MODERN CHURCH
HISTORY PEOPLE
PROFILES
1. MAURICE CHIDIEBERE BEN
WILBERFORCE/ SEYMOUR/ BILLY GRAHAM
INTRODUCTION: The modern Church history focuses on the
history of the church and its environment between the eighteenth
century(1700AD) to the twenty first century(2003). There were men
and women whose lives and accomplishments made an indelible
impact on the church and society during this period. These were
the people we refer to in this essay as ‘major figures in modern
church history. Three of such men whose profile we want to
discuss in this essay are:
i. William Wilberforce( 1759 -1833), ii. William J. Seymour(18701922), iii. Billy Graham (1918 - )
WILLIAM WILBERFORCE (1759 – 1833):
William Wilberforce was a social reformer. Without doubt, he will
be reckoned as one of the greatest and influential figures of the
eighteenth century whose impact and contributions remain
indelible. His life and accomplishments continues to be a reminder
to us that the call of God is not limited to the pulpit, but God can
call people unto different fields and use them to accomplish his
purpose. William Wilberforce believed that God called him into
politics to accomplish two things : one, to reform the morals of his
nation, the second was to end slave trade as he wrote in one of his
journals, “ God almighty has set before me two objects, the
suppression of slave trade and the reformation of manners. All his
accomplishments were the fruits of this two-fold visions of his.
William Wilberforce endured 44years of struggle to bring about the
abolition of slave trade.
Born in Hull on the 24th of August 1759 . he was the son of Robert
Wilberforce(1728-1768), a wealthy Baltic trader who was elected
the Mayor of Hull for two occasions. William Wilberforce was
described as a very delicate and sickly child
He attended Hull Grammar School. In 1768, after his father’s
death, he was sent to St James’ Place, Wimbledon, London to stay
with his uncle and aunt. During this period he was educated at a
2
school in Putney. This period was very crucial in the life of William
Wilberforce because it was at this time that his aunt, Hannah who
was a strong supporter of George Whitefield, influenced him
towards evangelical Christianity which later became the trend of
his Christian worldview.
Now concerned about these influences and his leaning towards
evangelicalism which at that time, respectable Anglicans would not
like to be identified with, his mother and grandfather brought him
back to Hull in 1771. He continued his education at Pocklington
school. He later succeeded in English Poetry and was known as a
fine singer..
He went to St John’s College in 1776. And here he befriended
William Pitt, who became a lifelong friend and future Prime
Minister. He received his Bachelor of Arts degree in 17781 and the
Master of Arts degree in 1788
Wilberforce was reluctant to be involved in the family business of
Baltic trade, but while still at the university, he stood and won the
general election in 1780 for the Member of Parliament (MP) for
Hull, at the age of twenty-one. As an independent Tory he shared
feeling of discontent with the government. He was an eloquent and
gifted debater which made influential in the parliament.
According to Wikipedia, in 1784 Wilberforce embarked upon a tour
of Europe which many believed changed his life and his future
career. He returned temporarily in 1785 to give support to Pitt’s
Parliamentary reforms1. This highlights William’s drive for reforms
and change even before he began his popular slave trade abolition
struggle. He later returned on his tour of Europe. While on this
tour, he read Philip Doddridge’s book“ Rise and Progress of
Religion” and later studied the New Testament. Many believed
that this marked the beginning of his spiritual journey as he began
to rise early to read the bible and pray and resolved to commit life
and future work to the service of God.
John Newton the Rector of St. Mary Woolnoth in the city of
London, a leading evangelical Anglican clergyman and the author
1
3
Wikipeia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/william Wilberforce, March 2007.
of the popular hymn- “ Amazing Grace”, was one of those that
Wilberforce sought guidance from.
Pitt his long-time friend advised him not to quit politics as he
contemplated doing so because he felt that remaining in politics
might not be compatible with his desired commitment to God. The
life of and accomplishments of Wilberforce through his political
career serves as a pointer to the fact that God’s calling is not
limited to the pulpit; there has always been the need for Christians
to be represented in politics and in every sphere of career.
Work and accomplishments:
The work and accomplishment could be grouped into the following:
Social reform; Christian missions; Abolition of slave trade
Abolition of Slave trade: Wilberforce gave his energy and time to
the struggle for the abolition of slavery. There have been some
slight disagreement as to who or what was responsible for his
motivation to pursue the cause of the abolition of slave trade.
