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UNIT IV- ENVIRONMENT AND NATURAL RESOURCES IN GLOBAL POLITICS
Environment: An Increasing Political Concern
Environment became an increasing political concern because after rapid industrialization of
the world in 1960’s many environmental problems started. These problems were inherently
global in nature and their effects crossed National Boundaries. To control them strong
National and International laws were required.
Before we talk about how these environmental problems became part of “world politics” we
will first discuss some of these problems and how their effect was felt by the world
community.
I. Global Warming
Source: (stuffintheair.com)
The world today is witnessing an increase in temperatures due to increase in green house
gases in the atmosphere. Scientists have found that the Earth’s temperatures has increased
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by 0.6oc (1oF) during the 20th century. If the green house gases will continue to increase
further warming will take place, perhaps by up to 3.5oc (6.3oF) over the coming decades.
INTERESTING FACTS
A BLANKET OF GAS
Some of the gases in the atmosphere such as carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, behave
like glass in a green house. These gases are called green house gases. They let light and
heat energy pass through the atmosphere but they trap some of the heat that is radiated
back and stop it from leaving the earth’s atmosphere. This keeps our planet comfortable
warm at 15oCwithout green house gases the temperature of our planet would be around 18oC (0.4oF) which is too cold for most life system. This phenomenon is called green
house effect.
Effects of global warming are seen all over the world.
Firstly, large scale food and water shortage will have catastrophic effects on wildlife.
Secondly, Sea levels could rise between 7 and 23 inches by this century’s end. This could
cause flood in many South Sea Islands and swamps large part of South East Asia. For
example, if sea level will raise then Maldives in Indian Ocean which is made up of 1190
islands will be submerged under water. The state of Florida will be completely covered
with water. Netherland also faces a serious threat of flooding if sea level rises.
Thirdly, glaciers around the world will melt, due to which there will be shortage of food
and these glaciers are sources of water supply to many rivers. Glaciers in The Himalayas
and in the Tibet-Qinghai plateau are melting. Gangotri glacier provides water to Ganges
all the year around which in turn helps in the increase in food crops in northern India. If
this glacier will stop supplying water to river Ganges, then the river will turn into a
seasonal river, having water only during rainy season.
Practice: - worksheet no.1&4
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Source :( nccsdindia.org)
Polar bears will become extinct by the end of this century. They are very unlikely to
survive in the increased temperature.
SOURCE: (mairedubhtx.wordpress.com)
SOURCE: (mairedubhtx.wordpress.com)
Diseases like Malaria, West Nile Fever, Dengue fever and river blindness will spread to a
wider area. One third of living on land species living on land will be threatened by 2050.
Rain forests of Brazil and S.Africa will be affected because of high temperatures and less
rainfall. Strong hurricanes, droughts, heat waves, wild fires will become common place in
many parts of the world.
All these effects are global in nature as they will affect the entire World Community.
Therefore, need was felt to have International laws and participation of countries all over
the world.
INTERESTING FACTS
1. Arctic ice is rapidly disappearing and the region may have its first completely ice
free summer by 2040.
2. Coral reefs , which are highly sensitive to small changes in water temperature,
suffered the worst bleaching or die-off in response to stress- ever recorded in
1998 with some areas seeing bleach rate of 70%. Expert expect these sort of
3
events to increase in frequency and intensity in the next 50 years as sea
temperature rise.
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II. Ozone layer Depletion
Source: (oocities.org)
Ozone layer absorbs UVB (Ultra Violet Rays) from the sun. CFC (chlorofuoro carbons) is
the major cause of global warming. The loss of ozone allows more Ultra Violet lights to
pass through the atmosphere at a sufficient rate to warm the earth by 0.48oc.
Source: (earthsky.org)
(ucsusa.org)
Effect of ozone depletion can be seen in the Polar region. It has caused Permafrost to melt
which is releasing captious quantities of methane estimated at 100 times that of manmade
Co2releases. Ozone hole has been seen over Arctic, Tibet and Antarctica. The ozone hole
over Antarctica has grown so large as to reach southern parts of Australia, New Zealand,
Chile, Argentina and South Africa.
Environmentalists all over the world are concerned about skin cancer, cataracts, damage
to plants and reduction of plankton population in the ocean.
Practice: - worksheet no.2
INTERESTING FACTS
In 1994, the United Nations General Assembly voted to designate September
16 as “World’s Ozone Day” to commemorate the signing of the Montreal
Protocol.
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III. Pollution in the sea
Third environmental problem which concerns the world community is pollution in the
sea. Tankers wash their hold in the sea killing many sea birds. Sewage lines are opened
into the sea, radioactive waste is thrown into the sea causing sea pollution.
Source :( pollutionarticles.blogspot.com)
(news.nationalgeographic.com)
Effects of sea pollution can be seen in Gulf of Mexico which has become a dead zone due
to pollution. Mississippi which is the second largest river in America passes through 31
states before it reaches the Gulf of Mexico. People living near this river throw household
rubbish; fishermen throw litter out of their boats. The pollution increases due to oil spills
which occur when oil is transported from rigs to oil refineries. Discharge of fertilizers
from farms adds nitrates and phosphates into the Mississippi river. The nutrients allow
algae growth in the gulf. This algae blocks sunlight that marine life needs to survive. Fish
and other animals move away and those who cannot move away die. Thus, creating dead
zone there.
