生態心理學 w4: 多元的教養 From Skinner’s to Applied Behavior Analysis
胡正恆 2008.10.6
Classical (or Pavlovian) Conditioning
pairing up of US and CS to link UR to CR with slight diminishment
acquisition - gradua; needs contiguity and critical time period to be effective
extinction - beyond critical time, strength of CS alone reduces
spontaneous recovery - CS still present long after extinction, but much weaker
stimulus generalisation - similar stimuli simulate CS  adaptive
stimulus discrimination - telling apart similar stimuli by comparing to US
second-order conditioning - US paired with 10 CS; 10 CS paired with 20 CS
Seligman’s Experiment on Helplessness
dog given shock but no escapable chance
developed helplessness even when an apparent escape route is present
Operant (or Instrumental) Conditioning
instrumental = done for a purpose; in this case, reward
Thorndike’s Experiment on Food-Deprived Cat in Puzzle Box
food is placed outside box to motivate cat to escape from box
cat accidentally pulls string to exit and gradually learnt how to escape
law of effect: positive consequences raises probability of recurrence
Skinner’s Experiment on Pigeon in Skinner (or Operant) Box
shaping = reinforcing behaviours increasingly similar to desired behaviour
Skinner shaped pigeon to press lever to obtain food
extended to teach pigeon to turn one round before food is presented
10 reinforcers satisfy biological needs; 20 reinforcers are pairings with 10
reinforcement schedules (when partial reinforcement is administered):
ratio schedule - per fixed number of behaviour (frequency)
continuous reinforcement - every time behaviour occurs
interval schedule - per unit time (period)
fixed schedule - reinforcer given at constant rate
variable schedule - reinforcer given at different rates
in general, ratio/fixed schedules are more efficient than interval/variable schedules
Partial-Reinforcement Extinction Effect
behaviour under continuous reinforcement extinguishes quickly
partial reinforcement causes greater persistence of behaviour
lack of reinforcement is harder to detect
A-B-C model: operant conditioning may not explain instinctive behaviour and latent
learning
Social (or Observational) Learning
S-O-R model: “O” = organismic; attention, retention, reproduction, motivation
meme = transmission of cultural knowledge, analogous to genetic inheritance
Bandura’s Experiment on Bobo Dolls
preschool children were shown a film of adult playing Bobo dolls
adult either played quietly or displayed aggression
children exposed to latter are more than twice as likely to play aggressively
when adult is rewarded for beating doll, children are even more likely to beat
Mineka’s Experiment on Monkeys’ Phobia of Snakes
wild monkeys have natural phobia of snakes
laboratory-raised ones developed fear on watching reactions of wild monkeys
fear was maintained over a three-month period
modelling = imitation of observed behaviour
vicarious learning = learning consequences (reinforcement/punishment) by observing
mirror neurons are activated when learning an action, but not stationary objects
Mowrer’s Two-Factor Theory of Avoidance Learning
factor 1: fear is learnt by classical conditioning
factor 2: avoidance is learnt by operant conditioning (positive reinforcement)
extinction of CS (fear) never happens and it is maintained by avoidance
Biology of Reward
intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS) on pleasure centres is a powerful reward
ICSS ≈ natural reward; both use DA system in nucleus accumbens ( limbic system)
Tourette’s syndrome patients find prescribed DA antagonists depressing
drugs that are DA agonists readily cause addiction
LCHILDHOOD DISORDERSL
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
characterised by restless, inattentive & impulsive behaviours; miss subtle social cues unintentionally
reduced metabolism in brain regions involved in self-regulation of motor functions & attention
connection between frontal lobes & limbic system is impaired; basal ganglia dysfunction
abnormalities in prefrontal lobes such that motor responses & impulses cannot be inhibited
treatment: methylphenidate (CNS stimulant) + behavior modification
Autism
involves deficits in social interaction, impaired communication & restricted interests
attention almost never directed at people; require strict routine; play is focused on sensory aspects
stereotyped & obsessive behaviour, eg. ritualistic hand movements, body rocking, hand flapping
brain overgrow in first 2 years, then undergrows till age 5
treatment: applied behavioural analysis (structured therapy for generalisation of skills)
TREATMENT METHODS
psychotherapy= formal treatment aimed at changing thought or behaviour
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eclecticism = using a mix of techniques specific to patient’s particular condition
LPSYCHODYNAMIC THERAPYL
psychoanalysis: patient asked to lie on couch, facing away from therapist to reduce inhibitions &