Some believe that Sir Charles Middleton challenged Wilberforce to
consider the cause of slaves2 but Wikipadia maintained that Sir
Charles Middleton only introduced Wilberforce to Thomas Clarkson
and the group campaigning for the abolition of slave Trade3 and
he later became the leader of the parliamentary committee for the
abolition of Slave Trade. But I
believe that his Christian
convictions was his main motivation. According to Jonathan Hill,
Wilberforce introduced the first abolition bill in 1789 during which
he made what was believed by many as the best speech ever
delivered in the Commons4 as he appealed the conscience of the
his audience on the evils and inhuman realities behind the slave
trade. But the first bill was not without stiff opposition as it was
defeated 163 votes to 88. despite this, Wilberforce did not give up
but continued to introduce the motion for the abolition during every
subsequent session of parliament. It took him forty-four years of
2
G. Chan, William Wilberforce: Revival Times, March 2007, P.11
Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William Wilberforce, March 2007.
4
J. Hill, The New Lion Handbook: The History of Christianity, Lion Hudson Plc,
Oxford, 2007, P349
3
4
campaign to end the struggle when in 1833, on his deathbed he
received news that Abolition of slavery has become law and he
died three days later. What a fulfilled life!
Social reforms : Although William Wilberforce was popularly known
for his work toward the abolition of slavery and slave trade, he was
also driven with a passion for social reforms as he wrote in one of
his journals, “ God almighty has before me two
objects, the suppression of slave trade and the reformation of
manners”. 5 It was believed that in 1787 Wilberforce along with
Bishop Porteus and other churchmen suggested to the Archbishop
of Canterbury to request that the king George the 111 should
issue a proclamation for the discouragement of vice as a remedy
for the prevailing tide of immorality and vices. He was also a
founding member of the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to
Animals.
Christian Missions: He was a founding member of the Church
Mission Society. In 1793, Wilberforce suggested and influenced
the addition of a clause by the Commons to the renewed charter of
the British East India Company which enabled the company to
employ religious teachers with intention of introducing Christian
faith to India. The impact of this could be seen in the spread of the
Christian faith in the Hindu India.
William Joseph Seymour(1870-1922):
A man of humble
background, born of a former slave from Centerville, Louisiana.
William Joseph Seymour’s humble black background did not
hinder him from rising to prominence in the early nineteenth
century as the pioneer of the famous Azusa Street revival and the
Pentecostal movement of which we in the twenty-first century are
still beneficiaries. According to Walter Hollenweger, William
Seymour taught himself to read and write.6 He was once a student
of Charles Fox Parham’s bible school in Topeka in Kansas. It was
said that Parham excluded Seymour from his bible classes but
only allowed him the only chance of listening from outside through
5
Wikipedia, htt://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William Wilberforce. March 2007
Walter J. Hollenweger, Pentecostalism: The Origin and Development worldwide:
Hendrickson Publisher, Massachusettes, 1997, P.19
6
5
a half- opened –door just because of his black origin, showing how
blacks were suppressed and marginalized against at this period
even among Christians. But such adverse circumstance could not
hinder Seymour. However, he imbibed Parham’s teaching and
began to teach it in a holiness church in Los Angeles.
The major achievements of Seymour is that he was the pioneer of
the Pentecostal movement. Because of the Asusa street revival
many refer to Seymour as the founder of Pentecostalism. But
Walter Hollenweger cited James R. Goff as arguing that Seymour
could not be the pioneer or founder of the Pentecostal movement
since he was taught the Pentecostal doctrines by Parham. He
claimed hat Parham was the real pioneer of Pentecostalism
because according to him, Parham was the one that invented the
doctrine of speaking in tongues as the initial evidence of the
baptism and the gift of the Spirit.
He was also the one who taught William Seymour the doctrine. But
Hollenweger insists that “there is hardly a Pentecostal movement
in the world today that is not built on Seymour’s oral Black mode
of communication”.7
Considering the argument, I could say that though it is obvious that
Parham taught Seymour the Pentecostal doctrine, but I note that
there is a significant difference between Parham’s ideology of
Pentecost and that of Seymour. For Seymour, Pentecost meant
more than speaking in tongues. It is about loving in the face of
hate. As in his Los Angeles revival, Blacks, Whites, worker,
Professors, bishops, Asians and Mexican were equals. Seymour’s
Azusa Street revival brought about the breakdown of the barriers
such as race, class, gender, wealth, language, etc which divide
people from one another.
While for Parham, Pentecost was just a religious experience of
speaking in tongues which did not see any evil in racism and
marginalization. It was said that Parham visited the Azusa Street
and denounced the mingling of races.
7
6
Ibid, P.23
William Seymour had a weakness which is seen in the quick
collapse of his famous Azusa Street church with its revival and
vision of harmony immediately after his death in 1922, and after
the death of his wife, Jennie Seymour in 1936, the church on
Azusa street was sold and demolished. It is obvious that this quick
collapse
of Seymour’s church and vision could be his inability to put
structures in place for continuity. And this a mere leadership
weakness. For there to be a continuity, a leader must learn to
impact his vision on to the leaders he has trained.
