THINKING, LANGUAGE &
INTELLIGENCE
Cognition-mental activities involved in
acquiring, retaining, and using knowledge.
Thinking-manipulation of mental
representations of information in order to draw
conclusions.
We manipulate mental images (a mental
representation of objects/ events that are not
present) and concepts (a mental category of
objects or ideas based on shared properties).
Mental imagery is not just pictures in our heads,
it also includes other senses. We scan a mental
image in the same way, taking the same time it
would take us to scan a real image. We mentally
rotate images in order to solve problems. They
are memories of actual visual images, not
perfect replicas.
Concepts are categories we use to group
objects, events that have some characteristic in
common. They allow us to use a sort of
shorthand in solving problems, saving cognitive
effort. Categories are designed hierarchically.
We form concepts by learning the rules or
features that define the concept- formal
concept.
But many natural objects/ events are not as
clear-cut as formal concepts- natural concept.
They have fuzzy boundaries, leading to some
confusion, as not all things that fit, are clear
representations of the object. The prototype is
the most typical instance of a particular concept.
The more closely another object in the concept
matches the prototype, the more easily we can
define it as being in the concept.
We naturally categorize and create mental
images to impose order on all the varieties of
objects and experiences we encounter.
Problem solving- thinking directed toward
attaining a goal. There are clear steps in the
process: IDEAL:
1) Identify-the problem
2) Define-the problem
3) Explore-all possible solutions
4) Act-on a selected strategy
5) Look-back and evaluate your solution
We often use a process of trial and error to
explore solutions, mainly to eliminate those
which don’t work. It’s not very efficient, though.
We also use algorithms- a specific rule, method
that will always produce the correct solution.
Formulas are algorithms. The process may be
time-consuming, though.
Heuristics are general rules of thumb. They
reduce the possibilities, but may or may not
word. One technique is breaking the problem
into several subgoals that can be tackled one at a
time. (process of writing a term paper.) Another
is working backward from the desired goal.
(creating a budget.)
Insight is a common experience when facing a
problem – the sudden realization of how a
problem can be solved. (when you sleep on it) It
usually involves using already attained
knowledge in a novel way, so having a broad
basis of knowledge contributes to creativity.
Intuition-hunches, coming to a conclusion
without conscious awareness of the thought
process used. In the guiding stage you see a
pattern in the information, but it isn’t conscious.
Diagnostics require this. In the second stage, the
integrative stage, the pattern becomes
conscious, as in a hunch/ hypothesis. You
systematically try to confirm your hunch. An
intuitive hunch is a new idea that integrates new
information with existing knowledge. You will
be more accurate in areas you have a wide base
of knowledge.
Obstacles to Solving problems:
1) Functional fixedness- viewing objects
as functioning in only a single,
customary way. (brick)
2) Mental set- the tendency to persist in
solving problems with solutions that
worked in the past. They may streamline
problem-solving, but they may prevent
us from seeing better solutions.
Decision-Making Strategies
1) Single-Feature Model-basing your
decision on one single aspect of the
problem. OK with simple problems.
2) Additive Model- prioritizing all the
alternatives in terms of what is most
important to you. Rate each alternative
and decide accordingly. Gives you a
better chance of creating a solution that
satisfies you based on your values.
3) Elimination by Aspects Modeleliminating alternatives based on
important characteristics.
People often use both 2 and 3 at the same time. 2
narrows choices, and 3 chooses from the
shortlist.
Estimating Probabilities of Events
1) Availability heuristic- based on how
available a similar event is to our
memory. (the less accurate our memory
is, the less accurate our estimation is)
2) Representativeness heuristic-we
compare the upcoming event to how
similar its essential features are to our
prototype of the event. This fails if we
don’t consider common variations from
the prototype, or don’t know how many
prototypes exist.
Language- a system for combining symbols to
produce meaningful statements. Symbols may
be sounds, written words, or gestures. Language
is flexible because the associations between
sound and meaning are arbitrary, as such serve
varying environmental purposes as needed.