Source: (serc.carleton.edu)
Another effect which shook the world community was the fallout at Chernobyl in the
Soviet-Union. On 26th April 1986, an explosion took place in the nuclear plant there
releasing radioactive material into the atmosphere. The amount of radiation that escaped
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from the plant was 200 times higher than that released from the atom bombs that were
dropped at Hiroshima and Nagasaki. It poisoned lakes, rivers, streams and ground water
sources. Even the soil got contaminated. It led to brain tumors; leukemia, blood diseases
and the babies born after this disaster had many birth defects.
Source: (chernobylee.com)
INTERESTING FACTS
The effect of oil pollution on wild life can be terrible. Between January 1971 and June
1979, 36,000 birds were found dead around the British coast as a result of oil spill.
Migrating species like the puffin, guillemot and razorbill are especially at risk, as they
look for areas of calm water on which to rest or catch fish.
Oil covered seas look calm, but if a bird land in a slick, the oil coats its feathers and makes
it unable to fly away. Even slightly oiled birds sometimes die because they preen their
feathers, and in doing so, ingest oily substances which are poisonous to them. An animal
killed by oil may then be eaten by fish or birds, which in turn are poisoned by oil.
IV. Space Debris Pollution
Space may be infinite but earth’s orbital space is finite. Space debris was created at the
time of cold war. There was a race for space and military superiority between USA and
former USSR which led to many space missions creating space debris.
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There are four kinds of space debris:1. Inactive pay loads- which mean these satellites have run out of fuel or are not fit
enough to function. They are repaired and debris are created during that process.
2. Operational debris-it includes debris left in space after launching a satellite.
3. Fragmentation Debris-are created when there is explosion or collision in the space.
4. Micro particulate matter- is created due to surface degradation. Surface of space craft
is exposed to space environment and debris are created due to gradual disintegration.
These space debris area cause of concern for the future as space debris can lead to chain
of collisions in the coming years. Space debris will collide with satellites and other space
objects and will become the most important debris generating mechanism in future.
V. Depletion of Natural Resources
Depletion of natural resources especially non-renewable resources like forests, minerals
and fossil fuels are of great concern to the world community. It has taken millions of
years to form these natural resources and the world community has to use it judiciously
keeping in mind their present needs without compromising the needs of future
generations. With this we enter the realm of sustainable development that takes place
without damaging the environment.
Forests are the breathing lungs of the civilization and therefore are very important for the
survival of life on earth and the ecosystem. It holds the soil, attracts rain and is the habitat
of millions of wild animals, birds and insects.
Indiscriminate cutting of these forests is the matter of great concern for the world
community. By the end of 19th century, most of the forests of North America, Australia
and New Zealand had been cleared.
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Source: (environmedia.com)
Source: (Incli-nation.com)
World community has seen the example of America when it was changed from the Bread
Basket to dust bowl. When Europeans started settling in America they slashed, burnt
forests, pulled out stumps, and cleared the land for agriculture. Gradually, America
became the largest wheat producing nation of the world.
In 1930’s dust storms began to blow black blizzards, varying from 7000 to 8000 feet
high, rising like monstrous waves of muddy water. They came day after day, year after
year, through the 1930’s. People were blinded and choked. Castles were suffocated to
death, their lungs choked with dust and mud. Dead bodies of birds and animals were
strewn all over the land. Ordinary dust storms became black blizzards because land was
devoid of trees and grass which held the soil together.
After 1930 the settlers realized that they had to respect nature.
Minerals and fossil fuels are non renewable resources. Minerals like iron, bauxite, copper,
mica, manganese, limestone, gold, diamonds and fossil fuels like petroleum has taken
millions of years to form. They are exhaustible resources. We have to conserve them for
future generations and use them economically.
Practice: - worksheet no.3
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CLEAN DRINKING WATER
Source: (chemistryexplained.com)
Earth is known as ‘Blue Planet’ because water covers three quarters of its surface and
makes it look Blue from Space. Almost 97% of the water found on the earth is sea water.
The salinity of the water in oceans and seas makes it unsuitable for drinking. The fresh
water that people need to drink makes up only 3% of Earth’s water. Almost all of this is
found in the form of ice at the North and South Poles. Only 1%of fresh water is found at
the surface-rivers, lakes and wet lands. This 1% of water is getting polluted by Industries
and human waste, garbage and toxins. There is a dire need to produce clean drinking
water for the next generation.
Thus, concern about global warming, ozone depletion, space debris, depletion of natural
resources forced the world community to make laws as their consequences were not
limited to the boundaries of the concerned countries. These issues had political
consequences and we enter the world of global politics.
Environmental Global Norms
We have just studied about the various environmental problems which should be studied
in geography rather than in political science. But if various governments of the world will
take steps to check environmental degradation of this kind, these issues will have political
consequences and will become part of world politics.
“Issues of environment and natural resources are political in another deeper sense. Who
causes environmental degradation? Who pays the price? And who is responsible for
taking corrective action? Who gets to use how much of natural resources of earth? All
this raises the issue of who wields how much power. They are therefore, deeply political
questions”
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Environmental consequences of economic growth acquired a political character from
1960 onwards.
The Club of Rome
Source: en.wikipedia.org
The club of Rome was founded in 1968 in Bellagio, Italy. This club is a global think tank
that deals with International political issues. It describes itself as “A group of World
citizens, sharing a common concern for the future of humanity” and they want to act as a
“global catalyst for change”.