The life of William Seymour would continue to remind us of the fact
that we should not limit ourselves to our background. no mater how
poor or humble one’s background could be, any one who aligns
himself with God would always make a difference.
Billy Graham(1918- ):
Billy Graham is believed to be the greatest evangelist of the
twentieth century. He was an ordained South Baptist minister
He began preaching since the 1940s and it is believed that he has
preached the gospel to more people than any one in history
including presidents and world leaders. It is believed that he has
preached the gospel to up to 80million people in person and up to
200million through broadcast.
Former American PresidentGeorge Bush called Graham “ American Pastor. This could be
because he has been a long time spiritual advisor to some of the
past American presidents and congress men.
Born in North Carolina on November 7, 1918. He grew up in a
family farm in North Carolina, a hard working young man. He gave
his life to Christ at the tender age of 16, His life was inspired by
the ministry of Mordecai Ham, a traveling evangelist. He was
ordained in 1939 at the age of 21. He studied at the Florida Bible
institute, presently called Trinity College. He graduated later in
1943 from Wheaton College in Illinois and later Married Ruth
McCue-Bell, a fellow student. Billy Graham later joined the ‘Youth
For Christ’ an organization founded for ministering to the youth. It
7
was from preaching in this organization that he to light in public
preaching before he founded his famous ‘ Billy Graham
Evangelistic Association in1950.
Mission and Accomplishment: Billy Graham Attests to his mission
statement : “ My one purpose in life is to help people find a
personal relationship with God, which I believe, comes through
knowing”8.
He has preached the gospel to more people than any one in
history including presidents and world leaders. It is believed that he
has preached the gospel to up to 80million people in person
through crusades and conferences and up to 200million through
broadcast and books. One of his books sold – Angel sold up to one
million copies in just 90 days. His gospel broadcast is on about 700
stations worldwide.
But many Christians question his strong ecumenical stands in
relation to John14:6(…Jesus said I am the way, the truth and the
life, no one comes to the father except by me…).
Conclusion: As we have seen from the above, these men
distinguished themselves in their generations by the quality of lives
and accomplishments they left behind.
William Wilberforce, a politician and social reformer, saw his
political career as a call of God upon his life, endured forty-four
years of struggle to secure the abolition of slave trade. William
Joseph Seymour, A revivalist, with poor background and
experienced discriminations yet come to prominence as the
pioneer and father of the Pentecostal movement through his
famous Azusa street revival. Billy Graham, an evangelist, has
preached the gospel to more people than any man ion the history
of Christianity.
I believe that generations will hail these men as major figures of
modern church history.
8
8
Billy Graham, http://www.billygraham.org/about/billygraham.asp
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Chan, G. William Wilberforce: Revival Times, March 2007, P.11
Graham, B. http://www.billygraham.org/about/billygraham.asp
Hill, J. The New Lion Handbook: The History of Christianity, Lion
Hudson Plc, Oxford, 2007, P349
Walter J. Hollenweger, W. J. Pentecostalism: The Origin and
Development worldwide: Hendrickson Publisher, Massachusetts,
1997, P.19
Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William Wilberforce, March
2007.
9
2.J K.KABUE
FOX/ LOCKE/ CAREY
Introduction
In this people profile below the author analyses the life and
influence of three prominent figures in the modern Church History.
George Fox is the uncompromising founder of the Religious
Society of Friends, (the Quakers). John Locke is seen as a great
philosopher (father of philosophy). William Carey became the
“father” of the modern missions. The aim is to examine their life
and contribution to the church and where possible the state.
George Fox (1624-1690)
His Life
At Derby, in 1650 Fox was imprisoned for blasphemy; a judge
mocked Fox's exhortation to "tremble at the word of the Lord",
calling him and his followers "Quakers" — now the common name
of the Society of Friends.
Fox was born in Fenny Drayton, Leicestershire, and the son of a
weaver. There is no evidence of any formal schooling, other than
the fact that Fox could read and write clearly, for he kept a journal
10
recording his life’s work. We know that he read the bible as a youth
for he records in his journal ‘When I came to eleven years of age, I
knew pureness and righteousness.’ He was a cobbler and
shepherd who became a preacher and a religious zealot and
founded the Society of Friends, known as the Quakers.