allow freer access to unconscious thought processes
free association = patient says whatever that comes to mind
dream analysis = interpreting hidden meaning of dreams
aims to increase patient’s insight of unconscious influences
LHUMANISTIC THERAPYL
client-centred approach = encouraging personal growth through greater self-understanding
therapists strive to be empathic, understanding & accepting (unconditional positive regard)
reflective listening = repeating client’s concerns to help clarify feelings, instead of judging
LBEHAVIOURAL THERAPYL
targets at maladaptive behaviours rather than underlying problems of those behaviours
behaviour modification: utilises operant conditioning, using reinforcement & punishment
eg. social skills training, in which client first models after therapist, then apply to real-life social events
interpersonal therapy integrates insight & behavioural therapy, focusing on relationships that client
wants to avoid; therapist helps clients express emotions & explore interpersonal experiences
exposure therapy is based on classical conditioning & aims to extinguish avoidance response
LCOGNITIVE-BEHAVIOURAL THERAPYL
Beck: cognitive restructuring; helping patients recognise maladaptive thought patterns & replace
them with ways of viewing world that are more in tune with reality
Ellis: rational-emotive therapy; therapists act as teachers to explain & demonstrate more adaptive
ways of thinking & behaving
cognitive-behavioural therapy corrects faulty cognitions & trains new behaviours
LFAMILY THERAPYL
systems approach: individual is part of larger context; any change in individual will affect system
negative expressed emotion = emotional over-involvement, critical comments & hostility
LBIOLOGICAL THERAPYL
psychotropic medications = drugs affecting mental processes by changing neurochemistry in brain
anti-anxiety drugs (tranquilisers)
benzodiazepines increase activity of GABA (inhibitory); cause drowsiness & addiction
buspirone not as addictive but not as effective too; must be taken on daily basis
antidepressants
monoamine oxidase inhibitors curb conversion of serotonin to another chemical form;
also raise levels of dopamine & norephinephrine
tricyclic antidepressants inhibit reuptake of several neurotransmitters
SSRI inhibits reuptake of neurotransmitters, primarily serotonin; cause sexual dysfunction
antipsychotics (neuroleptics)
competes with dopamine for postsynaptic receptor sites; cause tardive dyskinesia
clozapine much more effective as it acts on DA, 5-HT, NE, Ach & histamine receptors
lithium & anticonvulsants
used for bipolar disorder
LPSYCHOLOGICAL TREATMENTSL
Barlow: need for evidence-based psychological treatment in addition to psychotherapy; must vary
according to particular mental disorder, tailored to specific symptoms; techniques used must be
developed from laboratory; evidence of effectiveness instead of overall grand theory
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years)
schemas are developed through sensory and motor stimulation
differentiates self from objects
recognises self as agent of action and begins to act intentionally
achieves object permanence
preoperational stage (2 to 7 years)
learns to use language and represent objects by images and words
egocentric thinking; cannot accept others’ views
classifies objects by single feature
achieves concept of reversibility
concrete operational stage (7 to 11 years)
logical thinking, less figurative interpretation
achieves concept of conservation
classifies objects according to several features and can rank them in series
formal operational (11 years and beyond)
abstract thinking
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
preconventional level (birth to adolescence)
decisions are made based on self-interest or pleasurable outcomes
considers punishment (hence obedience) and reward/exchange
conventional level (adolescence to young adult)
decisions are made based on rules of law and order, or others’ approval
postconventional level (adulthood)
centered around complex reasoning about abstract principles and values
Erikson’s Stages of Identity Development
interpersonal trust vs mistrust (infancy: birth to 2 years)
exploration & self-esteem: autonomy vs shame & doubt (toddler: 2 to 3 years)
responsibility: initiative vs guilt (preschool: 4 to 6 years)
social interaction: industry vs inferiority (childhood: 7 to 12 years)
ego identity vs role confusion (adolescence: 13 to 19 years)
intimacy vs isolation (young adulthood: 20+ years)
contributions: generativity vs stagnation (middle adulthood: 30 to 50+ years)
satisfaction & wisdom: integrity vs despair (old age: 60 years and beyond)
Romanian orphanages
patients institutionalised after 8 months old have lasting emotional scars
poor attachment if adopted after 2 years old (missed critical period)
separation anxiety peaks at 13 months of age
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