Education Concepts
Adult Education: Andragogy vs
Pedagogy
Cathy Carter-Snell, RN MN
Critical Solutions, Calgary Alberta Canada
http://www.criticalsolutions.ca
April 5, 2005
When we teach adults, we often use the same techniques as
we might for children or teens. This is referred to as
"pedagogy". It may be argued that pedagogical methods are
reasonable since adults have come through the school system
with this method of teaching. On the other hand, it is also
reasonable to assume that adults have life experiences which
may impact their learning and different issues. Adult
education is referred to as "andragogy". In order to explore
the sides of the coin, it is important to look at the origins and
assumptions of both pedagogy and andragogy then to
compare them.
A. Pedagogy
Depending on the sources used, the term pedagogy is said to
originate from either the Greek term “paidagogos” for slave
who took child to school/lead child (“paides”), or from the
old French term “pedagogie” , referring to teaching of
children. Either way, the terms refer to the teaching or
leading of children in Britain and North America (compared
to Europe in which it refers simply to the science of
education).. The primary assumption of pedagogy is that the
learner is "blank slate", with no prior learning or experiences,
who can be molded. Information is thought to be transferred
passively with the child as an empty vessel to be filled.
Assumptions of pedagogy therefore include:
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Learner is submissive
Teacher is responsible for directing learning, making
educational decisions
Learners have little experience to build on in learning
Motivation for learning is extrinsic to the learner (e.g
parents, fear of failure, competition)
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Learning is a function of acquiring specific content
and skills for the future (curricula subject centred)
There are a number of unintended consequences of these
assumptions. First of all the instruction is teacher-centred.
Beane (1997) argues that this results in avoidance,
dependency and competition on behalf of the student. In
avoidance, the student ceases to participate or does not
participate, or attends irregularly. If the learning is reliant on
the teacher, the learner may become dependent and seek
security by following instruction. Another possibility is the
development of a competitive style, in which the learner
focuses entirely on grades and may see classmates as
competitors.
B. Andragogy
The concept of andragogy may have originated as early as
with Socrates. He had a notion of needing citizens who could
think for themselves rather than deferring to authority. The
term "andragogy" was initially used in Germany in the
1800’s by Kapp in relation to factory workers. The study of
adultt learning began in 1928 with the work of Thorndike and
his associates. In 1968, Malcolm Knowles publicized the
term "andragogy" and it became more widespread in use. A
definition of andragogy is “an organized and sustained effort
to assist adults to learn in a way that enhances their capability
to function as self-directed learners” (Mezirow, 1981). The
term is now used primarily to refer to the art and science of
helping adults learn.
The assumptions of andragogy are that the adult learner is
seen as:
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an increasingly independent self-directed learner
someone with a rich reservoir of life experiences for
learning
someone whose learning needs are closely related to
their social roles (e.g. profession) and growth
Problem centred with a desire for immediate
application of learning, who learns best in the context
of a desired task
Internally rather than externally motivated
Knowles developed a number of principles of andragogy
which help to establish effective learning. These include:
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Active involvement of the learner in the learning
establishment of an effective, safe, comfortable
learning climate
involvement of learners in mutual planning of
relevant methods and content
Encouragement of learners to formulate their own
learning objectives
Encouraging learners to identify the resources and
strategies to achieve objectives
Supporting learners in achieving learning plans
Involving learners in evaluating their own learning to
develop critical reflection skills
acknowledging that learners have different learning
styles and will learn best if they can select from a
variety of modalities
recognizing that learning increases with practice
facilitating creativity in learning is best with selfevaluation methods, and least with evaluation by
others
A set of ethics of andragogy were developed by Missey
(1997), which include autonomy, nonmaleficence,
beneficence, justice and fidelity.
Autonomy
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principle - the right to decide how to live your life,
freedom of thought or choice
the learner needs to act responsibly
the teacher to ensure learner competence in decision
making
Nonmaleficence
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principle - not engaging in harmful activities
the learner is vulnerable if they are engaging in
multiple roles (e.g. job, school, children) and life
transitions
the teacher needs to recognize their issues and
vulnerabilities
Beneficence
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principle- the obligation to positively contribute to
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another's development
the learner is seen as being in Erikson’s stage of
"generativity vs stagnation" and may feel incompetent
and undervalued
the teacher's role is to empower the learner, to affirm
and celebrate age and experience
Justice
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principle-the need to promote fair treatment and fair
distribution of goods, services and rewards, which
must be impartial, equal and reciprocal
the learner may feel marginalized due to effects of
age and size, which may be affected by lighting, print
size, size of desks, child care needs and learning skills
the teacher must appreciate differences, and create
task forces/representation
Fidelity
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principle- keeping promises, being truthful, respectful
and loyal, while avoiding lying, misinformation,
deceit (which affect ability to make free choice)
the learner may have only limited time therefore
needs to ensure their time is well spent, and that
information is direct and pragmatic
the teacher needs to ensure learner has all the
information needed and that it is provided in a direct
manner, to advise the learner on career trends and a
better “fit” for learning where possible
C. Andragogy “Versus” Pedagogy?
So at what age are adult learning principles suited? It is not
uncommon for first year university or college students to be
dependent on the instructor for direction and seek
prescriptive methods of teaching. On the other hand, we have
all worked with children who have a variety of exposures and
experiences and are well suited to self-directed or reflective
learning. So which is appropriate? Are they separate concepts
or parts of the same concept?