Call to ministry
As he grew up, his relatives thought to make him a priest, but
instead they made him a trainee to a shoemaker and glazier. He
had constant obsession in the pursuit of "simplicity" in life, (humility
and the abandonment of luxury). He frequently visited Nathaniel
Stephens, the clergyman of his hometown, to engage in long
discussions on religious matters. Stephens considered him to be a
gifted young man, but they disagreed on many issues that he later
called Fox a madman and spoke against him in his subsequent
career. George also had friends who were "professors" (followers
of the standard religion), but by the age of nineteen he had begun
to look down on their behavior, in particular their drinking of
alcohol. He left Drayton-in-the-Clay in September 1643, moving
toward London in a state of mental torment and confusion. While in
Barnet, he thought intensely about Jesus' temptation in the desert,
which he compared to his own spiritual condition, but drew
strength from his conviction that God would support and preserve
him. He actively sought out the company of clergy, but found no
comfort from them. “Irrelevant advice in his spiritual search
frustrated him further. ‘Try tobacco,’ said one minister, ‘and sing
psalms.’ ‘Get married,’ advised another. ‘Bloodletting may help,’
said a third”.9 These second answers left him emptier. Vivian
records, “After much mental and spiritual torment, he experienced
the Inner Light of the Living Christ in 1664.”10
9
Tim Dowley., The history of Christianity, A Lion hand book, (Oxford: Lion publishing,
1990).p500.
10
Vivian Green., A New History of Christianity (Gloucestershire: Sutton Publishing,
1996).p194.
11
The Religious Society of Friends takes shape
In 1648 Fox began to exercise his ministry publicly. He was
imprisoned and suffered harsh treatment in prison severally but
persevered. He travelled through England, Ireland, West Indies
and North America preaching. The worship of Friends, in the form
of silent waiting, seems to have been well-established by this time.
His preaching was grounded in scripture, but mainly effective
because of the intense personal experience he was able to project.
“The Quakers were severely persecuted … because of their great
difference from the confessional churches on many points, … their
open criticism of other faiths, their refusal to pay taxes for the
support of state churches in some places, and their occasional
disruption of services of the state churches.”11 Some may see him
as rebellious by leading his follwers not to pay tithes or bear
arms. They regarded the “Inner light” to be more superior to the
authority of the scriptures.
His Influence
Fox is credited with the foundation of the Quaker movement (the
Society of Friends). He lived in a time of great social upheaval. He
rebelled against the religious and political consensus by proposing
an unusual and uncompromising approach to the Christian faith.
He established colonies of Quakers wherever he visited. He was
admired by Cromwell and, during the Commonwealth, preached
relatively freely. When the restoration came, Fox endured
persecution on account of his preaching against alcohol, theatres
and maypole dancing. His health worsened towards the end of
1684, but he continued his work writing to leaders in Poland,
Denmark, Germany, and elsewhere about his beliefs, and their
treatment of Quakers. He established a Yearly Meeting in
Amsterdam for Friends in the Netherlands and German states.
11
Howard F. Vos., Exploring church history, (London: Thomas Nelson publishers, 1994). p111.
12
John Locke (August 29, 1632 – October 28, 1704)
His Life
Locke's father, (also named John Locke), was a country lawyer
and clerk to the Justices of the Peace in Chew Magna. He had
served as a captain of cavalry for the Parliamentarian forces during
the early part of the English Civil War. His mother, Agnes Keene,
was a tanner's daughter and reputed to be very beautiful. Both
parents were Puritans. Locke was born on August 29, 1632, in a
small thatched cottage by the church in Wrington, Somerset, about
twelve miles from Bristol. He was baptized the same day. Soon
after Locke's birth, the family moved to the market town of
Pensford, about seven miles south of Bristol, where Locke grew up
in a rural Tudor house in Belluton. In 1647, he was sent to the
prestigious Westminster School, London under the sponsorship of
Alexander Popham, a Member of Parliament and former
commander of his father. After completing his studies there, he
joined Christ Church College at Oxford University. He found the
works of modern philosophers, such as René Descartes, more
interesting than the classical material taught at the university.
13
Through his friend Richard Lower, he was introduced to medicine
and the experimental philosophy being pursued at other
universities and in the English Royal Society, of which he
eventually became a member. He was awarded a bachelor's
degree in 1656 and a master's degree in 1658. He obtained a
bachelor of medicine in 1674, having studied medicine extensively
during his time at Oxford and worked with such noted scientists
and thinkers as Robert Boyle, Thomas Willis, Robert Hooke and
Richard Lower. In 1666, he met Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl
of Shaftesbury, who had come to Oxford seeking treatment for a
liver infection. Cooper was impressed with Locke and persuaded
him to become part of his retinue. He served as Lord Ashley's
personal physician. In London, Locke resumed his medical studies
under the tutelage of Thomas Sydenham. Sydenham had a major
impact on Locke's natural philosophical thinking. Shaftesbury, as a
founder of the Whig movement, exerted great influence on Locke's
political ideas. Locke became involved in politics when Shaftesbury
became Lord Chancellor in 1672. After Shaftesbury's fall from
favour in 1675, Locke spent some time traveling across France. He
returned to England in 1679 when Shaftesbury's political fortunes
took a brief positive turn. Around this time, he composed the bulk
of the Two Treatises of Government, ( In the Former, The False
Principles and Foundation of Sir Robert Filmer, And His Followers,
are Detected and Overthrown. The Latter is an Essay concerning
The True Original, Extent, and End of Civil-Government) Locke
wrote the Treatises to defend the Glorious Revolution of 1688, but
also to counter the absolutist political philosophy of Sir Robert
Filmer and Thomas Hobbes.
