of Western Civilization (London:
John Wiley and Sons Ltd, 1975).
Ruth Whitehouse and John Wilkin, The Making of Civilization: History Discovered
Through Archaeology (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1986)
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TOPIC 2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
2.0
TOPIC:
EARLY ATHENS: FROM SOLON
TO CLEISTHENES
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2.3.4 SOCIO – ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL REFORMS
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2.3.6 CLEISTHENES-
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2.4 SUMMARY-
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2.0
UNIT: 2
TOPIC: EARLY ATHENS: FROM SOLON TO
CLEISTHENERS
2.1
INTRODUCTION
In this study, we are concerned with Athens democratic experience. The Study
begins with the election of Solon as an extraordinary legislator (Archon) to
draft new laws for Athens’ aristocratic government. This was after the
discontent of the underprivileged Athenians had reached an explosive stage.
Solon, who was a moderate reformer, tried to satisfy all opposing groups.
However, he ended up satisfying very few people. Clearly, the political
instability and rivalry which followed Solon’s reforms show that the
extraordinary legislator had failed to achieve his objectives. On the other hand,
he deserves great credit for laying a solid foundation for democracy in Athens.
It was on this democratic foundation that Cleisthenes and other politicians in
Athens came to build upon their democratic ideals.
2.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of our discussion, the students would be able to:
i.
know the reasons why the underprivileged citizens in Athens revolted
against their government;
ii.
understand the differences between good and bad governments;
iii.
know what democracy and good governance entail; and
iv.
know the impact of political rivalry on the government.
2.3
IN-TEXT
2.3.1 PRE-SOLOMON ATHENS
In the 5th century B. C., Athens and Sparta were the two leading states of
Greece. As stated at the beginning of this lesson, Sparta was famous for her
iron discipline, conservation, mixed constitution and her constant military
preparedness. The former was famous for her progressive outlook, intellectual
development, and rich culture and so on.
Athens began as a monarchy. The kingship then yielded to an aristocracy. The
principal officials of Athens aristocratic government were the Archon, the
Pole march, the king and a board of 6 judges called the Thesmothetac. These
officials ruled Athens oppressively. Even then, the ordinary citizens of the
society showed no sign of dissatisfaction with the aristocracy. However, by
621 B. C. these underprivileged citizens began to show signs of dissatisfaction
with the government. In particular, there was a clamor for a code of laws. In
this regard, Draco was appointed an extraordinary legislator and asked to draw
up a code of laws. It is said that the code of laws drawn up by Draco were
harsh. Because of the severity of these laws, “Draconian”has become a
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UNIT: 2
synonym for “Severe”. In spite of the severity of Draco’s laws, it was a real
gain for ordinary citizens. This is because the laws were now known and they
were saved from the arbitrary decisions of aristocratic judges.
2.3.2 SOLON
By the beginning of the sixth century B. C., the dissatisfaction of the ordinary
masses with aristocratic rule in Athens had reached a boiling point. Indeed, if
Athens had not received a mediator in the person of Solon, there could have
been violent revolution. The masses were not allowed to voted and be voted
for. There was the scarcity of home grown corn, in addition to the oppressive
law of debt. According to this law, a small land – owner who went for a loan,
had to offer his land as security. If he failed to repay the loan he lost his land
and joined the class of the Hektemyoroi, (landless peasants) who tilled the
estates of wealthy landowners for a portion of produce. If he went for another
loan, he offered himself and his family as collateral. Indeed failure to pay the
loan, the entire family lost their personal freedom and thus became slaves. It
was this oppressive rule that made the underprivileged citizens to try to revolt
against their government.
2.3.3 SOCIO- ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL REFORMS
As already noted, Solon a noble of moderate temperament, was elected as
archon, an extraordinary legislator, to solve the problems of the Athenian
masses.
Solon sought to redress the underprivileged grievances. First, he
curtailed the monopoly of the old by opening the office of archon to well-todo landowners who were not of noble origin. Secondly, he reduced the
nobility’s influence over judicial proceedings by permitting appeals from the
aristocratic Council of Areopagus to the more popularly Representative
Assembly. Thirdly, Solon banned the exportation of home-grown corn that
was badly needed by the Athenians. Fourthly, he stimulated the export of olive
oil and the development of such craft as pottery. To encourage the
immigration of craftsmen, especially from Corinth, he offered them Athenian
citizenship. Fifthly, Solon encouraged parents to teach their sons trade. He
came out with a law which exempted a son from obligation of supporting his
father in old age, if the father had not taught him a trade. Yet, Solon is said to
have introduced the mixed method of sortation and election for the
appointment of officials. However, this method dated to 487 B. C., has been
questioned over 100 years after Solon’s reforms.
Finally, Solon tried to alleviate the land problem by canceling the debts owned
by poor peasants and ending the practice of enslaving the debt-ridden masses.
Here, however, Solon did not achieve the desired objectives. This led to
increase in social unrest.
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2.3.4 PEISISTRATUS
When the moderate reformer had failed the tyrant soon offered himself. The
tyrant was Peisistratus. To put it mildly, Peisistratus was a dissolvent aristocrat.
He seized power about 560 BC through a well planned coup de’tat. It is said
that, one day Peisistratus leader of the party of the Hill-country rode on a
mule and went to Athenian National Assembly. On the process of going to
the National Assembly, he had got himself and his mule wounded. When he
got to the National Assembly, he told members of the Assembly that because
of his popularity; he was attacked and wounded by other political parties.
He said that he needs a body-guard of 50 men to protect him. The Assembly
men who did not know that Peisistratus was planning to overthrow them,
granted his request. Shortly before he left the Athenian Assembly, he turned
back and ordered his so called body-guard to attach the Assembly men. He
thus, took over power in Athens as a dictator. However, his success was shortlived, for the other two parties joined forces and drove him out of Athens
after a reign of about 5 years.
However, Peisistratus and his followers secured a woman and put her in his
chariot. He then stationed his men in strategic places where the Chariot
carrying the lady were to pass. The men shouted at them and told the
Athenians that Athena, the goddess of Athens was bringing back Peisistratus
to power. The trick succeeded and Peisistratus was restored back to power.
He continued to ruled until in 510 B.C. when he was finally removed from
power. When he left power, Peisistratus was succeeded by his son Hipias who
was also expelled from Athens. When Hipias was expelled, two parties
emerged to complete for power. Isagoras, an advocate of Oligarchy, was a
leader of one of the parties. His party was clearly a revival of the former party
of the plain. The leader of the other party was Cleisthenes, an advocate of
democracy. Not only was Cleisthenes related to Megacles, but also his party
was clearly a revival of the former Party of the Coast. There was serious rivalry
between the two party leaders and, eventually Isagoras appealed to Sparta for
help. In the event, Sparta assisted him, but were forced to leave Athens.
Isagoras supporters either escaped from the city – state or were executed by
the supporters of Cleisthenes.
2.3.5 CLEISTHENES
As soon as he came to power, Cleisthenes tried to correct some shortcomings
in the Athenian government. He stripped the Aeropagus much of its powers.
He also solved land problems that were left unsolved by Solon and those after
him. He carried out political reforms by mixing or merging tribes together to
remove tribal sentiments. Thus, he increased the council of 400 men to 500 to
take care of the new tribes he had introduced. Finally, Cleisthenes was said to
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UNIT: 2
have introduced Ostracism. Once a year the people, if so they desired, could
convince an extraordinary meeting of the Assembly to hold Ostracism.
