KEY POINTS: Chapter 20
Timeline
1453 – fall of Constantinople to Ottomans
1510 – Safavid conquest of Persia completed
1514 – Ottoman victory at battle of Chaldiran
1526 – Babur’s conquest of India
1701 – death of Aurangzeb, Mughal decline begins
1736 – Nadir Shah proclaimed sultan of Persia
Terms, People, Events
Ottomans – Turkic people who advanced from strongholds in Asia Minor during 1350s; conquered large part of Balkans,
unified under Mehmed I; captured Constantinople in 1453; established empire from Balkans that included most of the
Arab world
Vizier – equivalent of the Abbasid wazir; head of Ottoman bureaucracy; after 15th century often more powerful than
sultan
Red Heads – name given to Safavid followers for their distinctive red headgear
Shah Abbas the Great – Safavid ruler 1587-1629; extended Safavid domain to greatest extent; created slave regiments
based on captured Russians, who monopolized firearms within Safavid armies; incorporated Western military technology
Isfahan – Safavid capital under Abbas the Great; planned city laid out according to shah’s plan; example of Safavid
architecture
Babur – founder of Mughal Dynasty in India; descended from Turkic warriors; first led invasion of India in 1526; died in
1530
Din-I-Ilahi – religion initiated by Akbar in Mughal India; blended elements of the many faiths of the subcontinent; key to
efforts to reconcile Hindus and Muslims in India, but failed
Aurangzeb – son and successor of Shah Jahan in Mughal India; determined to extend Muslim control over whole of
subcontinent; wished to purify Islam of Hindu influences; incessant warfare exhausted empire despite military successes;
died in 1707
Mehmed II – Ottoman sultan called the “Conqueror”; responsible for conquest of Constantinople in 1453; destroyed what
remained of the Byzantine Empire
Safavid Dynasty – originally, a Turkic nomadic group; family originated in Sufi mystic group; espoused Shi’ism;
conquered territory and established kingdom in region equivalent to modern Iran; lasted until 1722
Ismâ’il – Sufi commander who conquered city of Tabriz in 1501; first Safavid proclaimed shah or emperor
Imams – rulers who could trace descent from Ali
Nadir Khan Afshar – soldier-adventurer following the fall of Safavid Dynasty in 1722; proclaimed himself shah in 1736;
established short-lived dynasty in reduced kingdom
Humayan – son and successor of Babur; expelled from India in 1540, but restored Mughal rule in 1556 and died shortly
thereafter
Taj Mahal – most famous architectural achievement of Mughal India; originally built as a mausoleum for the wife of
Shah Jahan, Mumtaz Mahal
Jahangir – one of the greatest patrons of the fine arts, neglected court politics, addicted to luxury
Janissaries – Ottoman infantry divisions that dominated Ottoman armies; forcibly conscripted as boys in conquered areas
of Balkans, legally slaves; translated military service into political influence, particularly after 15 th century
Sail al-Din –14th century Sufi mystic; began campaign to purify Islam; first member of Safavid Dynasty
Chaldiran – site of battle between Safavids and Ottomans in 1514; Safavids severely defeated by Ottomans; checked
western advance of Safavid Empire
Mullahs – local mosque officials and prayer leaders within the Safavid Empire; agents of Safavid religious campaign to
convert all of the population to Shi’ism
Mughal Dynasty – established by Babur in India in 1526; name taken from supposed Mongol descent of Babur, but little
indication of any Mongol influence in dynasty; became weak after the rule of Aurangzeb in first decades of 18th century
Akbar – son and successor of Humayan; oversaw building of military and administrative systems that became typical of
Mughal rule in India; pursued policy of cooperation with Hindu princes; attempted to create new religion to bind Muslim
and Hindu populations in India
Nur Jahan – wife of Jahangir; amassed power of court and created faction of male relatives who dominated Mughal
Empire during later years of Jahangir’s reign
Shah Jahan – one of the greatest patrons of the fine arts, Taj Mahal built during his reign, more able than Jahangir, wife
(Mumtaz Mahal) actively involved in court politics with him
Questions
What were the similarities and differences between the three Muslim Empires?
Similarities: origins in Turkic nomadic cultures in central Asia, based on military conquest, oriented to the support of its
armies and military classes, early conquests and continued strength depended on effective use of firearms, ruled by
succession of absolute monarchs, court rituals and grandeur modeled after earlier Islamic dynasties, support of expanding
bureaucracies and military establishments drawn primarily from taxes, unique styles of artistic and literary expression
developed, divided by Shi’i/Sunni split, motives for conquest and empire building had little/nothing to do w/ religious
fervor
Differences: Mughals ruled predominantly non-Muslim population, Mughals have different political tactics and social
policies, Ottoman’s subjects largely Christian in first centuries of rule; even though Muslim majority later, they had to
keep minority Christians’ interests in mind; Shi’i/Sunni split led to differences in religious practices, legal codes, and
social organization
What were the causes of Ottoman decline in the 17th century?
Internal revolts, periodic conflicts with foreign rivals (Russian, Austrian, Spanish, & Safavid Empires), too large to be
maintained, less ways of maintaining oversized bureaucracy and army, less possibilities for conquests, lands lost to
Christian and Muslim rivals, growth of corruption among officials, officials kept more of the revenue for themselves,
made the peasants and laborers pay more taxes and do more services, puppet emperors addicted to luxury, power struggles
of viziers & other powerful officials w/ leaders of Janissary corps
What were the similarities and differences in the decline of the Abbasid and Ottoman Empires?
Similarities: weak emperors addicted to luxury, area of empire too large, taxation issues, peasant rebellions
Differences: used revenue to build more capitals = more mosques, etc., lack bureaucratic way to pay soldiers so gave part
of revenue to military chiefs, irrigation systems in disrepair
Compare and contrast the social and economic organization of the Ottomans and Safavids.
social – early times dominated by warrior aristocracies, warriors shared power w/ absolutist monarchs, strength of court &
traditional peasant defenses kept demands of warrior elite in check, women subordinate w/ little power except if
wife/concubine of rulers/princes
economic – encourage growth of handicraft production & trade, established imperial workshops, rulers greatly patronize
public works so workers get a lot of $, women active in trade and moneylending
Discuss the reasons for the failure of the Mughal Dynasty.
Later rulers did not care about conquest and were great patrons of the arts, left mundane tasks of day-to-day
administration in hands of subordinates, strong-willed wives took advantage of husbands’ neglect of politics; need for
essential administrative, military, and social reforms ignored; bloated and corrupt bureaucracy, bloated army backward in
weaponry and tactics, peasant quality of life fell, growing autonomy of local leaders, warrior bands increasing,
Aurangzeb’s religious policies disrupted social peace Akbar had established, head tax reinforced on nonbelievers  rise
up against him, internal rebellions, religious persecution
What weaknesses were common to all of the Muslim Empires?
Later rulers neglect politics in favor of luxury and the arts.
Discuss the similarities in problems confronting both the early modern Muslim Empires and the earlier Umayyad
and Abbasid Empires.
Internal rebellions, differing religions (sectarian or totally different), female influence behind-the-scenes with weak rulers,
corrupted officials, vast empires so difficult to maintain