His view on religion was significant. “… he argued that no one
could be saved by a religion he was forced upon him and that he
did not believe… called for religious toleration and separation of
church and state.”12 However some scholars were against his
work. “Gerdil wrote … in defence of a spiritual phliosophy against
12
Howard F. Vos., Exploring church history, (London: Thomas Nelson publishers, 1994). p115.
14
what he perceived to be the materialism of John Locke’s
empiricism …”13
His Influence
He was an English philosopher (the discipline concerned with the
questions of how one should live). In epistemology (" is based on
the Greek words “episteme” = knowledge or science), Locke has
often been classified as a British Empiricist (one who emphasize
the theory of knowledge/ role of experience) along with David
Hume and George Berkeley. Green shows that he emphasized
“reason” in place of “revelation”.14 He is equally important as a
social contract theorist, as he developed an alternative to the
Hobbesian state of nature and argued a government could only be
legitimate if it received the consent of the governed through a
social contract and protected the natural rights of life, liberty, and
property. If such consent was not given, argued Locke, citizens
had a right of rebellion. Locke's ideas had an enormous influence
on the development of political philosophy, and he is widely
regarded as one of the most influential Enlightenment thinkers and
contributors to liberal theory. His writings influenced both Voltaire
and Rousseau and, along with those of many Scottish
Enlightenment thinkers, the American revolutionaries as reflected
in the American Declaration of Independence. Shaftesbury
credited him with saving his life. He died in 1704 after a prolonged
decline in health, and is buried in the churchyard of the village of
High Laver, East of Harlow in Essex. He neither married nor had
children. He exercised a profound influence on philosophy and
politics, in particular on liberalism. “He wrote various works on
politics and apologetics”.15
13
Patrick W. Carey., Joseph T. Lienhard., (eds) Biographical dictionary of Christian
Theologians,(Massachusetts: Hendricks publishers, 2002).p207.
14
Vivian Green., A New History of Christianity (Gloucestershire : Sutton Publishing,
1996).p208
15
Tim Dowley., The history of Christianity, A Lion hand book, (Oxford: Lion publishing,
1990).p489.
15
William Carey: Missionary-Evangelist (1761-1834)
His Life
This shoemaker's cottage has been well called "Carey's College,"
for as he cobbled shoes along with his preaching. He never sat at
his bench without some kind of a book before him. Carey was born
in a small thatched cottage in Paulerspury, a typical
Northamptonshire village in England, August 17, 1761, of a
weaver's family. When about eighteen he left the Church of
England to "follow Christ" and to "...go forth unto Him without the
camp, bearing His reproach." At first he joined the Congregational
church at Hackleton where he was a trainee shoemaker. In
Moulton Carey heard the missionary call. His attention to missions
was first awakened by reading the Last Voyage of Captain Cook.
He then began to read every book that had any bearing on the
subject. At twenty-one years of age, Carey had mastered Latin,
Greek, Hebrew and Italian, and was turning to Dutch and French.
In the quietness of his cobbler's shop — not in some enthusiastic
missionary conference — Carey heard the call: "If it be the duty of
all men to believe the Gospel ... then it be the duty of those who
are entrusted with the Gospel to endeavour to make it known
16
among all nations. "Carey sobbed out, "Here am I, send me!" “He
was converted in 1779 through a fellow apprentice shoemaker…
and was baptised … in 1783”16. It was there he married in 1781.
He became the Pastor of Moulton (1786) and then Harvey Lane,
Leicester (1789). Carey wrote his famed Enquiry Into the
Obligations of the Christians to Use Means for the Conversion of
the Heathen. In this masterpiece on missions Carey answered
arguments, surveyed the history of missions from apostolic times,
surveyed the entire known world as to countries, size, population
and religions, and dealt with the practical application of how to
reach the world for Christ! He prayed, pled, plodded, persisted,
and preached. His motto may be said to be, “expect great things
from God and attempt great things for God.” These produced the
Baptist Missionary Society. He and his family sailed to India
in1793. At first his wife was reluctant to go; Carey set off to go,
nevertheless, after two returns from the docks to persuade her,
Dorothy and his children accompanied him. There were years of
discouragement (no Indian convert for seven years), debt, disease,
deterioration of his wife's mind, death, but by the grace of God —
and by the power of the Word — Carey continued and conquered
for Christ!