At the meeting, each voter was required to write down the name of any citizen
whom he considers worthy of expulsion. At the end of the voting, the citizens
with the highest number of votes were ostracized from Athens. The system of
ostracism was probably introduced to guide the Athenian young democracy.
The system was later discouraged when it lost its original meaning. Some
people were using it to eliminate their opponents who did nothing wrong
from the society.
2.4
SUMMARY
Solon and Cleisthenes were the two great democratic reformers of the sixth
century B. C. Some scholars have engaged in the unwarranted exercise of
deciding whether the one or the other was the founder of Athenian
democracy. For our purposes, what seems reasonably clear is that Solon
introduced some democratic features into the aristocratic government of
Athens and that these democratic trends were continued by Cleisthenes.This
solid foundation laid by these two statesmen was built upon in the fifth
century leading to the birth of the “radical “democracy.
2.5
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1.
2.
2.6
How apt is it to say that Solon was the father of Athenian Democracy?
Examine the contribution of Cleisthenes to the development of
“radical” democracy in Athens.
REFERENCE
Warren Hollister, River through time. The Course of Western Civilization (London:
John Wiley and Sons Ltd, 1975).
Ruth Whitehouse and John Wilkin, The Making of Civilization: History Discovered
Through Archaeology (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1986)
2.7
FURTHER READINGS
Crane Brinton, John B. Christopher and Robert L. Waft, a History of Civilization
(London Prentice Hall), 1995).
Brehier, E. The Hellenic Age (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985).
Will Durant, The Life of Greece (London: Simon and Schuster, 1939).
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TOPIC 3
TABLE OF CONTENTS
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TOPIC: THE DELIAN LEAGUE AND ITS
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3.0
TOPIC: THE DELIAN LEAGUE AND ITS
TRANSFORMATION INTO AN ATHENIAN EMPIRE
3.1
INTRODUCTION
UNIT: 2
The Delian League was formed in 478 B. C. by the states on the shores and
Island of the Aegean to deter Persia from further aggression on these states.
Athens became the leader of the league which had its headquarters at the
Island of Delos. Soon afterward, Athens removed the treasury of the league
from Delos to the Acropolis, the Athenian capital. Not only that, Athens
began to use the money in the treasury of the league to beautify Athens. This
caused considerable resentment amongst members of the League. The
resentment led to the outbreak of the First Peloponnesian war.
3.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of the topic, students would be able to:
i. know why the Delian league was formed planed;
ii. understand how the league was transformed into an Athenian empire;
and
iii. know the consequences of such transformation.
3.3
IN – TEXT
3.3.1 THE FORMATION OF THE DELIAN LEAGUE
The Delian League owed its origin to the Persian menace. Even since the
defeat of Croesus by the Persians, the Persian Empire had passed as a definite
threat to the independence of the Greek-city-states. To be sure, Athens had
defeated the Persians at Marathon and the confederated Greek forces had
repelled the Persia invasion under King Xerxes and liberated the Asiatic
Greeks. There was however, no guarantee that the threat of oriental despotism
had been completely eliminated.
3.3.2
AIMS AND ORGANIZATION OF THE LEAGUE
The Greeks, therefore, formed the league to satisfy the need for an effective
determent against any possible Persian invasion. Therefore, the objective of
the Delian League was both defensive and offensive. Defensively, the
confederacy aimed at protecting the Asiatic Greeks who had been liberated
and affording permanent security to Greece against Persia. Offensively, the
league aimed at gaining revenge on Persia for the suffering she had inflicted
on Greece. It is said that the allies expressed their determination by the
symbolic act of casting masses of metal into the sea, thus indicating that they
were determined to pursue their objectives as long as submerged iron
remained under sea. This symbolic act was performed when oaths of loyalty
were taken by Athens representative, Aristides and the representatives of the
various confederate states.
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The constitution of the league was not embodied in a document and was not
expressed in a precise terms. Even then, the task of determining the individual
assessments of tribute was assigned to the Athenian statesman, Aristides the
Just. He seems to have lived up to his reputation for absolute probity. In fact,
there is no record which showed that he has tampered with the money of the
league.
3.3.3.
TRANSFORMATION OF THE LEAGUE INTO AN ATHENIAN EMPIRE
With time, Athens the leader of the Delian League started to change the
original purpose of the union. Originally, membership of the Delian League
had been voluntary, but around 472 B. C. Athens forced Carystus, the only
sity-state in Euboca to join the League. Clearly, Athens behavior had violated
the original spirit of the alliance. Besides, Athens went on to make it clear that
the league would not tolerate secessionist attempts. Thus when Naxos
attempted to secede in 470/69 B. C., Athens attached her and forced her to
remain in the league. Finally, like Carystus, Naxos was deprived of her
autonomy and she became Athens’ subject tributary ally. The league soon
came to consist of three distinct classes of states. First, there were the
autonomous states which contributed ships. Secondly, there were the
autonomous states which paid tribute. Finally, there were the tribute paying
subjects of Athens.
In 454 B. C. Athens took full control of the finances of the league. As noted
earlier on, Athens started using the Delian league funds to beautify its capital
city, Acropolis. At the end, the synod ceased to meet, the board of
Hellenotamiae o was converted into a regular Athenian magistracy and Athens
was thus able to take unilateral decisions.
3.4
SUMMARY
At the process of this transformation of the Delian league into Athenian
empire, Athens grew more and more confident and began to interfere in the
domestic affairs of the subject allies. One of these forms of interference was
the imposition of democracy on some of the allied states. Athens also
subjected members of the league to her judicial systems. Before long other
members of the league, particularly Sparta started to resist Athens leadership
of the league. It was this resistance that led to the outbreak of the First
Peloponnesian war.
3.5
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1.
2.
Examine the factors which led to the formation of the Delian League.
Assess
the
role
of
Arisrides,
the
Just
in
the
transformation of the Delian league into an Athenian
Empire.
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UNIT: 2
FURTHER READING
C. Hignett, A History of the Athenian Constitution
(London: Oxford University
Press, 1953)
J. H. Finley, Thucydides (Michigan: Michigan University press, 1967)
W. S. Ferguson, Cambridge Ancient History (Cambridge: Cambridge University
press, 1927)
3.7
SUGGESTED READING
Warren Hollister, River through time. The Course of Western Civilization (London:
John Wiley and Sons Ltd, 1975).
Ruth Whitehouse and John Wilkin, The Making of Civilization: History Discovered
Through Archaeology (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1986)
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TOPIC 4:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
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4.1
UNIT: 2
TOPIC: THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR
INTRODUCTION
When the Delian league was transformed into an Athenian empire, Athens
itself became a great power. Sparta, the leader of the Peloponnesian league,
saw the Athenian growing power as a threat not only to her but other
members of the Peloponnesian league. And so, in 431 B. C. Sparta and her
allies tried to curb the aggressor. This resulted into the Peloponnesian war
which last twenty-seven years. Indeed, the war was a turning point in the
history of Greece, for the period following the war was an age of instability,
turbulence and anarchy.
4.2
OBJECTIVES
By the end of the topic, students would be able to:
i.
know the remote and immediate causes of the
Peloponnesian war; and
ii.
explain the effects of the war on the Greek city-states.