Source: dailyrealityslap.com
Their book “the limits to growth” published in 1972 dealt with the issue that economic
growth is related to depletion of natural resources especially oil. In their second report
“Mankind at the turning point” they stressed on the fact that economic growth is still in
the hands of the humans and environmental catastrophe can be avoided. In 1993, the club
also published “the first global revolution” in which they stressed that pollution, threat of
“global warming, water shortages and famines” should unite the different nations of the
world and they should work towards preventing the environmental degradation it and
building a better world.
THE CONCEPTUAL BASIS
The Club of Rome wanted to think holistically and to seek a deeper understanding
of interactions within the tangle of contemporary problems- political, social,
economic, technological, environmental, psychological, and cultural in every
sense- for which we coined the phrase “The world problematique”
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UNEP- United Nations Environmental Programme
Source: topnews.in
UNEP began holding International conferences and started encouraging detailed studies to
get a more coordinated and effective response to environmental problems. Since then, the
environment has emerged as a significant issue of global politics.
EARTH SUMMIT
We do not inherit the earth from our fathers; we borrow it from our children.
Environment issues were further discussed by world community in June 1992,
at Rio-de-Janerio, in Brazil. This is also called as Earth summit. It was attended by
government officials from 178 countries and between 20,000 and 30,000 individuals from
government, non government organizations and the media participated in it.
Source: bonfireblog.wordpress.com
Source: worldwatch.org
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More than 130 nations signed the convention on climate change. All of them agreed on
Agenda 21, an action plan for developing the planet sustainability through the 21st century
and a broad statement of principles of protecting forests.
I.
The main objective of the convention was to have green house gas concentration in
the atmosphere at a level that would not harm the climate system.
II.
The developed world must take the lead in combating climate change and its adverse
effect.
III.
U.N Intergovernmental Panel on climate change predicts that if present emission
trends for green house gases continue, the average global temperature will increase by
1.5-4.5oC by the middle of next century.
IV.
There should be transfer of technology to developing countries and an institutional
mechanism to enable the international community to manage climate change problem.
i. Agenda 21 which was accepted to ensure that development proceeds in a sustainable
manner.
ii. Another goal is to remove poverty throughout the world with better management of
energy and natural resources.
iii. It also ensures sustainable use of global regional resources such as atmosphere,
oceans, seas fresh water and marine organisms.
iv. Agenda also wants to improve the management of chemicals and waste.
Source: (newint.org)
Many contentious issues were not agreed upon like protection of forests, desertification,
financing and who would oversee implementation of Agenda 21.
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In Rio Summit the developed and rich countries of the world generally referred to as ‘Global
North’ had different environmental agenda. They were more concerned with ozone depletion
and global warming. The third world and developing countries were called ‘Global South’
were more concerned with economic development and environment management.
The summit also dealt with the principle of ‘Common but differentiated responsibilities’. The
global south i.e. the developing countries blamed the developed countries for the present
environmental degradation of the world. Since industrialization started in developed countries
they should bear more responsibility.
The developing countries are in the process of Industrialization and should not be subjected
to the same kind of restrictions. Due to different contribution of global environmental
degradation, states have common but differentiated responsibilities.
COMMON GOAL BUT DIFFERENT RESPONSIBLITIES
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.
1. The largest share of historical and current global emissions of green
house gases has originated in developed countries.
2. Per capita emissions in developing countries are still relatively low.
3. The share of global emissions originating in developing countries will
grow to meet their social and development needs.
Protection of Global Commons
Source: (navycaptain-therealnavy.blogspot.com
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Source: karlquirino.wordpress.com
The term ‘Global Commons’ refers to the earth’s unowned natural resources, such as the
oceans, the atmosphere and the space. Atmosphere, Sea beds, Outer space and Antarctica
comes under the jurisdiction of global commons.
There are many agreements such as 1959 Antarctica Treaty, 1987 Montreal Protocol and
1991 Antarctic Environmental Protocol. The discovery of the ozone hole over the Antarctic
in the mid 1980 revealed the dangers in tackling global environmental problems.
There is North-South inequalities also in global commons. The developed north is
technologically superior as compared to the developing south. As a result, the exploitative
activities in outer space are far from being equal.
We cannot betray future generations. They will judge us harshly if we fail at this
critical moment.
-Gro Harlem Brundtland, Prime Minister of Norway, UNCED, 1992
KYOTO PROTOCOL
We can waste the planets resources for a few
decades more. We must realize that one day the
storm will break on the heads of future
generations. For them it will be too lateU.N Secretary General Boutros- Ghali, UNCED, 1992.
Source: (waronterrortheboardgame.com)
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Kyoto Protocol treaty was negotiated in December, 1997 at the city of Kyoto, Japan and
came into force on February 16, 2005.
The
protocol
was
developed
UNFCCC
(The
United
Framework
Convention
on
under
Nations
Climate
Change).
This protocol was a legally binding
agreement under which industrialized
countries would reduce their collective emissions of green house gases by 5.2% compared to
the year 1990. The green house gases include carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, sulfur,
hexafluoride, HFC’s and PFC’s calculated as an average over the five years period 2008-12.
National targets range from 8% reductions for the European Union and some others to 7% for
the US, 6% for Japan, 0% for Russia and permitted increase of 8% for Australia and 10% for
Iceland.