His Influence
Partridge refer to William Carey as, “the father of modern
missions”.17 Shoemaker by trade, but scholar, linguist and
missionary by God's training. William Carey was one of God's
giants in the history of evangelism! He, with a few contemporaries,
was almost single handed in conquering the prevailing indifference
and hostility to missionary effort; Carey developed a plan for
missions, and printed his amazing Enquiry; influenced timid and
hesitating men to take steps to the evangelizing of the world.
Looking at his life as a whole, it is not too much to say that he was
the greatest and most versatile Christian missionary sent out in
16Tim
Dowley., The history of Christianity, A Lion hand book, (Oxford: Lion publishing,
1990).p572.
17
Christopher Partridge., Douglas Groothuis., (eds), Dictionary of contemporary religion in
the western world, (Leicester : IVP, 2002).p16.
17
modern times. When he died at 73, he had seen the Scriptures
translated and printed into forty languages, he had been a college
professor, and had founded a college at Serampore. He had seen
India open its doors to missionaries, excelled in evangelism,
education, medical relief, social reform, linguistic and horticultural
research. He had seen the edict passed prohibiting ‘sati’ (burning
widows on the funeral pyres of their dead husbands), and he had
seen converts for Christ.
Conclusion
We have found that these great had some similarities. They all
began in a humble beginning. This reminds us of God’s principle of
small beginnings. They faced challenges from “within and without”
but that did not hinder or blur their vision of the high calling. By the
time of their death they had proved beyond doubt of the genuine
vocation to be instruments of change.
Bibliography
Carey Patrick W., Joseph T. Lienhard., (eds), Biographical dictionary of
Christian Theologians, Massachusetts: Hendricks publishers, 2002.
Dowley Tim., The history of Christianity, A Lion hand book, Oxford: Lion
publishing, 1990.
Green Vivian., A New History of Christianity
Gloucestershire: Sutton Publishing, 1996.
Partridge Christopher,
Groothuis Douglas., (eds), Dictionary of contemporary religion in the western
world, (Leicester : IVP, 2002)
Vos Howard F.., Exploring church history, London: Thomas Nelson publishers,
1994.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Locke
23:02:07,
19:35hrs
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Fox
24:02:07, 22:15hrs
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Carey 26:02 :07, 20:30hrs
http://www.wholesomewords.org/missions/b
18
3. J-B LUKALU
Luther-King/ Wilberforce/ Seymour
Martin Luther King, JR (1929-1968)
Martin Luther King Jr was born in Atlanta, Georgia USA in 1929,
his father, his grandfather and his father; Martin Luther King
Senior, were both ministers of Ebenezer Baptist Church in Atlanta.
His mother, Alberta Williams, was the daughter of A. D Williams (a
minister in Atlanta). King was raised in a loving a deeply spiritual
Christian home in relative comfort.18 He attended Morehouse
College, Crozer Theological Seminary, and Boston University19. At
the Boston School of Theology, he met Dean Walter Muelder and
Professor Allen Knight Chalmers who both had ‘a passion for
social justice’ and ‘a deep sympathy for the pacifist position’. He
studied philosophy and theology under Edgar S. Brightman and L.
Harold DeWolf. King left Boston with the personal conviction that
‘nonviolent resistance was one of the most potent weapons
available to oppressed people in their quest for social justice’.20
In 1953 King married Coretta Scott, and two years later became
pastor of Dexter Avenue Baptist Church in Montgomery,
Alabama.21 It was during this time that King became a leader and a
voice for the black civil rights movement in America. A black
woman called Mrs. Rosa Parks had refused to sit in the
segregated section of a bus in Alabama, her actions stirred up the
conscience of the black community and consequently King
became the leader of the bus boycotts that followed. King also
became a leader for social justice and was made president of the
Southern Christian Leadership Conference.22
18
C. Carson (edit). The Autobiography of Martin Luther King, JR, (Abacus Publishers,
2000), p3.
19
Ibid, C. Carson, p13.
20
Ibid, C. Carson, p30-31.
21
Ibid, C. Carson, p34.
22
T. Dowley (edit). A Lion Handbook, The History of Christianity, (Lion Publishing Plc,
1997), p606.