It’s not useful, though, if people don’t share the
meaning. (Foreign language sounds). It also
serves to displace the object talked about. So
you can talk about things not present, from the
past, in the future, dead or alive, abstract or
concrete.
Does language influence how you think?
1) It affects what we remember, so what
we can think about.
2) Nuances of words affect social
perceptions of others, events. PC
3) It subtly spreads gender bias. The
masculine pronoun used to include all
people, doesn’t.
4) The linguistic relativity hypothesis
says that differences in the language
cause differences in the thoughts of
speakers. Experts use more finely
distinctive words than lay people, which
indicates they have used thought
processes to influence the language
used. Opposite of the LRH.
Some languages do a more efficient job of
describing phenomena, leading us to
understand it more easily, at a younger age.
Can animals be taught to use language?
Yes, using symbols or American Sign Language.
They rarely get past the level of language usage
of a 3 year old child. They don’t have critical
parts of the brain that allow wide language use.
Intelligence- capacity to think rationally, act
purposefully, deal effectively with the
environment. The assessment of intellectual
capacity was defined by Binet with the
development of IQ tests in France. He used the
concept of mental age as he defined averagesnorms of intellectual attainments for children of
differing ages. When Binet came to Stanford U.
and worked with Terman they devised the
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale which
developed the intelligence quotient (IQ).
Terman also found that children with high IQs
(gifted children studied over time) were socially
well-adjusted, taller, stronger, healthier than the
average, high achieving in school.
As adults, they earned a high income, graduated
from college, earned advanced degrees. They
were productive overall. There was a group of
gifted people who did not achieve, though. They
were less healthy, had high rates of alcoholism,
3X more likely to be divorced. The successful
gifted showed differences in will power,
perseverance, and desire to excel. Personality
factors were responsible for the differences in
success. Intelligence alone isn’t enough to
guarantee success. It also requires motivation,
emotional maturity, commitment to goals,
creativity, and willingness to work hard.
Wechler redesigned the IQ test- the WAIS. It
gave scores on 11 subtests, measuring different
abilities. It could be used to assess learning
disabilities. It was easier to give and score.
Test construction- must be normed
(standardized) and defined as reliable and
valid. Good tests show subjects with the normal
curve of distribution.
Theories of intelligence
1) Spearman’s g factor- general
intelligence factor. IQ Score
2) Thurstone defined 7 primary mental
abilities- a pattern of abilities.
3) Gardner- 8 different multiple
intelligences, independent of each other.
4) Sternberg- triarchic theory of analytic,
creative, practical intelligences.
How do genetics and environment interact to
produce intelligence?
Kinship studies define how much heredity
contributes to intellect. Comparing a trait
between identical twins, fraternal twins, siblings,
strangers. It allows scientists to establish
heritability- variation of a trait due to heredity.
Inheritance is 50% responsible for intelligence.
But culture plays a big part in using intelligence,
emphasizing which aspects should be developed.
In US culture, using IQ tests, African-American
children score an average of 10 points lower
than whites. Asians score higher than whites by
middle school, even though in preschool years
there is no difference.
Environment does influence outcome. Poverty
particularly influences maximum development.
Expectations for a child shape outcomes. Why
“separate but equal” policies in US in 20th
century did not offer equal opportunities for
children of color.
IQ scores have been revamped to be culturefair since there have been charges that IQ tests
bias against minorities. But it is impossible to
erase all aspects of culture from a test, since
what we value in intelligence is defined by our
culture. Also different groups vary in test-taking
behavior, motivation, and previous experience
with test-taking. Stereotype threat is the
knowledge that you are not expected to do well
on certain tests. We live up to or down to
expectations that people have for us. Test
anxiety is a common form of this inhibition.
Creativity-cognitive processes that generate
useful, original, and novel ideas/ solutions. It is a
skill that can be enhanced with certain
techniques.
Choose the goal of creativity.
Reinforce creative behavior.
Engage in problem finding.
Acquire relevant knowledge.
Try different approaches.
Exert effort and expect setbacks.
What often frees people’s creative problemsolving is realizing any decision you make can
be overridden by another, more effective
decision. Very few decisions are final and
irrevocable.