4.3
IN – TEXT
4.3.1 CAUSES OF THE WAR
The Peloponnesian war started in 431 B. C. Thucydides, the first objective or
scientific historian who write on the war, said that the war broke out as the
result of remote and immediate factors. He gave the growth of the Athenians
to greatness. Some scholars supported this idea by saying that the
Peloponnesians declared the war because they were outclassed in commercial
competition by Athens.
Yet, other scholars attributed the war to Pericles, Athens leading statesman.
These scholars maintained that Pericles was implicated in various sets of
misconduct, including the embezzlement of funds, and he plunged Athens
into the war to divert the attention of the Athenian from the political crisis
facing him. In making this allegation, the sources must have been influenced
by the major role played by Pericles in Athens’ decision to go to war.
However, it should be noted that Pericles neither provoked the war nor was
he the aggressor, otherwise he would not have adopted a defensive strategy.
The immediate cause of the war was the misunderstanding between Corinth
and corcyra her colony. In 435 B.C. Epidamus experienced a civil war in
which the oligarchs were expelled. The oligarchs then made an alliance with
some neighboring tribesmen and began to harass Epidamus. Unable to deal
with the situation, the Epidamus appealed to their mother – city, Corcyra for
aid and, when Corcyra refused to render assistance, they appealed to Corinth,
their grandmother-city and received a favorable response. This angered
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Corcyra and, therefore decided to blockade Epidamus. Before then, the battle
line had been drawn between Epidamus and Corinth on the one hand and
Epidamus and her allies on the other. Both parties appealed to Athens. Athens
accordingly supported Epidamuss Corcyra then asked Sparta for support
which she did. The war thus ran from 431 B. C. to 404 B. C.
4.3.2 COURSE OF THE WAR
Between 430 B.C and 429 B.C when the war was still going on, Athens
received refugees that fled from the battle zone. These refugees were struck by
plague that carried off perhaps a quarter of its population. Pericles himself
died as the result of this plague. The loss of Pericles, combined with terrible
shock of the plague, led to a rapid deterioration in the quality of the Athenian
government. Leadership passed unto the hands of extremists, and the
democracy acquired many of the worst characteristics of mob rule. Ten years
after the beginning of the war, i.e. in 421 B.C., the peace of Nicias was
concluded and hostilities ceased for some time. This peace treaty, however,
proved to be unsatisfactory; and full- scale hostilities were resumed after
Athens’ Sicilian expedition had ended in disaster.
The war may be described as a war between whale and elephant, Athens being
the whale while Sparta and her allies represented the elephant. It was a war
between Athens, a naval power and the Peloponnesians who collectively were
a land power. Like a war between the whale and the elephant, in which the
former, whole stays in the sea, while the latter elephant, would similarly stay
on land, the combatants planned their strategies with the same wisdom. The
Peloponnesians, fully aware of Athens’ naval superiority, tried as much as
possible to avoid the prospect of a full-scale naval battle. They concentrated
on land. Athens on the other land knowing fully that Sparta was a land power,
tries to avoid the prospect of a full-scale war on land.
4.3.3 THE END OF THE WAR
In the course of the war, Sparta and Persia, the long-standing enemies of
Athens concluded an agreement – the treaty of Miletus. By this treaty, Persia
undertook to give the Peloponnesians financial assistance on the ground that
after the war she should recover the Asiatic Greek city-states which were
liberated during the Xerxes invasion of Greece. By signing a treaty with Persia,
Peloponnesians had put Athens in deep trouble. Even then, Athens displayed
remarkable resiliency and inflicted upon the Peloponnesians two heavy defeats
which compelled Sparta to sue for peace. Athenian statesmen, however,
mismanaged the opportunity. Eventually, at the battle of Aegospotadis, the
Peloponnesians took good advantage of the laxity and indiscipline in the
Athenian navy to inflict a crushing defeat upon Athens. She was forced to give
up the Athenian empire. Indeed, Sparta had achieved her objectives of putting
an end to the Athenian empire.
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4.4 SUMMARY
In this study, we pointed out that a number of factors contributed to the
outbreak of the Peloponnesian war. There were both immediate and remote
causes of the war. Corinth was involved in the immediate incident and, being
at the receiving end, she decided to appeal to Sparta for the declaration of a
Peloponnesian war. Sparta supported her. Athens, like Sparta was not
prepared to surrender the hegemony of her empire. Corinth thus succeeded in
driving the two leading states in Greece to war. We also said that the
organization of the Peloponnesian league, which gives a second – rate
member of the league enough room to fish for trouble and then involve the
entire league in its self-made problems, led to the outbreak of the
Peloponnesian war.
4.5
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1.
2.
4.6
Discuss the factors which led to the outbreak of the Peloponnesian
war.
“The Peloponnesian war brought neither victory to Sparta Nor
peace to Hellas.” Discuss.
FURTHERING READING
Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian war, B. Jowett, Trans (Bantam, 1958).
B. Christopher, A History of Civilization (New Jersey; Prentice Hall, 1967).
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TOPIC 5
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
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TOPIC: ALEXANDER THE GREAT
5.1
INTRODUCTION
UNIT: 2
In Topic Four, we pointed out that the period following the Peloponnesian
war saw anarchy, turbulence, chaos and instability where Perhaps; this was due
to the attitude of Sparta. In declaring the war, Sparta claimed that she was
oppressed and threatened wanted to put an end, to the Athenian empire. After
her victory in the war, Sparta embarked upon a policy of imperialism. Sparta
paid dearly for this imperialistic policy.
However, not learning any lesson from her imperialistic ambition, Sparta
resumed her activities, attacking other Greek city states indiscriminately. This
led to reactions from some of these Greek city states. Athens formed the
second Athenian league, while Thebes developed a profound feeling of
national pride, built a strong army, defeated Sparta at the battle of Leuctra in
374 B. C. and shattered, once and for all, the myth of Sparta’s military might.
However, Thebes hegemony was short lived. In its place, an abscore nation of
Macedon rose to prominence under the leadership of King Philip II. He
secured the Greek city-states and planned a pan-Hellenic expedition against
Persia. Unfortunately for him, he was murdered in 336 B.C. on the day of his
daughter’s wedding and the expedition against Persia was taken over by his
son, Alexander the Great.
5.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic, the students should able to:
i.
understand and appreciate the contributions of individuals to the
development of their societies; and to
ii.
differentiate between bad policy and good policy.
5.3
5.3.1
IN – TEXT
ALEXANDER THE GREAT
Alexander was born in 356 B.C. His father, Philip II, intended his son to
succeed him on the Macedonian throne and he therefore took necessary steps
to give him the requisite training. His father appointed Aristotle, the
celebrated philosopher, as his son’s tutor. He always put Alexander in
responsible positions whenever the opportunity arose.
In 336 B. C. Philip II was assassinated, probably at the instigation of his
estranged wife in the course of a festival celebrating his daughter’s marriage.
When therefore Philip II died, he was succeeded by his son Alexander. Before
he took over the mantle of Leadership in Macedonia, Alexander had interests
in war, politics, athletics, strong drink, literature, particularly Homer’s and
Pander’s works.
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Alexander was only twenty years old when he succeeded his father. As the
leader of the league of Corinth, he was undoubtedly the greatest general of
authority. He inherited from his father a well trained and discipline army.
From 334 to 326 B.C. his soldiers followed his command, marching from
Greece right to India and wining battle after battle. In doing this, he showed
concern for the welfare of his soldiers. He gave them entertainment in the
form of games after great exertions. He also took great care of the wounded
after battles.