India and China are not obliged to reduce green house gas production at the moment as they
are developing countries. They were not seen as the culprits for emissions during the period
of industrialization.
Source: eoearth.org
Copenhagen Climate Conference
Another
conference
by
the
world
community to solve global environmental
problems was held at Copenhagen on
December 18, 2009 in Denmark under
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United Nations climate change conference. Copenhagen Conference was not successful
because there was an enormous divide between rich and poor countries. Poor countries
wanted deep cuts in emissions by the industrialized world but the developed countries
resisted cuts and legally binding targets.
Common but Differentiated Responsibility Principle Sidelined
Common but differentiated responsibility principles were also sidelined. Rich nations had
emitted most of the green house gases during the period of industrialization. Therefore,
responsibilities to reduce green house gases lie with the developed countries. Developing
countries emissions are likely to rise on their path to industrialization and trying to meet
basic, social and development needs. India and China were blamed for being unco-operative
and reacting negatively when faced with pressure to submit to emission reduction targets.
LOWERED EXPECTATIONS AND OUTCOMES
Four essential issues were to be addressed at Copenhagen:i. How much are the industrialized countries willing to reduce their emissions of green
house gases?
ii. How much are major developing countries such as China and India willing to limit the
growth of their emissions?
iii. How is the help needed by the developing countries to engage in reducing their
emissions- going to be financed?
iv. How is the money going to be managed?
In the end there was a vague agreement.
Thus, environment degradation and efforts to curb it by world powers. Both the developed
and developing countries are definitely political issues and they fall within the scope of world
politics.
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Source: economist.com
Environmental Movements
We have so far studied about the work of governments on national and international
forums working for the protection of the environment. Many environmental conscious
citizens have also started movements all over the world for the protection of their natural
resources. These environmental movements are amongst the most vibrant, diverse and
powerful social movements across the globe.
Practice: - worksheet no.5
Environmental Movements in India
Chipko Movement
“Maatuhamru, Paanihamru, hamra hi chhanyibaunbhi…
Pitronnalagaibaun, hamunahi ta bachonbhi”
Soil ours, water ours, ours are these forests. Our forefathers raised them; it’s we who
must protect them – Old Chipko song in Garhwali language
Source: treehugger.com
Source:hindu.com
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AIM: - The main aim of this movement was to protect the forests in Garhwal Himalayas
of Uttrakhand. This movement is also known as ‘Tree Hugging Movement’ and later it
inspired many eco groups who wanted to stop rapid deforestation, increase ecological
awareness and demonstrate the strength of people’s power. “India Today”mentioned the
people behind the ‘Forest Satyagraha’ of the Chipko movement as amongst 100 people
who shaped India.
REASON: - After the Indo-China war of 1962 in which India faced heavy losses, a need
was felt to secure its borders. Government started building roads, army bases, into the
upper reaches of Garhwal as this region shares its boundaries with Chinese ruled Tibet.
Garhwal, which was inaccessible till now because of its dense forests and difficult terrain,
opened up to the people living in plains of India. With subsequent development, came
mining projects for limestone, magnesium and potassium. Timber merchants and
commercial foresters also had access to these areas.
Reckless deforestation led to many incidences of landslides. Soon, villagers started
organizing themselves under several small groups and started to cut the forests.
The first occasion occurred in 1972 when the forest department gave permission to
company from Allahabad to cut 300 trees to make tennis rackets. When the contractor
came to this region on April, 24 1973, he was met with workers beating drums and
shouting slogans.
The final flash point came on June 1974, for 2,500 trees near Reni village, overlooking
the Alaknanda River. When the men came to cut the trees, the villagers decided to protest
against the actions of the government by hugging the
trees. Over the next few weeks, rallies and meeting
continued.
On March 26, 1974 when the contractor came to cut the
trees, the girl on seeing them rushed to inform Gaura
Devi, the head of the village Mahila Mangal Dal. Gaura
Devi with 27 other women confronted the loggers. When
all the talks failed and the loggers started threatening
them with guns, the women hugged the trees and stopped
them from felling. The women kept an all night vigil
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guarding their trees from the cutters. Next day when the men returned, people from
neighboring villages joined them and compelled the contractor to leave.
The news reached the state capital, the chief minister, Hemwati Nandan Bahugana set up
a committee to look into the matter, which ruled in favor of the villagers.
This became the turning point in the history of eco-development struggles in the region. It
became a bench mark for socio-ecological movements in India.
“Embrace the trees and
Save them from being felled
The property of our hills,
Save them from being looted”
Narmada Bachao Andolan
Source: justseeds.org
Narmada Bachao Andolan was another mass movement against the construction of Sardar
Sarovar Dam built across Narmada River, Gujarat in India. On October 6, 1969, 30
major, 135 medium and 3000 small dams were granted approval for construction
including raising the height of Sardar Sarovar Dam.
This was a multi crore project that would generate big revenue for the government. The
Narmada Valley Development plan is the most promised and most challenging plan in the
history of India. It would produce 1450 MW of electricity and pure drinking water to 40
million people covering thousands of villages and lawns.
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In 1985, when Medha Patekar and her colleagues visited the construction site, she came
to know that the tribals and villagers who
will be displaced due to construction of
dam were not given any kind of
rehabilitation. The project was financed
by the World Bank but no sanction was
taken from the ministry of environment
and forests.
