Practice Test – Geology 106, Chapter 17 from The Changing Earth
written and formatted by Joseph Wilkinson
1. According to Nicholas Steno, characteristics of different strata reflect changes in
_______________, _______________, _______________, and
_______________.
2. Top & Bottom Criteria such as _______________, _______________,
_______________, and _______________ are used to determine the
orientation of continental plates/igneous extrusive rocks/sediment beds (circle
correct answer).
3. The idea that granite originated from deep-seated, high-pressure molten materials
was first proposed by _______________.
4. List (in order) the steps involved in discovery by scientific method.
5. Describe the Law of Uniformitarianism and provide an example of its application.
6. Charles Lyell proposed that the rates of geologic processes (as well as the
processes themselves) are constant through the ages. This idea is known as a)
Uniformitarianism, b) Gradualism, c) the Principle of Original Horizontality, d) the
Principle of Original Lateral Continuity.
7. Name three types of yearly cycles that help geologists determine a material’s age.
_______________, _______________, and _______________.
8. Summarize James Hutton’s views about Earth’s tendency towards equilibrium.
9. The idea that fossils were organic and could be used to chronologically compare
rocks of similar age from different areas was first proposed by a) Charles Darwin,
b) Charles Lyell, c) Robert Hooke, d.) James Ussher, e) William Smith.
10. Leonardo da Vinci recognized that shells in found northern Italy, miles from any
existing ocean, represented ancient marine life. TRUE/FALSE
11. Who proposed the Principle of Original Horizontality, the Law of Superposition,
and the Principle of Lateral Continuity? Define all three principles.
12. _______________ postulated that the Earth’s rocks were precipitated in an
ancient ocean. This idea became known as a) Gradualism, b) Uniformitarianism, c)
Neptunism, or d) Rastafarianism.
13. Catastrophism, the idea that all of the Earth’s species were created at one time,
but that some were then eliminated in series of great floods, was first proposed by
_______________. The theory was modified by _______________ to include
the idea that new species (unrelated to each other) were created between and
after extinctions. The new theory was called “_________________________”.
14. Define the Law of Cross-Cutting Relationships.
15. Europe originated volcanically, as proposed by Jean Etienne Guettard.
TRUE/FALSE
16. What did Louis Agassiz determine from his study of the European Alps?
17. Principles of Geology, written by _______________, borrowed from the work of
_______________ and _______________.
18. What is an unconformable contact?
19. _______________ suggested that the same species of fossils are found in the
same strata, even at great distances, and that each stratum contains organized
fossils particular to itself. This idea is now known as the Principle of
_______________.
20. What is an index fossil? What criteria must a fossil meet in order to be
considered an index fossil?
21. Two men supported James Hutton’s conclusions about Earth processes:
_______________, by experimenting with the effects of high heat on lime, sand,
and basalt; and _______________, by writing and publishing a book called
_______________.
22. The two laws most used when determining the relative age of materials are the Law
of _______________ and the Law of _______________.
23. Nicholas Steno recognized that fossils formed within the layers in which they are
found. TRUE/FALSE
24. Define the word unconformity as it is used in modern geology. Describe three
types of unconformities. Be complete.
25. A Frenchman named _______________ created a map of similar minerals across
the English Channel, from France to England.
26. The idea that the Earth is essentially a convection engine, and that mountains were
built by heat and subsequent uplift, was first proposed by _______________.
27. Determine the age of a granite sample with 3.75 units of K40 and 26.25 units of
Ar40. Show all work.
ANSWERS:
1. temperature, currents, wind, and storms.
2. ripple marks, graded bedding, raindrop imprints, mud cracks, and bivalve
orientation.
3. James Hutton.
4. Ask a question; Collect data (make observations); Form a hypothesis; Test the
hypothesis (if the test fails, re-hypothesize and test again until the hypothesis is
validated); Form a conclusion.
5. The Law of Uniformitarianism, proposed by James Hutton (often called the “Father
of Modern Geology”), states that geologic processes are, have always been , and will
always remain constant (“uniform”). Coal deposits in Antarctica provide an example
of this law’s application: we know that coal requires fresh water, temperate
climates, and massive amounts of plant material to form. Given the Law of
Uniformitarianism, we can deduce that at one point in its history Antarctica had a
temperate climate and an abundance of plant life. Thus those coal deposits and the
Law of Uniformitarianism help to support Plate Tectonic Theory.
6. B (Gradualism).
7. varves, tree rings, and growth rings in shells.
8. Hutton believed that Earth processes, like everything else, tended toward
equilibrium – but that, due to its dynamic nature, the planet would never reach a
completely static state.
9. C (Robert Hooke)
10. TRUE
11. The Principle of Original Horizontality states that sedimentary rocks were (are)
deposited in horizontal beds. The Principle of Superposition states that in any
undisturbed sequence of sediments, sedimentary rocks, or igneous extrusive rocks,
the youngest materials will be on top and the oldest materials will be on the bottom.
The Principle of Original Lateral Continuity states that deposition is continuous to
the extent of the depositional basin. All three principles were proposed by
Nicholas Steno in the seventeenth century.
12. Abraham Gottlob Wertner; C (Neptunism).
13. Georges Cuvier; Alcide d’Orbigny; “Catastrophism and Special Creations”.
14. The Law of Cross-Cutting Relationships states that any fold, fault, intrusion, or
erosion surface is younger than the materials folded, faulted, intruded, or eroded.
15. FALSE
16. Agassiz determined (a) that glaciers moved, and (b) that the continent of Europe
had once been completely covered in ice.
17. Charles Lyell; James Hutton and John Playfair.
18. An unconformable contact is an irregular layer between two strata characterized
by a lack of consistent sedimentation. These often indicate the presence of an
unconformity.
19. William Smith; Faunal Succession.
20. Sir James Hall; John Playfair; Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory.
21. An index fossil is a fossil used to correlate the geology of one area with that of
another in both time and materials. Index fossils must be widespread, abundant,
and geologically short-lived in order to be useful.
22. Superposition; Cross-Cutting Relationships.
23. TRUE
24. An unconformity is a gap in the geologic record which represents a time of erosion
or non-deposition. There are three types of unconformities: angular
unconformities, disconformities, and nonconformities. In an angular unconformity ,
layered rocks below the unconformity form an angle with layered rocks above. In a
disconformity, layered rocks above the unconformity exist parallel to layered rocks
above. In a nonconformity, crystalline (igneous or metamorphic) rocks exist below
the unconformity, and layered rocks exist above.
25. Jean Etienne Guettard.
26. James Hutton.
27. 3.9 billion years.