In 333 B. C. Alexander attacked Darius III, the king of Persia. The Persian
king was standing on the battle ground protected by his body guard when he
saw Alexander launching an attack in his direction. Darius promptly lost
nerve, turned around and fled as fast as his chariot could carry him. He soon
lost confidence in the speed of his chariot, exchanged it for a horse and
galloped at full speed. In the process, he forgot his wife, mother and his three
children, who were thus abandoned in the camp and eventually fell into the
hands of Alexander. King Darius did the same thing at the battle of
Gaugamela, fought on October 1st, 331 B.C. He was subsequently assassinated
by some of his nobles. With the death of king Darius III, Alexander the Great
took complete control of the Persian Empire.
5.3.2 THE POLICY OF HOMONOIA
Alexander the Great became the ruler of an empire comprising Greeks and
non-Greeks, termed barbarians. In administering his vast empire, he treated
all his subjects equally. He conceived the idea of uniting the peoples of the
world in a peaceful and happy brotherhood or homonoia. To promote the
policy of Homononoia, Alexander the Great adopted various measures. First, he
appointed both Greeks and Asiatics as governors. Secondly, he planned to
transplant Greeks into Asia, and similarly Asiatics into Greece. Thirdly, he
decided to transform his army, which had originally been Greco-Macedonian,
into a multinational army. He ordered the establishment of military schools
were Asiatic young men could be given Greek military training and discipline.
In 324 B.C., 30, 000 young Persians who had been taught the Greek language
and given Greek military training were proudly paraded before Alexander at
Susa. Fourthly, Alexander the Great encouraged intermarriage between
Greeks and Asiatics. In 327, he married the beautiful Roxanne, daughter of an
Iranian baron, and succeeded in flattering local pride by adopting native ritual.
Underlying the policy of homonoia was a desire to introduce Greek
civilization among the Asiatics.
As would be expected, the policy of Homonoia aroused considerable
discontent among his followers. There is the case of the fatal incident between
Alexander and his foster-brother Clitus, who, incidentally, had saved the king’s
life at the Battle of the Granicus. In the course of the protracted drinking
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during the celebration of a festival, a heated argument developed between the
two brothers. Clitus not only disparaged Alexander by attributing his victories
to the Macedonian army and boasting that he owed his life to him, but also
denounced the king’s adoption of oriental customs and jeeringly asked him to
go and associate with his barbarian slaves “who are accustomed to doing
obeisance to his Persian dress.” Alexander got annoyed and Clitus was guickly
taken away to avoid an ugly situation. The drunken Clitus, however, returned
to resume the taunts. Alexander could no longer restrain himself; he snatched
a spear and transfixed him to death. The Greeks also resented proskynesis or
prostration, one of the aspects of the policy of homonoia. The Greeks also did
not like the policy of recruiting non-Greeks into the army.
5.3.3 THE END OF ALEXANDER’S CAREER
Alexander had succeeded in persuading his Greek soldiers to accept the policy
of racial fusion to which they had been vehemently opposed. He had laid a
good foundation for the policy of homonoia and could cheerfully proceed to
build the superstructure. But this was not to be. In the following year,
Alexander was inflicted with malarial fever. On June 18, 323 B.C at
approximately the age of 33, after an eventful reign of 12 years and 8 months,
Alexander the Great died.
5.4
SUMMARY
It is obvious that Alexander the great was not just a great general but also a
great human being. Even though he did not live long enough to promote the
policy of homonoia, his efforts did not go unrewarded. In the age following
the death of Alexander not clear the world began to be regarded as a unit and
the world was considerably drawn together.
5.5
SELF- ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1.
2.
Explain what you understand by the word, Homonoia?
Write brief note on Alexander the Great.
5.6 FURTHER READING
M. Hadas, Hellenistic and Romen Age (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1959)
W. Hollister, et al River Through Time: The Course of Western Civilization (London:
John Wiley, 1975)
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TOPIC 6
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
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6.1
INTRODUCTION
UNIT: 2
In this topic, we are going to learn about the Romans and their empire. We
shall focus our attention to the rise of Rome, its military virtue, law,
government and imperial organization. We shall also look at the empire under
the Principate.
6.2
OBJECTIVES
By the end of the topic, students will be able to:
i. know how Rome became a great nation in the world;
ii. learn about the contributions of the Romans to the development of
their Empire; and
iii. understand how political intrigues can cause destabilizing effects on the
country.
6.3
IN – TEXT
6.3.1 THE RISE OF ROME
The geographical location of Rome gave it a comparative advantage. Rome
was built on the famous seven hills overlooking the Tiber River. This made
the city to be easily fortified. It was centrally located midway down the Italian
Peninsula and 30 kilometers close enough to the sea to participate in the
commercial life of the Mediterranean.
It is said that after the fall of Troy, Aeneas, the son of a Trojan Prince, led a
band of refugees on a long journey through the Mediterranean to Carthage
and eventually to central Italy. There, on the backs of the River Tiber, the
descendants of Aeneas founded a city called Rome. It seems likely that by
about 750 B.C., settlers were living in huts on the Palatine hill, near the Tiber
River. Gradually, several neighbouring hills became inhabited, and around 600
of these various settlements joined together to form the city-state of Rome.
6.3.2 THE REPUBLICAN ROME
Rome in the 5th century B.C was only one of the several Latin city – states,
newly liberated from Etruscan rule, that shared control of the plain of Latium.
It took Rome more than one thousand years to become the dominant state in
the area.
The basic unit of the first Republican armies was the phalanx, composed of
about 8,000 men, mainly foot soldiers. Later on the Republic had to build
cavalry units to beef up the foot soldiers. From the beginning, all citizens were
expected to serve in the army. The young Republic not only enjoyed the
services of its soldiers but also enjoyed effective political institutions. The
society was divided into two distinct social classes – patrician and the plebeian.
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The aristocracy of well-to-do families formed the class of patricians (fathers),
while plebeians were the inferior people in the society.
In the early Republic, the patricians dominated the two most important
governmental institutions, the Consulate and the Senate. The two consuls,
chosen from the patrician class, served as the chief executives for the term of
a year. After that, they were granted imperium (supreme political authority).
The Senate was made up of patricians and had 300 members. All consuls
became senators at the end of their term in office, and the reigning consuls
appointed other senators. In theory, the functions of the Senate were merely
advisory and supervisory. The Senate enjoyed great prestige and exerted great
influence over the Roman Republic.
There was also the Centuriate Assembly which consisted of all citizens who
performed their military duties. The work of the Assembly was to choose two
consuls and other government officials and to vote on bills presented to it by
the Consuls and the Senate. The two consuls were elected for one year terms
by the Assembly. They shared the power formerly enjoyed by the monarch.
Their work was to act as executives for the Republic, draw bills for the
assembly to vote on, interpret and execute laws and to control military forces.
The Senate consisted of all former consuls and any man appointed to the
Senate by a consul. The work of the Senate was to direct foreign affairs, to
control the tax system and to reject or accept any bill passed by the Assembly.
Since the Senate influenced the Assembly’s selection of consuls, it was the
most powerful of the three organs.
As a result of this political set up in Rome, the Republic continued to extend
its borders in all directions. Even though Rome was conquering most parts of
the world, it was having serious internal problems. The gap between the rich
men and the poor men continued to widen. The struggle between the poor
and the aristocrats continued from about 140 BC to 31 BC, and each side had
its heroes.