MedhaPatekar
established
Narmada
Bachao Andolan in 1989. Many groups
joined this movement like environment and human rights activists, scientists, academics
and project affected people.
She went on a fast for 22 days. The fast almost took her life. Her action led to an
unprecedented review of the World Bank. President Barber Coinable conducted its first
independent review of a World Bank project. This independent review stated that
“performance under these projects has fallen short of what is called as under bank policies
and guidelines and the policies of the government of India.” The World Bank’s
participation in these projects was cancelled in 1995.
Patekar led Narmada Bachao Andolan had filed a written petition with the Supreme Court
of India, the nation’s apex court, seeking stoppage of the construction on the Sardar
Sarovar Dam. The court ruled the decision in Andolan’s favor thereby affecting an
immediate stoppage of work at the dam and directing the concerned states to first
complete the rehabilitation and replacement process. The court introduced a mechanism
to monitor the progress of resettlement.
Subsequent to the court’s verdict Press Information Bureau (PIB) featured an article
which states that: “The Narmada Bachao Andolan has rendered a yeomen’s service to the
country by creating a high level of awareness about the environmental and rehabilitation
and relief aspect of Sardar Sarovar and other projects on Narmada. But, after the court
verdict it is incumbent on it to adopt a new role. Instead of damming the dam any longer,
it could assume the role of vigilant observer to see that the resettlement work is as human
and painless as possible and that the environmental aspects are taken care of.”
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Source: hindu.com
Source: prathapchandra.blogspot.com
Practice: - worksheet no.6
Bolivia’s Water Supply
Source: askbjoernhansen.com
Bolivia is a country located in the heart of South America. Its struggle against
privatization of water and the right of elected government to sell the natural resources of a
country is a very interesting example of a struggle of people for the protection of their
natural resources.
In order to establish its economy the government of Bolivia took loan from the World
Bank. Bolivia privatized its railways, telephone system, national airlines and hydro
carbon industry. The World Bank declared that it will not renew a 25million USD loan to
Bolivia unless it privatized its water services.
Water works of Cochabamba were controlled by the state agency SEMAPA. Due to the
pressure from the World Bank, the Bolivian government put SEMAPA up for auction for
privatization. Aguas del Tunari bought the company. Immediately it increased the price of
water by four times. Many people received monthly water bill of Rs.1000 in a country
where average income is around Rs.5000 a month. This led to a spontaneous popular
protest.
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Source: academic.evergreen.edu
Water is essential for living. The inhabitants of Cochabamba, the peasants, the farmers,
all reacted against the multinational company. Protestors were able to halt Cochabamba’s
economy by holding a general strike that shut down the city for four days. The
government agreed to negotiate and the strike was called off. On February 4, 2000,
thousands of protesters clashed with police. Almost 200 demonstrators were arrested, 70
protestors and 51 policemen were injured.
On April 8, 2000 the President declared a state of emergency. Information minister
Ronald Mac Lean said “We find ourselves with a country with access roads to the cities
blocked with food shortages, passengers stranded and chaos beginning to take hold in
other cities.
After a televised recording of Bolivian army captain firing a rifle into a crowd of
demonstrators wounding many and hitting high school students Victor Hugo Daza in the
face, killing him, intense anger erupted. The police told the executives of the consortium
that their safety could no longer be guaranteed. After coming out of four days of hiding,
Oscar Olivera signed an agreement with the government guarantying the removal of
Aguas del Tunari and turning Cochabamba’s water works cover to the municipality at old
rates.
This came to be known as Bolivia’s Water War.
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Thus it is not only the Government at National and International levels which are
concerned about protecting the World from environment degradation but common people
have also led movements against exploitation of their Natural Resources.
Practice: - worksheet no.7
Indigenous People
Indigenous people are those who historically belonged to a particular region or country,
before its colonization or transformation into a nation State. They have different culture,
linguistic traditions from those who came later to that region.
As defined by the United Nations “They form at present non dominant sector of society and
are determined to preserve, develop, and transmit to future generations their ancestor’s
territories, and their ethnic identity, as the basis of their continued existence as peoples, in
accordance with their own cultural patterns, social institutions and legal systems”
Attitude of Europeans towards indigenous people.
Two important reasons for European conquest of Asia and Africa was first to civilize the
Blacks and Browns. The second reason was to spread Christianity. The Europeans saw them
as ‘savages’ who could be saved by civilizing them and converting them into Christians.
Condition of Indigenous people
Indigenous people throughout the world share one thing in common, a history of injustice.
They have been killed, tortured and enslaved. They have been the victims of genocide and
conquest. Colonization attempted to steal their dignity and identity as indigenous people as
well as their fundamental right of self determination.
In India, Brazil, Thailand and Malaysia Multinational companies have been accused of
participating in ‘biopiracy’ where by biological resources used by them for centuries have
been patented away. Construction of dams, roadways and other infrastructure gets built
without compensating indigenous people.
Massai of Africa
The Maasai are ethnic group of semi-nomadic people located in Kenya and northern
Tanzania. They are pastoralists, and are famous for their fearsome reputations as warriors and
cattle rustlers. The title Maasai derives from the word Maa .Maa-sai means ‘My People’
The Maasai are traditionally nomadic and pastoral people who depend on milk and meat for
sustenance.
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With the creations of Nation States of Kenya and Tanzania the tribal people lost their
sovereignty and system of Government. Maasai who were a strong sovereign and indigenous
nation became powerless. They had to struggle to maintain their identity in a hostile political
environment.
