Conquest of the Far West
By the end of the Civil War, the “Great American Desert” became the “frontier.”
According to many of the time, opportunities for wealth, adventure, and individualism lie
within. Realistically, the “desert” is a diverse land inhabited by many—Indians, Mexicans,
French, and others.
I. The Societies of the Far West
a. Marked by extremes in climate
b. The Western Tribes--combination of indigenous and resettled Indians
I. Pacific coastal tribes (several hundred thousand before Spanish)
II. Pueblos of the Southwest
III. Plains Indians—most widespread
1. subsistence through buffalo—food, clothing, tepees, fuel, bone
2. Plains tribes unable to unite against white invasion
3. Alliance of Sioux, Arapaho, and Cheyenne in northern plains
IV. ecological/economic decline—infectious diseases (smallpox)
1. industrial and economic advantage of whites
c. Hispanic New Mexico (50k Mexicans to 1k Anglo-Americans)
I. Mexican War transfers Mexican nationals to the U.S.
1. cattle and sheep ranching
II. Military rule of U.S. army after Taos Indians rebel (1847)
III. Navajo, Apache, and other tribes subdued
IV. RR in 80’s and 90’s—ranching, farming, and mining—immigrants
d. Hispanic California and Texas
I. In CA, Spanish settlement in 18th century-- missionaries and soldiers
1. MX govt. reduces church power—aristocracy controls area
2. Californios lose power as whites move in after U.S. control
3. Mexicans and Mexican-Americans comprise working class
II. In TX, a similar pattern occurs after annexation
e. The Chinese
I. Most emigrated to U.S. after 1848—by 1880 200k in west
1. almost all were free laborers—rival white workers
2. ‘foreign miners” tax, hostility of whites, and low profits deter
II. RRs become source of jobs after Gold Rush, 12k on transcontinental
1. Central Pacific prefers Chinese workers until strike in 1866
III. After RR—some to agriculture, most move to cities—“Chinatowns”
1. societies develop within urban areas—similar to east U.S.
IV. Chinese women and prostitution
V. Anti-Chinese sentiments--reflection of white worker resentment
1. Social/Political response
a) Democratic party/Workingmen’s Party
2. Legal responses
a) Chinese Exclusion Act, 1882—bans immigration 10yrs
b) Chinese population declines 40% for 40 yrs
f.
Migration from the East
I. Characteristics of post-Civil War migration
1. from thousands to millions
2. established Anglo-Ams and immigrants
a) Scandinavians, Germans, Irish, Russians, Czechs, etc.
3. Motives for migration
a) Gold and silver deposits, ranching, farming*
b) RR ease movement
4. Homestead Act of 1862 and others encourage settlement
a) 160 acres dirt cheap (ha ha) if occupied and improved
b) Inspire commercial economy to flourish?
c) Timber Culture Act 1873—160 add’l (if trees)
d) Desert Land Act 1877—640 acres (if irrigated)
5. By 20th century, only AZ, NM, and OK not part of Union
II. The Changing Western Economy—3 major industries: mining, ranching, and farming
a. Settlers tied the West firmly to the growing industrial economy of the East
b. Labor in the West
I. High pay (labor shortages), but poor conditions and lack of security
II. i.e. a RR built, crop harvested, herd sold, mine dry, etc.--Chinese
III. Multiracial work force
1. whites, Af-Am, S and E Europeans, Chinese, MX, Indians
2. whites occupy upper tiers—management and skilled labor
c. The Arrival of the Miners
I. About 1860-1890’s—Gold and silver (overhead)
1. Notable mining booms inspire settlement—corp. follow
2. most areas would give way to agriculture after mine plays out
a) Colorado
i. gold near Pike’s Peak 1858—50k prospectors
ii. silver near Leadville
b) Nevada
i. Comstock Lode 1858—Californians stream in
c) Dakota Territory 1874—gold in Black Hills
d) Montana—Anaconda copper mine 1881
3. If quick wealth was not found, many stayed on as wage labor
d. The Cattle Kingdom
I. Open Range—vast grasslands of the public domain
II. Cattle industry with roots in Mexico and Texas
1. branding, roundups, roping, gear, broncos and mustangs
2. “long drives” from far reaches to RR centers—Sedalia, MO
III. Agriculture begins to overtake open-range land
IV. Risks—rustlers, Indians, sheep, fences—“range wars” erupt
V. Cattle Industry also becomes increasingly corporate
1. speculative expansion—lack of grass to support herds
VI. Decline of open range industry
1. crowding, severe winters and searing summers 1885-87
2. established ranches grow while others die out
III. The Romance of the West
a. considered a wilderness where individuals could experience true freedom
b. The Western Landscape and the Cowboy
I. Rocky Mountain School—Bierstadt and Moran (overhead)
1. celebration of the west—(overhead)
2. helped attract more tourism and settlers
II. Romanticism of the Cowboys
1. rugged, free-spirited—romanticized in novels
2. Owen Wister—The Virginian (1902)
a) natural decency, compassion, and courage—frontier
3. Wild West shows tour East—Buffalo Bill Cody
a) re-enactments of battles, sharp shooting, horse tricks
III. The Idea of the Frontier
1. Mark Twain –repudiates constraints of organized society
a) Tom Sawyer (1876) & Huck Finn (1885)
2. Frederic Remington—artist and sculptor
3. Theodore Roosevelt—The Winning of the West
4. Frederick Jackson Turner—Significance of the Frontier…
a) experience of expansionism--spirit of advancement
b) Americans unique because of experience
5. “Passing of the Frontier”—end of frontier myth
a) vague and ominous sense of lost opportunity?