One of the first attempts to improve the conditions of the lower groups was
made by two Tribunes, the brothers Tiberius and Gaius Grachus (the
Gracchi). This effort was to cost them their lives. Tiberius tried to limit the
size of farms and estates so that no one person could own great amount of
land. He hoped this could prevent the small farmer from loosing his property.
Tiberius action angered the Senate when he used unconstitutional means to
pass laws and remain in office as a Tribune. In 133 B.C, the senators killed
him. Gaius, who became Tribune ten years after his brother Tiberius,
suggested that the state should sell grains to the poor at very low prices. He
also proposed that colonies be used as places of settlement for unemployed
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Romans. Gaius offended the Senate by all these reforms and the Senate
ordered Gaius’ servant to kill him.
6.3.3 THE CRISIS AND COLLAPSE OF THE REPUBLIC
The death of Gracchi did not end the problems in Rome. When these
problems persisted, the Romans turned to a strong military hero for
leadership. To be specific, they turned to Marius (157-86 BC) a military
General, elected as consul in 108 B.C. He was made the new leader in Rome.
The Senate did not support Marius because of his military reforms which led
to the establishment of professional soldiers in Rome. The Senate decided to
support another military commander, Sulla. This led to a battle between
Marius forces and Sulla’s forces. At the end Sulla’s forces defeated Marius
forces.
Sulla returned political power to the Senate and the Senate once more
controlled the affairs of the Romans. Thenceforth, military strength, not
representative government would decide who would rule Rome.
THE FIST TRIUMVIRATE
Between 60 B.C and 50 BC, the political affairs of Rome were dominated by
three Roman politicians namely Pompey, Caesar and Crassus. Pompey’s
political career started at home while Julius Caesar (100-44 BC) sought
additional popularity abroad.
In 50 B.C, Julius Caesar was made the Governor of Gaul (modern France). In
the next eight years, Caesar’s soldiers were able to bring Gaul under Roman
control. He invaded Britain but soon withdrew to Gaul.
As an ambitions man, Caesar wanted people at home to know about his
military exploits. In this regard, he wrote a book in which he described how he
conquered Gaul invaded Britain. This book was circulated in Rome. But even
then, Caesar was not satisfied. In actual sense, he wanted to become the ruler
of the Roman Empire.
Pompey became disturbed because of Caesar’s ambition to take over the
government. Since the death of Crassus, Pompey had been the only consul
and the leading figure in Rome. He had won the support of the Senate.
When both Pompey and the Senate learned that Julius Caesar was planning to
become the ruler of Rome, they warned him not to come with his troops to
Italy. In 49 B.C, Caesar led his entire troops to Rubicon, a small river that
separated Gaul from Italy. When he reached Rubicon, he had to take a
decision. Should he cross the river with his troops and risk a war with Pompey
or return to Rome alone and give up all his political ambitions? After much
thought, he finally decided to cross the Rubicon with his troops and headed
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for Italy. Pompey fearing Caesar’s popularity with the people of Rome, he fled
to Greece. It was at Greece that Pompey’s troops were defeated. Pompey
escaped but was finally killed in Egypt. With the death of Pompey, Julius
Caesar became the undisputed ruler of Rome in 45 B.C. He was granted many
of the important powers of government.
Although the Roman Republic continued to exist, the Senate and other
government officials lost most of their powers. Caesar soon became a dictator
for life. As a leader of the Roman Republic, Caesar was responsible for many
policies and programmes in Rome. He removed corrupt governors from
office and even extended the citizenship privileges to many people in the
provinces. He developed colonies that could serve as farming settlements for
the unemployed. He started programmes of public works so that there would
be additional jobs for the unemployed. He tried to limit the number of slaves
who could work on estates, in order to provide jobs for free farmers. He
distributed land to the poor and so on.
Julius Caesar’s excellent administrative policies and fairness were hailed by
many Romans. Nevertheless, there were others who hated him for removing
Pompey from power and for acting like an absolute monarch. In fact, some
senators were afraid that Caesar would abolish the Republic completely and
make himself the king. These opponents of Julius Caesar planned to remove
him from power.
Thus, on 15 March, 44 BC, a group of conspirators, led by Cassius and Brutus,
surrounded Caesar in the Senate. Accordingly, they pulled his robe from his
neck and with daggers in their hands; they stabbed Julius Caesar 23 times.
Thus, the adventurer, conqueror, statesman and seasoned administrator was
murdered before he could put in place his programmes and policies he had
designed for the Roman people. Before he died, he remarked, “I have lived
enough … for fame”.
After the death of Caesar, three men allied themselves in a triumvirate to
oppose the treacherous Senatorial group led by Brutus and Cassius. These
men were Anthony, Lepidus. In 42B.C, the triumvirate defeated Brutus and
Cassius, both of whom committed suicide. During the next six years Lepidus
was pushed out of power while Anthony assumed control of the eastern part
of the Roman Empire’s possession and Octarvius ruled over the western part.
Octarius (Octarian) later on bestowed upon himself the title Augustus*.
Anthony, while in Egypt fell in love with Queen Cleopatra. Cleopatra was a
beautiful queen of Egypt who had a pleasant voice. She used a thousand kinds
of flattery to win Anthony to her side. Cleopatra and Anthony therefore
planned to cut off the eastern part of the Roman Empire and rule it together.
When Octavia heard about this plan, he stopped them. In the battle which
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took place in 31 B.C, Cleopatra and Anthony’s forces were defeated by
Octavian’s forces. After their defeat, Anthony and Cleoptra committed
suicide. Octavian became sole ruler of the whole Roman empire.
6.3.4 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE PRINCIPATE
Octavian’s victory over Anthony in 31 B.C. brought to an end the upheavals,
disturbances and incessant bloodshed which had prevailed in Rome since the
Gracchan era. At long last there were no popular Generals to compete for
supremacy and the all soldiers acknowledged the command of Octavian.
The Roman world was profoundly grateful to Octavian for restoring peace
and tranquility, and public opinion seems to have been unanimous in calling
upon him to remain at the head of the army. There was, however, a
constitutional problem to be solved. Romans hated arbitrary power or
autocracy, as evidenced by the expulsion of Tarquim, the proud one and the
assassination of Julius Caesar. Therefore, though they wanted Octavian to
remain at the head of the army, they desired the return of the rule of law,
which in the Roman mind was inextricably intertwined with the Republic. In
other words, the Romans desired a compromise, whereby Octavian could
exercise his military supremacy within the framework of constitutional rule.
In January 27 B.C., Octavian grappled with this constitutional problem. He
appeared in the Senate, renounced all powers and provinces and placed them
at the free disposal of the Senate and people of Rome. The Romans protested
over Octavian’s action. Even then, the Senate and Octavian proceeded to
make arrangements for the future administration of the empire. In accordance
with this arrangement, which has been called the first settlement, Octavian
received a large province comprising Spain, Gaul and Syria for a period of ten
years. The Senate took over the administration of the rest of the provinces.
Octavian as first man in the state now called Augustus (revered rule) had
himself also named princes. But his most significant title was imperator meaning
victorious general or commander. In-chief of the armies for life.
However, it soon became clear that the first settlement was unsatisfactory.