In the late 19th century, European Imperial Powers divided Africa into different Colonies. In
1885, Massai Land was cut into half with an International Boundary between British Kenya
and German Tanganiyaka.
The best grazing land were gradually taken over for white settlement and the Maasai were
pushed into a small area in south Kenya and north Tanzania. The Maasai lost about 60% of
their pre-colonial lands and were restricted to a dry region with little rainfall and poor
pastures.
Main source of income of the British was taxes; therefore they encouraged local peasants
communities to expand cultivation. Pasturelands were turned into cultivation fields. Large
areas of their grazing land were also turned into game reserves like the Maasai Mara
Samburu National Park in Kenya. Serengeti National Park was created over 14,760 km of
Maasai grazing land.
Maasai, were bound down to a restricted area and they could not shift their cattle to places
where pastures could be found. An enquiry in 1930 showed that the Massai in Kenya
possessed 720,000 cattle, 820,000 sheep and 171,000 donkeys. In just two years – 1933 1934, over half of their cattle died.
The Europeans also brought with them diseases like they did in America. Africans had not
developed immunity for these diseases like Bovine Pleuropneumonia Rinderpest and
Smallpox.
90% of their cattle and half of wild animals perished from Rinderpest. According to the
German doctor every second African had a pock-marked face as the result of Smallpox.
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Austrian explorer Oscar Bauman travelled in Massai lands in 1891-93. He wrote in his book
‘Through the land of Maasai to the source of the Nile’, “There were women wasted to
skeletons from whose eyes the madness of starvation glared – warriors scarcely able to crawl
on all fours, and apathetic languishing elders. Swarms of vultures followed them from high
awaiting their certain victims.”
Exploitation of this kind needs International laws and strong Intervention.
Case Study 2
Bushmen
The Indigeneus people of southern Africa whose territory spans most areas of South Africa,
Zimbabwe, Lesotho, Mozambique, Switzerland, Botswana Namibia and Angola are variously
referred to as Bushmen, San, ShoBarwa, Kung or Khwe. These people were traditionally
hunter-gatherers, part of the Khoisan group and are related to the traditionally pastoral
Khoikhar.
The Bushmen are said to be more than 10,000 years old and are the second oldest people on
the Earth.
The Bushmen are “the forgotten people”, have been in their area hunting/
gathering and living their traditional life-style. There are approximately 200 families in
existence.
They speak a click dialect that only a few know and understand. Their innate hunting
abilities and fierce survival skills have little documentation. These living treasures are being
pushed further and further away from the land that they knew, to drier pastures. They believe
that their traditional lifestyle is coming to an end and their usefulness is finished.
Problems and their struggles.
In the early 1980s, diamonds were discovered in the reserve. Soon after, Government
Ministers went into the reserve to tell the Bushmen living there that they would have to leave
because of the discovery of diamonds.
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In three big clearances, in 1997, 2002 and 2005, virtually all the Bushmen were forced out.
Their homes were dismantled, their school and health post were closed, their water supply
was destroyed and the people were threatened and trucked away.
The Government since mid 1990’s started relocation policy and tried to move the Bushmen
out of their ancestral land on the Central Kalahari Game reserve. The Government wanted to
remove them for the lucrative tourist trade and diamond mining.
Political Struggle
1. One December 13, 2006, the Bushmen won a historic ruling in their long running court
case against the Government. The court ruled the refusal to allow the Baser into the
Central Kalahari Game reserve without a permit, and the refusal to issue special game
licenses to allow the Bushmen to hunt was “unlawful and unconstitutional.”
2. In April 2008 the United Nations Human Right Council (UNHRC) criticized Botswana’s
Government for not allowing certain Bushmen to return.
3. In January 27, 2011 the Bushmen woman appeal against the Government in Botswana
High Court after they were initially prohibited from accessing drinking water inside the
Reserve through Bore hole. Barrister Gorden Benett found the Government guilty of
‘degrading treatment’ and described the case as ‘a harrowing story of human suffering
and despair’.
Hoodia traditional knowledge agreement
Hoodia gordonii, used by San Bushmen was patented by the South African Council for
Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) in 1998. Without the knowledge of the San, the
CSIR patented the plant for its appetite suppressing quality. Once their Patent was
brought to the attention of the San, a benefit sharing agreement was reached between
Bushmen and the CSIR in 2003. This would award royalties to the San for the benefits of
their indigenous knowledge. San was represented by a regional organization formed
under San leadership, the working group of indigenous Minorities in Southern Africa
(WIMSA). The San have yet to profit from this agreement.
Practice: - worksheet no.8
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Articles on
United Nations Declaration on the Right of Indigenous Peoples
Article:1 – Indigenous people have the right to the full enjoyment, as a collective or as
individuals, of all human rights and fundamental freedoms as recognized in the Charter
of the United Nations, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and International
Human Rights law.
Article: 2 – Indigenous people and individuals are free and equal to all other people
and individuals and have right to be free from any kind of discrimination, in the
exercise of their rights, in particular that based on their indigenous origin or identity.
Article: 3 – Indigenous people have the right to self-determination.
Article: 4 – In exercising their rights to self-determination, have the right to autonomy
or self-government in matters relating to their internal and local affairs, as well as
ways and means for financing their autonomous functions.