19
King was a charismatic leader, a brilliant orator and had a Christian
commitment that was to be the key to his legendary success. He
believed that Christianity had the power to change and transform
not just the individual but the whole of society, and he brought a
unique message to the black civil rights movement that is; love for
your enemies and nonviolent protest. King was ultimately led by
the spiritual teachings and the leadership of Jesus, and he was
also influenced by the nonviolent protests of Mahatma Gandhi in
India.23
His strategy of nonviolence gave both philosophy and strategy to
the civil rights movement, the use of non violence as a means of
achieving social justice in a violent society appealed greatly to both
black and white society in America. King famously said to white
leaders,
‘We shall match your capacity to inflict suffering with our
capacity to endure suffering. We will meet your physical force with
soul force. Do to us what you will, and we shall continue to love
you’. 24
These statements of humility, mercy and compassion were
remarkable and almost unheard of in Americas’ bloody history. The
compassion that King showed for his oppressors was
extraordinary, but most astonishing was his ability to coordinate
the black community to protest without violence not just for their
own cause, but for the cause of Christ.
In 1964 King was given the Nobel Peace Prize, it was a great
victory for the campaign that he was leading, he said; ‘it is these
noble people who have won this Nobel Prize’.25
King was never a politician but his actions and his message of love
changed the course of the social and political history in America.
The speeches made by King are now legendary, he impacted
23
Ibid, T. Dowley, p606.
Ibid, T. Dowley, p606.
25
C. Carson (edit). The Autobiography of Martin Luther King, JR, (Abacus
Publishers,2000), p256.
24
20
listeners everywhere he went, and inspired African Americans to
demonstrate extraordinary acts of courage.
King responded to setbacks and frustrations by looking to
God for support, “I heard the voice of Jesus saying still to fight on.
He promised me never to leave me, never to leave me alone.”26
In 1968 at the age of 39 he was killed, in spite of being a victim of
hate, he left for all to know his conviction and demonstration of the
power of Christian love over hate.27 His legacy influences people of
all generations and all cultures still today, not just in America but all
over the world.
William Wilberforce 1759-1833
William Wilberforce was born in 24 August 1759 and lived in his
family home in Hull, northern England. Hull was the fourth largest
sea port in England.28 Wilberforce was educated from the age of
seven at Hull Grammar School, and was taught by Isaac Milner
who was later to be very influential in the conversion of Wilberforce
to Christianity. At the age of fourteen Wilberforce is believed to
have sent a letter to a local paper attacking the slave trade,
although there is little evidence to prove this. At the age of
seventeen, he attended St John’s College, Cambridge, in 1776, on
the recommendation of Reverend Basket. 29
The Wilberforce family were very wealthy but they did not profit
from slavery they imported timber and iron from the Baltic.p8 This
put Wilberforce in a unique position in his later political life because
many other Christian societies of the time did profit from slaves
and had their own plantations in America and the West Indies.30
26
C. Carson, P. Hollaran, A Knock at Midnight, The Great Sermons of Martin Luther
King, JR, (Abacus Pubishers, 2000) pxix.
27
T. Dowley (edit). A Lion Handbook, The History of Christianity, (Lion Publishing Plc
1997), p606.
28
S. Tomkins, William Wilberforce A Biography, (Lion Hudson Plc 2007), p8
29
Ibid, S. Tomkins, p9
30
Ibid, S. Tomkins, p13
21
Wilberforce, who had inherited the family business, was a very
wealthy man, but he chose no to run the family business and
instead decided to go into politics. In 1780 he became MP for his
home town of Hull. Wilberforce was considered as a young man of
particular character and principle, and a winning speaker. As a
politician Wilberforce mixed with many influential people, including
William Pitt (the younger) who later became prime minister.31
Some years later Wilberforce met Isaac Milner who was a
moderator of Cambridge University and Rector of St Botolph’s. On
a vacation to France Wilberforce was joined by Milner who was,
according to Wilberforce, not living out his Christian convictions.