Augustus realizing the need for modification of the previous arrangement,
abdicated the consulship in July 23 B.C. and a new arrangement called the second
settlement, was affected. In this arrangement, Augustus was granted more powers. He
now controlled the Governors of senatorial provinces. He also gave the right to
control the troops of the Roman Empire. He was now to present bills before
assemblies and to exercise the right of veto and arrest. In 12 B.C. Augustus became
the chief pontiff, while in 2 BC he received the title of Pater Patriae or Father of the
Nation.
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6.4
UNIT: 2
SUMMARY
We have seen how the Romans built their own empire. The process was slow
as compared with dazzling imperialistic careers of Persia and Macedonia, but it
was far more lasting. The secret of Rome’s triumphant story is ground in her
grasp of political realities.
6.4
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1.
2.
6.5
Give a brief account of Octarian (later) Augustus constitutional
settlement.
Discuss the importance of the career of Tiberius Gracchus?
FURTHER READINGS
Africa, T.W, Rome of the Caesars (New York: Wiley, 1965)
Michael Grant, The World of Rome (New York: Mentor, 1960).
N. Lewis and M. Reinhold, Roman Civilization (New York: Harper, 1955).
Augustus* (for more details, see B. Lyon H.H Rowene, & T. S. Hamerow A
History of the Western World Chicago: Rand M’Nally & Co. 1969, pp. 6185).
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TOPIC 7
TABLE OF CONTENTS
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TOPIC: THE RISE OF CHRISTIAN EUROPE
7.1
INTRODUCTION
UNIT: 2
From the collapse of the Roman Empire to the discovery of the new world
several historical events took place. Some of these historical events include
Christian crusades, wars between the Popes and the emperors, and so on. In
this topic we are going to learn about Christian Europe and how nations came
into being in Europe. The men behind these historical events will also be
discussed in this topic.
7.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of the discussion the students should be able to know:
i.
how Christian European nations came into being
ii.
understand the effect of the growth of these nations on their
citizens.
7.3
IN – TEXT
7.3.1 BACKGROUND TO THE RISE OF CHRISTIAN EUROPE
After the split in the Roman Empire and the collapse of the Western half of it,
Europe was thrown into a period of confusion and disorder. The so-called
barbarians attacked various parts of the empire and destroyed them. In the
ruins of these Western Roman Empire provinces rose Frank land (later on
France). First, the new empire started under Clovis, leader of the Franks. He
drove out the Goths from Gaul. With his followers he settled in what is now
Northern France. At the time he drove out the Goths, Clovis was not yet a
Christian but his wife Clotilda was already a Christian. In 496, Clovis vowed
that if the Christian God would help him to win a certain battle, he would
become a Christian. As would be expected, he won the battle and he became a
Christian. However, Clovis died in Paris in 511 A.D.
The other great figure in France was Charlemagne (Charles the Great). He
fought and won many battles over his enemies. In the process, he extended
Fankland which included modern France, Switzerland, Belgium, Holland, and
parts of Italy and Germany. The intention of Charlemagne was to revive the
western half of the old Roman Empire.
Charlemague realized that he can not succeed in this task without the support
of the Pope or Papal, head of the Roman Church. When Pope Leo III was
driven out of Rome, it was Charles who helped him to get back to his throne.
As a reward, the Pope, on Christians day 800, placed a crown on Charles’ head
and proclaimed him Emperor. The Church and the Pope thus became equal
partners. In order words, the church took care of the souls of the people while
the Emperor took care of the everyday needs of their bodies and gave them
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protection (security cover). The Empire became known as the Holy Roman
Empire. Charlemague died in 814. France, Italy and Germany became
separated once more and the Norseman descended in Europe, killing the
people and carrying off everything they could find. Even then, the
missionaries continued to preach the gospel and were sent to various places.
For example, St. Patrick went to Ireland in 450. St Columba and St. Augustine
went to England in 596 and from England, St. Boniface went to Germany.
7.3.2 THE GROWTH OF CHRISTIAN EUROPEAN NATIONS
As it is has been mentioned earlier the Franks, the Germans, the Norsemen
and the Anglo-Saxons were not nations in the time sense of that concept.
These groups were mere tribes that remained together as long as they had
powerful leaders. The first step towards building a nation state to have a
powerful leader. In England this kind of leader was found in William, Duke of
Normandy, who conquered England in 1066. Under him, the various peoples
of England, Danes, Saxons and Normans, were united under one rule. The
powers of the nobles were drastically reduced. King Henry II made one body
of laws for the whole country and in the year 1265 the National Assembly,
which is now known as parliament, was started.
As for France, although it had kings from 987, the people of the country did
not think of themselves as one nation until the 14 th and 15th centuries. The
one person who did more than anyone to stir up national feeling in France
was not a prince or king but a little girl called Joan of Arch.
The Netherlands became a nation under William the Silent when the thirty
years war ended in 1648, while the Italian nation and a United Germany did
not come into existence until quite recently.
7.4
SUMMARY
We have pointed out in this study that towards the later part of the Middle
Ages, people in Western Roman Empire began to join into nations. We said
that the English nation came into being under a Norman king. The French
had kings from 987 but it was Joan of Arch who first aroused their national
feelings. The last polities to become nations were Italy and Germany. They
became nations only recently.
7.5
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1.
2.
What part did the church play in keeping the torch of European
civilization burning?
Find out all you can about the story of Joan of Arch.
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7.6
UNIT: 2
FURTHER READINGS
H.R Loyn, Anglo-Saxon England and the Norman Conquests (New York:
St. Martin’s Press, 1963).
P.H. Sawyer, The Age if the Viking (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1962.
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TOPIC 8
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
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FEUDALISM AND THE MIDDLE AGES
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8.0
TOPIC: FEUDALISM AND THE MIDDLE AGES
8.1
INTRODUCTION
UNIT: 2
This topic discusses feudalism and the Middle Ages. Particular attention is
paid to the origin of feudalism and the concept of Middle Ages. The major
events which took place during the Middle Ages will be discussed under this
topic.
8.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of the topic students should be able to; and
i.
understand the meanings of feudalism and Middle Ages.
ii.
to explain major events which took place during the Middle Ages.
8.3
IN- TEXT
8.3.1 FEUDALISM
Between 800 and 1200 AD, there grew up a system by which men agreed to
serve powerful lords and barons in return for protection. This system was
known as feudalism. The system came into being, as indicated earlier on, as a
result of the confusion and disorder which broke out again in Europe after
the death of Charlemagne in 814. The kings of France, Germany and Italy
took various steps to safeguard the lives and property of ordinary people in
their societies, by asking powerful neighbours to protect them. The powerful
neighbours in turn placed themselves under still more powerful lords, barons
and bishops. The barons owed some sort of loyalty to the kings. This led to
the growth of pyramids of loyalties.
For defence purposes, these so-called nobles or barons built great castles of
stones surrounded by water. These castles could only be reached by
drawbridges. In the process, they became more and more powerful even than
the kings, their overlords. The kings could not sometimes control them.
The Feudalist age came to an end as a result of the rise of nations (which we
have already discussed in topic seven), the invention of gun-powder and
cannons, which made castles less safe and, finally the payment of money
instead of services.
8.3.2 THE MIDDLE AGES
The period 500 – 1500 AD, is known in history as the Middle Ages. The
Middle Ages can be divided into six periods. These are the Dark Ages, the
centuries of the crusaders, the age of the wars between Popes and Emperors,
the age of the Growth of Nations, Renaissance and Reformation and the age
of discovery. Since some of these topics have either been discussed in the
proceeding or have been discussed previously under separate topics, there is
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UNIT: 2
no need to repeat some of these topics here. However, some of the sub-topics
need to be discussed.