After 30 years of struggle by Indigenous People, the United Nations finally passed the
declaration on the Right of Indigenous People. The Declaration – with its attention to
equitable and sustainable developments, protecting the Earth’s dwindling natural resources
and biodiversity, and human rights.
TRIBES OF INDIA
The Santhals are Indigenous tribes of India. They used to live in the region of Mayurbhanj,
Chhotanagpur, Palamau, Hazaribagh, Midnagar, Bankura and Birbhum. They were confined
to their forests and were engaged in hunting for subsistence.
Britishers started claiming their lands. British policy was to increase agricultural lands as they
wanted taxes from the farmers which were their main source of income.
The simple and honest Santhals were cheated and turned into slaves by zamindars and money
lenders. They first turned them into debt by giving those loans for goods. Santhals tried to
repay these loans but the interest was so high and the debts multiplied to an amount for which
generation of the Santhal family had to work as slaves. The Santhals women were disgraced
and abused. The loss of freedom that they once enjoyed turned them into rebels.
On 30 June 1855, two great Santhal rebel leaders, SidhuMurmu and his brother Kanhu,
mobilized ten thousand Santhal and declared a rebellion against British colonists.
In the battle which followed, the British, equipped with modern firearms and war elephants,
subdued the rebellion.
The British attacked every village of the Santhals and brutally suppressed the Santhals.
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This was a struggle of tribes against the exploitative policy of the British on their native land
and also against zamindars who worked on behalf of the British.
Bhotiyas of Kumaon
Source: sai.uni-heidelberg.de
Source: indianholiday.com
Source: tribuneindia.com
Bhotiyas are a tribal people who live in bhot, a region of highland valleys bordering Tibet
situated in Kumaon Himalayas of Northern India.
They were nomads who used to trade and travelled with their huge flock of goat sheep and
ponies from the trade posts of Gartak and Gyanima in Tibet to ridges and valleys of Kumaon
into the Gangetic plains.
Nomadic trade was in their blood. Tibetan wool, gold dust, borax and rock salt packed on the
back of their ponies and they used to travel down to the plains of India. In mid March they
climbed the mountains to reach Tibet.
There life changed with the Indo-China war in 1962 and occupation of Tibet by China. The
link between the two countries was cut off all of a sudden their life changed. Their struggle
increased with the construction of road by the Indian Government and commercialization of
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forests. Fuel wood and fodder became scarce and water sources dried up. The government in
order to help them started giving wool to Bhotiya women. But the wool was of poor quality
and middlemen started to exploit these women.
Once a nomadic tribe, who used to move from one place to another for centuries now had to
face a bleak future. Even today they are trying hard to survive. This tribe has expanded,
migrated and readapted to present day life.
Thus depletion of Natural Resources, cutting of forests, mining by the modern Industrialized
world has brought a lot of hardship to the indigenous People and now they are demanding
Rights to protect their culture.
Practice: worksheet- 4.
GLOBALISATION AND ITS EFFECT ON ENVIRONMENT
Globalization has direct and indirect effect on environment.
1. The direct effect includes emissions and environmental damage associated with physical
movements of goods between exporters and importers. This includes emissions from fossil
fuel, oils pills, and introduction of exotic species.
Surface transport -Only one quarter of global trade is between countries sharing land borders
.Trade between North America and Europe is 25% to 35%, between Africa, Asia and Middle
East 1-5% only. Environmental damages arise from land transport.
Shipping related emission – When goods are transported from one country to another by
ships there is a risk of oil spills. The average spill rate is only 24,243 tons. The global
transport sector accounts for 14% of green house gas emission.
Source: library.thinkquest.org
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Biological invasion –Another direct channel through which trade and transport impact
environment is through introduction of non active, or exotic, species. These species came
through contaminants of trade products, especially food products or nursery stock, packing
material and modes of transport particularly contaminated ballast water.
2. Globalization’s indirect effect on environment –
Positive impact- Due to trade liberalization, if the country’s service sector expands and its
heavy industry contracts, the country’s total emission is likely to fall. This is a positive
impact of globalization. Trade liberalization changes relative prices. As tariff barriers are not
there the price of import competing good is very less. Many countries are expanding these
industries which are less pollution intensive and contracting those industries which are more
pollution intensive.
Demand for environmental quality increases with income. As we get richer we demand more
environmental amenities that influence environmental regulations. High income countries are
likely to set stricter environmental regulations as compared to low income countries,
liberalization leads clean industries to expand in rich countries and dirty industries (polluted
industries) will expand in poor countries. For example. In 2006 Saunders and Taylor in U.K
found out that importing dairy and meat into U.K from New Zealand would lead to fewer
carbon releases than producing the same goods ideally. One tone carcass of lamb in New
Zealand results in 688 kilograms of carbon dioxide emissions, while producing that same
amount of lamb in U.K would result in 2,849 kilograms of carbon dioxide emissions.
Another positive effect of globalization is transfer of technologies. How much pollution a
country emits per unit of a particular good produced depends on the technique of production.
Engineering firms that develop clean technologies engage in the direct sale of their
technologies to firms overseas. Rich countries can have these technologies and limit their
pollution level.
Thus globalization has positive as well as negative impact on the environment.
Environmental degradation has political effect; it’s an integral part of our present “World
Politics”.
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Source: iwritearticle.com
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WORKSHEETS
WORKSHEET 1
Q1. Why will Polar Bears not survive due to increased temperature? Give reason.