In the mid-1970's Knowles developed a "continuum of
learning" in which learners progressively become more
independent with rich experiences. This is in contrast to
earlier work in which andragogy was "versus" pedagogy.
Where someone sits on the continuum is dependent on the
situation. For instance, if they have more experience in a
certain situation, they are capable of being more independent
and self-directed. In another situation, the same person could
have minimal exposure or experience or perhaps not see the
utility of the learning. In this situation they would be
dependent on more direction and instructor guidance.
Comenius, in the 17th century, described man’s life and
learning are of equal length - that learning is not a short term,
time limited event but lifelong. This notion of a continuum
would indicate that we learn our entire lives, as Comenius
would have argued, and that life experiences progressively
contribute to learning.
The age of the student is also a reflection of their generation
and generational experiences. For instance, the Generation X
cohort is currently in college and university. These are
children born between 1961 and 1981. Many were latchkey
kids and therefore somewhat independent and most are
computer literate. They have been described by Bale and
Dudney (2000) as expecting immediate gratification and
quick answers, with a desire to see value and relevance in
education, with college being a means to a job. They tend to
prefer multi-task work with high tech tools. This is in
contrast to educators who tend to be baby boomers, with a
tendency to more of a focus on process and a preference for
low tech methods of teaching.
It was shown in 1997 that at least 1/3 of college students >30
yrs (Howell, 2001). When studying post-RN students, a
number of barriers were found to reflection (Platzer et al,
2000). These barriers included: previous educational
experience; their expectations of teacher role; unclear
structure; a culture of practice/organization in which there is
a hierarchy or dominant members (increases vulnerability);
factors which affect memory (e.g. anxiety); hindsight bias;
and a lack of valuing of personal knowledge in construction
of expert knowledge. These students would all be somewhat
older than Generation X and have had primarily pedagogical
experiences. If they come in expecting to have content
delivered rather than having to seek it themselves or reflect,
it may adversely affect their satisfaction with the learning
experience.
There are also differences based on gender, grades, and
culture. In a survey of 374 college/university students, Bale
& Dudney (2000) noted that females had a greater preference
for active, participative learning and preferred to have their
learning environments adapted to their learning needs
compared to men. Students who were working also preferred
a more active learning environment especially if they were in
permanent jobs. A more pedagogical environment was
preferred by students in the study who had lower grade point
averages. They preferred to be more dependent on the teacher
for direction. Those in large schools also preferred more
lectures compared to small schools (regardless of public or
private school), and non-US citizens preferred a more
pedagogical form of education. Overall, Bale and Dudney
concluded that Generation X'ers were not completely ready
for andragogy. They tended to need the following:
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clear directions (e.g.- a comprehensive syllabus or
course memo)
communication of the relevance of the content (e.g. having industry guest speakers, internships, case
studies)
meaningful application of tools (realistic case studies,
simulation games, realistic technology)
a focus on developing student participation skills (e.g.
mini-cases, debates, group assignments)
D. Implications for Teaching
Andragogy is a more learner centred model than pedagogy.
Use of andragogical methods may be context dependent
(learner goals, material to be covered). Some key techniques
in moving to a more andragogical approach include the
following:
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learning environment - ensure students feel
supported, respected and accepted, anticipate and
accept different rates of learning and styles, use
positive reinforcement, demonstrate empathy,
recognize individual needs, foster atmosphere of
mutual inquiry between learner/teacher, use less
formal settings (e.g. circle) whenever possible
teaching methods -introduce new information
immediately prior to needing it, present info in
manner building mastery (go from the whole to the
parts and back to the whole), be clear in expectations
teaching role - teacher is model and expert, but needs
to act more as facilitator (use more questions and
draw on what learners know rather than just
delivering what teacher knows)
E. Remaining Questions
There is very little current research on andragogical
principles either in college/university or across the
continuum. Some examples of questions which remain to be
answered include:
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is all adult learning suited to be defined by the learner
rather than the teacher?
are there levels of andragogy in college - for instance
should more pedagogical methods be used for
freshman and more andragogical for seniors?
are professional practice and applied programs more
or less suited to adult learning than more academic or
research based programs (e.g. would students or
content make it different)?
are the principles of adult learning/andragogy realistic
in postsecondary education and settings, given time
and funding constraints?
It may be seen that pedagogy and andragogy recognize
different styles of teaching and learning. While these
questions remain, it can be said that it is important for the
teacher to know the capabilities and experiences of the
learner and ensure that they are facilitating growth. As
industry recognizes a need for lifelong learning we continue
to see more and more mature learners blending with young
learners and may have to adapt to a variety of needs and
styles. The impact will be improved methods of granting
credit for prior learning, learning contracts with students,
flexible methods of delivery of content, increased
participation of students in their own evaluation of learning
needs and achievement, and levelling of learning to faciliate
life-long learning.
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Relevant Websites
Clark, D. (2000). Edward Thorndike. Available at
http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/history/thorndike.html
Heimstra & Sisco, B. (1990) Moving from pedagogy to
andragogy. Available at http://wwwdistance.syr.edu/andraggy.html (retrieved April 4, 2005)
Rosenthal, (2001) Adult learning. Full text available at
http://www.worh.org/pdf_etc/fhpdf/educ.pdf (retrieved April
4, 2005)
http://www.criticalsolutions.ca/education/conceptsandragogy.htm
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© Critical Solutions, 2003 - Last Update - April 6, 2005