The Dark Ages:
The Dark ages were so called because after the split in
the Roman Empire and the fall of the Western part of it, Europe was
drown into a period of confusion and disorder. As indicated elsewhere,
the barbarians attacked various parts of the Roman province and
destroyed them. Because of the destruction of these Roman provinces
and the confusion that later followed, made historians to call the period
as the Dark ages.
8.4
SUMMARY
The Middle Ages were the years from 500AD to 1500AD. These dates mark
the fall of the Roman Empire and the beginnings of the modern world. An
important feature of the Middle Ages was the growth of the feudal system.
The feudal system came to an end when money payment was introduced
instead of service, when gun-power was invented to control the power of the
nobles and when the peoples of Europe began to group themselves together
as nations.
8.5
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1.
2.
3.
8.6
What do you understand by the term “Middle Ages”?
Account for the emergence and development of the feudal system.
How did the feudal system finally collapse?
FURTHER READING
Carl, Medieval Feudalism (Great Britain: Seal Books, 1956).
Painter, A History of Middle Ages, 284 – 1500 (Knopf, 1933).
R. Winston, Charlemagne: From the Hammer to the Cross (Bobbs Meril, 1952).
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TOPIC 9
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
9.0
TOPIC:
THE VOYAGES OF EXPLORATION
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9.0
TOPIC: THE VOYAGES OF EXPLORATION
9.1
INTRODUCTION
UNIT: 2
The renaissance had awakened a new interest in the world. It was, however,
the fall of Constantinople that made it necessary for explorers to find sea
routes to the Spice Islands. This topic examines the reasons for the voyages of
exploration. In particular, the men that are connected with sea and land
explorations are discussed under the topic.
9.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this study, students should be able to:
i.
know the reasons behind the desire to discover new lands; and
ii.
to appreciate the results of discovering new lands.
9.3
IN – TEXT
9.3.1 REASONS FOR VOYAGES
When we talk of discovery, we mean finding out for the first time, about
things which already exist. Indeed, the search for knowledge during the
renaissance period led men to take a more active interest in their surroundings.
Needless to say, men were no longer willing to believe anything without
questioning it. In the 13th century some men had traveled overland to China
and brought back news on strange lands and peoples. Among these travelers
were John de Carpini, a Franciscan Friar, who was sent by the Pope to
Mongolia on a mission to the Grand Khan. William of Rubrouck made his
own journey to Karakoram. On his part, Marco Polo went to China and came
back through Japan, Burma, India and the Persian Galf. His reports on these
places aroused great interest in Europe. The merchants in Europe were
especially anxious to trade with the Spice lands of which he brought back
reports. It should be noted that invention of the mariner’s compass for finding
direction and of other aids for sailing encouraged men to venture into the
unknown seas.
As already noted, with the fall of Constantinople in 1453, the inland trade
routes to China and India fell into the hands of the Turks, who made it very
difficult for European traders to trade with the East. In particular, the Turks
put high taxes on the goods passing through each country. By the time these
goods reached Europe, they were so expensive that only the richest people
could buy them. In this regard, many people in Europe began to dream of a
sea route to the East.
But there are many other reasons which made people in Europe to explore
new lands: In the first place, many people in Europe wanted to know more
about the interior of Africa. They wanted to see the ancient and powerful
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empire which they believed existed in the heart of the continent. Secondly,
they wanted to spread the gospel of Jesus Christ to the people of Africa and
elsewhere. Finally, they under took the voyages for scientific reason.
9.3.2 GREAT SEA EXPLORERS
One of the great sea explorers was prince Henry of Portugal. He was born in
1394 in Lisbon to King John I of Portugal. Although he was not a sailor, he
was interested in navigation. Because of his interest in Navigation, he was
called Prince Henry “The Navigator”. The first success of this prince came in
1434 when Gil Eanes, one of his captains passed Cape Bojador. Before that,
people believed any sailor who sailed beyond this cape was immediately eaten
by monsters. There were many voyages made for the Prince before his death
in 1460. By that year, Portuguese explorers had reached the coast of present
day Sierra Leone, in West Africa.
Another explorer of note is Bartholomew Diaz. He was the one who
discovered the south cape without knowing it. He only realized it on his return
journey. He called it the cape of storms. But when he returned to Portugal, the
king called it, the “Cape of Good Hope”.
The next explorer is Vasco da Gama. In July 1497, he set out in three- ships
San Gabriel, San Rafaell and Berrio. The mission of Vasco da Gama was to
sail around Africa and to find a sea route to India. After passing Cape Verde,
he sailed westwards in order to avoid the belt of calm winds. He then came
eastwards and saw land just north of the Cape of Good Hope. He sailed
around the Cape and spent Christmas at a place which he called Natal. He
reached Mozambique in March 1498. He went to Malindi, north of
Mozambique, where he found a Gujerate pilot who took him across the
Indian Ocean. He stayed in India for three months and returned to Portugal
with loads of Spice in 1499. Before then, he had lost three of his men to
diseases. Even then, he had succeeded in establishing a sea route to India and
the Far East.
The man who is associated with the new world is Christopher Columbus, a
sailor from Italy. He was born in Genoa in 1451. He went to Portugal to see if
he could get anyone or any government to sponsor him to explore the
possibility of sailing to the Far East westward. But he could not get any
sponsorship. However, in August 1492, Queen Isabella of Spain gave three
ships, the Santa Maria, the Pinta and the Nina and he sailed to the unknown
west. On October 12, 1492, he and his men found Cuba and His Paniola
(Haiti). He mistook these Islands for India and he named them West Indies.
This mistake has remained up to this day. He discovered several other places,
including Jamaica. Even then, he did not reach Japan and China. Many other
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voyages were undertaken
circumnavigated the world.
9.4
by
different
explorers.
UNIT: 2
Some
of
them
SUMMARY
We have seen how men tried to explore new lands for scientific and economic
reasons. One of the most important men connected with the voyages of
exploration was Prince Henry the Navigator. He sent out his captains to
explore the coasts of West Africa. He was later on followed by other explorers
who discovered India, Japan China and the New World. Today, the world has
become a global village as the result of these discoveries.
9.5
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1.
2.
9.6
Write a brief account of the life and work of Prince Henry the
Navigator.
What were the results of the discovering of new lands on the other side
of the Atlantic Ocean?
FURTHER READING
B. Pennose, Travel and Discovery in the Renaissance (Harvan) University Press,
1955).
P. Herrmann, The Great Age of Discovery (Arper, 1958).
E. Prestage, The Portuguese Pioneers (Black, 1933).
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TOPIC 10
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
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RENAISSANCE, REFORMATION AND
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TOPIC: RENAISSANCE, REFORMATION AND COUNTER
REFORMATION
10.1
INTRODUCTION
UNIT: 2
In the Middle Ages there was a great interest in scholarship in Europe. This
great awakening was known as Renaissance or Rebirth. The movement began
in the 13th century and reached its peak during the 15th and 16th centuries.
However, as a result of this awakening in the area of learning, men began to
question some religious beliefs and practices. The attempt by some men to
question religious beliefs and practices, led to various movements which
culminated into the reformation. Those who opposed the reform came up
with counter attacks. This counter attacks whether outside or inside the
church were also known as Counter- Reformation. This is what this topic is all
about.