IV. Dispersal
a. Indians as obstacle to “virgin land”
b. White Policy
I. Traditional Am. Indian sovereignty--Independent nations?
II. gives way to “concentration” policy
1. reservations confirmed by individual treaties
a) tribes divided and isolated into less desirable land
III. Indian Peace Commission formed—dealing with Plains Indians
1. recommends two large reservations (Dakota and Indian Terr.)
2. several treaties “negotiated” (1867)
IV. BIA (Bureau of Indian Affairs) corrupt or incompetent management
V. relentless decimation of buffalo herds is main problem
c. The Indian Wars
I. Growing resistance—continual fighting between 1850’s to 1880’s
1. “uprisings” and massacres:
a) Sioux Uprising (Dakota War)--MN (1862)
i. Non-payment, treaties, land, buffalo, famine
ii. 700 whites killed—some escape (overhead)
iii. violent suppression by U.S. military
b) Sand Creek Massacre--CO (1864)
i. Campaign to squash series of Indian attacks
ii. CO gov. urges friendlies to accept protection
iii. Arapaho/Cheyenne band attacked 133 killed
II. End of Civil War shifts focus to Indian “problem”
III. unofficial violence by whites—“Indian Hunting”—elimination
IV. Treaties of 1867 bring peace—until further encroachment
1. Battle of Little Big Horn (a.k.a. Custer’s last Stand) (6/76)
a) Sioux leave reservation—ordered to return (MT)
b) Crazy Horse/Sitting Bull lead Sioux (Cheyenne allies)
i. George A. Custer leads attack—separated
1. Killed Custer et al to last man
ii. Indians lack organization to maintain force
1. U.S. hunts down one group at a time
2. Nez Percé—(OR) eventually forced to relocate to ID (1877)
a) During journey, settlers killed—1500 mile flight to CN
b) Eventually captured after great resistance
3. Chiricahua Apaches (AZ, NM) under Geronimo resist until ‘86
a) Last Indians to maintain organized resistance
V. “Ghost Dance”—ceremonial dance to honor coming of messiah
1. promise of white retreat and restoration of buffalo
VI. Causes unrest and fear among whites—prelude to huge uprising?
1. Wounded Knee, SD—Sioux came to surrender—details foggy
a) 200 Indians to 40 U.S. soldiers
d. The Dawes Act of 1887
I. Gradual destruction of Indian culture--communal ownership of land
1. land allotted, citizenship given (25 years!) focus on farming
2. enabled more plundering of land and culture?
a) assimilation into white society—Christianity
3. limited enforcement (corruption and incompetence)
a) much land not individually owned at this time
V. The Rise and Fall of the Western Farmer
a. Post-Civil War era marked by a flood of white settlement—agriculture
I. land enclosure overcomes Indian hunting lands & open range ranching
II. Initial boom through the 1880’s—mid-decade, long & steady decline
b. Farming on the Plains
I. RRs most important factor that stimulate white invasion
II. Federal and State grants to RR companies (overhead)
1. 180 million acres, loans, direct financial aid
2. Cheap RR rates for travelers—favorable climate at this time
III. Difficulties
1. Enclosure—no wood or stone--barbed wire (mid-1870’s)
2. scarcity of water (even during favorable rainfall)
a) 1887 marks beginning of dry summers
b) wells, “dryland farming”, drought resistant crops
c) reverse migration for those who were in debt
c. Commercial Agriculture
I. commercial farming –imitate industrialists and manufacturing
1. specialization—national and world markets
2. dependence on bankers, RR, U.S./European markets
II. C.W. to turn of century, output increases greatly
1. communication and transportation
a) telephone, telegraph, steam navigation, RR
III. but, overproduction marks 1880’s—prices drop—farms lost
d. Farmer’s Grievances
I. though overproduction main problem—blame placed elsewhere
1. inequitable freight rates, high interest, inadequate currency
II. RRs—control freight rates, elevator /warehouse facilities for storage
III. Banks—scarcity of credit options—harsh times for payback of loans
1. many farmers advocated expansion of currency
IV. “middlemen”—speculators, bankers, regional and local agents
1. conspiracy to lower prices?
2. collusion on behalf of industrial manufacturers?
e. The Agrarian Malaise
I. social and cultural resentments flow out of economic difficulty
1. isolation—education, medicine, recreation, community…
2. general discontent among farmers
II. the image of the “frontier” gives way
Conclusions:
--Frontier—romanticized, drew white settlement
--“Relocation” of Indians and others
--mining, ranching, and farming