Q2. Why do Sea birds or Sea animals die if they are covered with oil? Give reason.
WORKSHEET - 2
An explosion took place in the nuclear plant at Chernobyl in the Soviet- union which led
to poisoned lakes, rivers, streams and ground water sources. Find out any such area in
your country where people suffered because of extreme pollution. Write a report in
your own words.
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WORKSHEET NO. 3
Trees play a very important role in protecting the soil and maintaining an ecological
balance .Support this statement with 5 possible suggestions
ADVANTAGES OF FORESTS
1.
2
3
4.
5
WORKSHEET -4
GIVE REASONS FOR THE FOLLOWING EFFECTS OF GLOBAL WARMING
1. Sea levels will rise.--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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2. Shortage of food supply. -------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. Ozone hole over Arctic and Antarctica.--------------------------------------------------------
4. Turning of America from Bread Basket to Dust Bowl.--------------------------------------
II) GLOBALISATION HAS BOTH DIRECT AND INDIRECT EFFECT ON
ENVIRONMENT. Write about them.
POSITIVE IMPACT OF GLOBALISATION
NEGATIVE IMPACT OF GLOBALISATION
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WORK SHEET- 5
IF YOU WERE A DELEGATE REPRESENTING YOUR COUNTRY AT EARTH
SUMMIT WHAT WOULD YOU STAND FOR?
1.’Common but Differentiated Responsibility’
2. Reduction of Green House gases.
3. Concern over Global Commons.
WORK SHEET-6
‘Chipko Movement’ or ‘Tree Hugging’ movement was an environmental movement of
India for the protection of forests. Find out if any such movement has taken place in
your country and write a report on it.
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Discuss any two similarities and dissimilarities between the two movements of Chipko
and Narmada Bacho Andolan of India.
SIMILARITIES
CHIPKO MOVEMENT AND NARMADA BACHAO ANDOLAN
1.
2.
DIFFERENCES
1.
2.
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WORK SHEET -7
BOLIVIA’S WATER PROBLEM
Q1. Where is Bolivia situated?
Q2. Why did the government sell Cochabama Water supply to a Multinational Company?
Q3. Why were the people angry with the decision?
Q4. How did they struggle against the MNC for their Rights over the water?
Q5. What conclusion can be drawn from the struggle?
WORKSHEET -8
Find out about any tribal people found in your country and based on the information
complete this work sheet
1. Name of the tribe and the region in which they are found?
2. Dress and food habits of these people
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3. Songs and dance practiced by them
4. Any typical custom followed by them.
5. Are they struggling for survival? How did you reach your conclusion?
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References and Links
1. Global Warming
http:// platform.youngeporters.net/post/
Why did the environment emerge as a political issue at the end of 20th.
1. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/12/1206041206globalwarminghtml.
2. http:/news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/12/1206041206globalwarming.html.
4.Ozone Depletion
http://omsriram.com/globalwarming.htm
5. Sea Pollution
http://www.goodplanet.info/org/pollution/oceans/sea pollution
6. http://www.yple.org.ok/environmental/sea-pollution/36
7. http://www.offshore-environment.com/oilpollution.html.
8. Space Debris
Space Debris Pollution: A Convention Proposal –Thierry seneschal.
9. Depletion of Natural Resources.
http://www.isabelperez.com/selectforest.htm.
10. Waters
Green Alert/Polluted Waters Jennifer Stefanow
11. The Club of Rome
http://www.mega.nu/ampp/car.html.
12. Earth Summit
sard@fao.orghttp://www.fao.org/sard/en/sard/en/sard/2070/2071/index.html
13.http:/www.johannesburgzsummit.org/html/media_info/pressreleases_factsheats/wssd2_pr
ogress_rio.pdf
14. Global Commons
http://www.actnow.com.au/issues/Global_commons.aspx.
15. http://www.gci.org.uk/
16. Kyoto Protocol
http:/www.kyotoprotocol.com/
17. http:/www.globalissues.org/issue/178/climate_change_and_global_warming
18. http://www.globalissues.org/article/231/climate_justice_and_equity.
19. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/12/1206041206global warming.html.
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20.Copenhagen Climate Conference
Copenhagen Summit :The Verdict
21. Chipko Movement
http://www.ecoindia.com/education/chipko_movement.html
22. http://www.rightlivelihood.org/chipko.pdf
23. Narmada BachaoAndolan
Fisher, William(1995).Towards Sustainable Development ?: Struggling over India’s Narmada
River.M.E.sharpe.p.166.
24.Bolivia’s Water Supply
N.C.E.R.T X Democratic Poltics II
25. Indigenous people
http://www.globalissues.org/article/
26. 693/rightsof_indigenous_people
http://www.un.org/esa/socdew/un/offi/en/driphtml.
27. NCERT-X India and the contemporary WORLD-I
28.
http://www.culturalsurvival.org/ourpublications/csq/article/masai_autonomy_and_sovereignt
y_kenya_and_tenzania
29. Santhals –http://www.ecoindia.com/tribes/khasi.html
30. Intresting facts
Artic ice- http://news.national geographic.com/news/2004/12/1206041206
globalwarming.html.
Sea Pollution-http://www ypte.org.uk/environmental sea-pollution/36.
Club of Rome- http://www.clubofrome.org.
Earth Summit- http:// dsp-.pwgsc
PICTURES FROM - GOOGLE.COM [IMAGES]
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