10.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of the study, the students should be able to:
i.
know the reason why there was a great awakening in scholarship in the
societies of the west.
ii.
the effects of Reformation and Counter – Reformation on the papacy.
10.3 IN – TEXT
10.3.1 RENAISSANCE
In our introduction, we have already defined the term, renaissance and the
period within which this awakening in scholarship took place. What remains
to be done is to look at the names of the people that are associated with this
revival of knowledge.
As pointed out earlier, renaissance began in the 13th century and reached its
height during the 15th and 16th centuries. The men that are associated with this
revival of knowledge include Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio, John Wycliff and so
on.
Indeed, Dante wrote a long poem known as the Divine comedy. In this poem,
he emphasized the need to return old to system of learning especially those of
the Greeks and the Romans. There was another writer known as Bacon. He
was one of the greatest thinkers of the Middle Ages. To be specific, he
foretold the days when man would be able to make flying machines,
suspension bridges and land carriages that would moved by some powers
other than horses. Indeed few decades after, Bacon predictions came to pass.
The idea of new learnings soon spread to other parts of the world. The fall of
Constantinople actually helped in the spread of the new learning. When
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Constantinople fell, scholars who made the city their home escaped with as
many of their books as many as they could carry. These scholars went all over
Europe, particularly Italy. In their new homes they taught Latin and Greek.
This led to great revival of learning. In particular, Greek literature, Greek
scripture, philosophy and ideas stirred the minds of Europe. Consequently,
universities, colleges and so on, sprang up all over in Europe. In addition to
private libraries, men began to know the secret of nature. On the other hand,
painters and sculptors were busing creating wonderful things on canvas and in
stones. In particular, the study of the secrets of nature led to many advances in
the field of science.
10.3.2 REFORMATION
As stated earlier, one of the most important results of the new learning was
that men began to question some religious beliefs and practices. Through
various researches and studies people came to find out that the church which
had grown up, had also become corrupt. People like Martin Luther who
started the Reformation Movement attacked the church on the rights and
privileges of the clergy. Martin Luther accused the Popes for controlling a
number of Bishoprics which they never visited but from which they collected
annual dues. But before Martin Luther, John Colet and Desiderius Erasmus
had earlier on pointed out the bad practices of the church. However, these
men were very peaceful in their attacks on the church. Martin Luther was
more determined and focused than these two men.
He continued to preach against some of the church traditions and practices.
He wrote several pamphlets in which he attacked the Pope and the clergy.
Martin Luther, who was in 1483 at Eisleben in the province of Saxony in
Germany was summoned by the Pope for a meeting in Italy, but he refused.
The Pope then ordered him to burn his books and to deny all the charges he
had levied against the church. Martin, Luther refused to comply.
In 1521, Martin Luther was called to a Council in the German town of Worms
on the River Rhine. He went and stood firm in defence of his writings.
Among other things, he told the Council; “Here I Stand. I can do no other.
God help men, Amen”. He left Rhine in relative peace. Few weeks later,
Martin Luther was excommunicated from the church. His followers became
known as protestants.
Martin Luther was not the only one who protested against some of the
practices of the Roman Catholic Church; people like John Calvin, Ulrich
Zwingli, Henry VIII, king of England, also did. The man who carried the
reformation to Scotland was John Knox (1505-1572). He was much
influenced by the teachings of John Calvin. He founded a church which there
was no head, but was governed by elders or presbyters. It should be noted that
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the Reformation was not only carried out in the church but also in the area of
politics.
10.3.3 COUNTER – REFORMATION
The church did not go to sleep when it was attacked by Martin Luther and his
colleagues. The Pope decided to bring about church reforms from within.
This attempt at reformation within the church was known as CounterReformation. The first step towards a Counter-Reformation was the council
which the Pope called at Treat in 1545. At this council meeting, the officials of
the church decided that some of the so-called bad practices which Martin
Luther and others were accusing them of should be stopped. The church also
took care in choosing officials to run the affairs of the church. These reforms
however, did not satisfy the yearnings of the people. The church therefore did
little or nothing to stop the split that was staring it in the face.
Nevertheless, those within the church who were committed to CounterReformation founded the Society of Jesus. The Society of Jesus was founded by a
Spanish Soldier, Ignatius Loyola. The members of the Society of Jesus, who were
Jesuits, took vows of chastity, obedience and poverty. They were bound to go
all parts of the world to teach and to bring people back to Jesus. They became
successful teachers in many parts of the world.
The Counter Reformation, however, led to religious wars in some parts of
Europe. At this period, Netherlands were under the rule of Spain. The
Spanish king, Charles V, was a devoted Catholic. When the Northern
provinces of the Netherlands became protestant, it became a problem. Under
Prince Charles V, the Protestants were left alone, but when his son, Philip II
took over the leadership of the country, he decided to flush out the
Protestants in the Northern provinces of the Netherlands. As world be
expected, it led to wars. In the process, many Protestants fled from the
Netherlands and those who remained were led by Prince William of Orange.
Even then, there are series of long and bitter wars which followed. Prince
William died during the course of the wars in 1584. The wars continued until
the protestant provinces won the war and became independent of the rest of
the Netherlands. They became known as Holland. The southern provinces
became Belgium. Belgium is still largely Catholic.
Similar wars broke out in Germany in 1618 and lasted until 1648. The war
was known as The Thirty years’ war. During the wars, thousands of villages
were destroyed as the Catholic South tried to conquer the Protestant North.
However, at the Peace of West Phalia, it was agreed that each German state
should choose its own religion either to remain Catholic or become
Protestant.
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In France, there was also the problem between the Catholics and the
Protestants. When Henry III died in 1589, he was succeeded by Henry IV.
The Catholics refused to recognize Henry IV as their new political leader
because of his support for the Protestants. This led to fighting between the
king and the Catholics. Since Paris, the Capital of France, was in the hands of
the Catholics, they refused to allow the king to enter the city. Knowing fully
well the danger of not staying in his capital city, King Henry IV agreed to
become a Catholic. Even though Henry IV had become Catholic, he did allow
other religions to operate in his kingdom. As would be expected, the
Protestants never forgave him for deserting protestant faith.
10.4
SUMMARY
In this topic, we have learnt that the Renaissance started in the 13 th century
and reached its peak in the 15th and 16th centuries. It is said that the attempt by
renaissance scholars to study the secret of nature led to advances in the field
of science. However, one of the results of the new learning was that men
began to question some religious beliefs and practices. This led to reformation
in both religious and political fields. The attempt by the Catholic to make
some changes from within became known as Counter Reformation. The
Counter Reformation, however, led to outbreak of wars between the Catholics
and Protestants in Netherlands, Germany and France. The religious wars
fought in France ended with King Henry abandoning his protestant faith and
becoming a Catholic. Finally, it was stated that the reformation spread very
quickly and widely as a result of printing, which was developed during the
renaissance period.
10.5
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1.
2.
10.6
What is meant by renaissance? Explain how it started.
What were the bad practices that the church did the reformers wanted
to remove?
FURTHER READINGS
J. Burkhart, The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, 2 Vols.
W.K Ferguson, Europe in Transition 1300-1520 (Houghton: Miffin 1962).
W.L Langer, Cambridge Medieval History, Vols. VII and VIII (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1970).
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SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES
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TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
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