However, on the journey Milner had apparently given Wilberforce a
book to read by a minister called Philip Dodderidge, The Rise and
Progress of Religion in the Soul. On returning to England
Wilberforce found that his life had changed irrecoverably.32
Ultimately he had a guilty feeling that he was wasting his life,
“What madness is this; to continue easy in a state in which a
sudden call out of the world would consign me to everlasting
misery. He began to read, pray and meditate daily on the things of
God.33
It was his conversion to Christianity that empowered him to join the
campaign for the abolition of slavery. William Wilberforce became
the spokesman and leader of the abolitionists in the British
Parliament in 1787, taking advantage of his friendship with the
Prime Minister, William Pitt to promote their cause. In 1807 slavery
in Britain was formally abolished but the slave trade continued to
thrive, and so Wilberforce, who had good connections in
31
T. Dowley (edit), A Lion Handbook, The History of Christianity, (Lion Publishing Plc
1996), p563
32
S. Tomkins, William Wilberforce A Biography, (Lion Hudson Plc 2007), p44-43
33
Ibid, S. Tomkins, p47
22
Parliament, pressed for a European agreement to ban the slave
trade.34
Wilberforce had a great conviction that he was called by God to be
a politician, and he became the leader of the ‘Clapham Sect’ of
parliamentary evangelicals. In 1813 the East India Company’s
charter came up for renewal and Wilberforce was determined to
get mission to the Indians included in it. He worked tirelessly to get
Parliament to agree to his proposals and he won, with funds
granted for the education of Indians.35
Wilberforce died in 1833, and without doubt he was a man of
outstanding talent and ability, but what sets him apart from other
politicians and leaders is that he led a revolt against the slave
trade at the height of its international success, and he did it in the
name of God. Furthermore, his actions lead to the abolition of
slavery in America and Europe.
William Joseph Seymour (1870-1922)
William Joseph Seymour was born in 1870 in Centerville,
Louisiana, USA. His parents were formerly slaves who raised their
son as a Baptist. Seymour was an outstanding person; he taught
himself to read and write, and while pasturing a church for a black
woman, Mrs. Farrow, he was given the opportunity to attend The
Bethel Bible School of Charles Fox Parham, in Houston. Because
of the ‘Jim Crow’ segregation laws Seymour was excluded from his
classes, however, Parham allowed Seymour to listen to his classes
through an opening in the door.36
Seymour lived at a time when whites still refused to mix with
African Americans in public, murders and lynches were
34
T. Dowley (edit), A Lion Handbook The History of Christianity, (Lion Publishing,
1996) p563
35
S. Tomkins, William Wilberforce A Biography, (Lion Hudson Plc, 2007), p187
36
W. J. Hollenweger, Pentecostalism, Origins and Developments Worldwide,
(Hendrickson Publishers, Inc, 1997), p19
23
commonplace, but Seymour defied the blind hatred of white
Americans;
For him Pentecost meant more than speaking in
tongues. It meant loving in the face of hate – overcoming the
hatred of a whole nation by demonstrating that Pentecost is
something very different from the success-oriented American way
of life.37
William Joseph Seymour is widely regarded as being the father of
multi racial worship in America, and he believed that integration of
white and black people was the central characteristic of the work of
the Holy Spirit. Seymour had adapted the idea of ‘the baptism of
the Holy Spirit from the doctrine taught by his former teacher
Charles Parham. Seymour taught in his sermons that God would
give intelligible languages (speaking in tongues) to believers for
missionary evangelism.38
Parham is often seen as the founder of Pentecostalism as we
know it, but Parham was himself a ‘segregationalist’. Seymour’s
meetings on the other hand were mixed race, which was
completely unheard of at the time. Seymour is widely quoted as
being the black ecumenist, for ‘he believed that doctrinal unity was
as essential as spiritual unity.39
William Seymour first began to preach at Azusa Street, Los
Angeles in 1906. There were reports that worshippers danced and
convulsed uncontrollably as they were caught by the Holy Spirit,
many received the gift of tongues, and miraculous healings were
performed before the crowd. ‘This happened at three services a
day, seven days a week, for three years’.40 ‘The Azusa Street
revival also witnessed a breakdown of barriers which normally
divided people from one another’. The church was fully integrated
37
Ibid, W. J. Hollenweger, p20
Ibid, W. J. Hollenweger, p40
39
Ibid, W. J. Hollenweger, p348
40
J. Hill, The New Lion Handbook The History of Christianity, (Lion Hudson Plc, 2007),
p454
38
24
on every level; wealth, gender, age, race, language, church
affiliation and education.41
Seymour was a man who knew and understood his African origins;
he ‘introduced Negro spirituals’ (as they were known) into church
worship.42This music has been largely misunderstood by white
Christians, who see outlandish displays of emotion as uncivilized.
What white Christians have always failed to understand (then and
now) is that Africans danced, clapped, and sang loudly and
harmoniously to God thousands of years before any missionary set
foot in Africa.
Negro spirituals are a spiritual gift given by God to black people to
worship him. This is of great significance to Seymour’s success
which obviously derived from, not just an outpouring of the Holy
Spirit, but from a worship that was both spiritual and true.
The Azusa Street church sent out missionaries throughout
America; Gaston Barnabas Cashwell took the message of the
baptism of the Holy Spirit to the Holiness churches of the South,
Charles Harrison Mason (like Seymour, was the son of freed
slaves), took the message to Memphis and formed a new church
called, The Church Of God in Christ, and William Durham took the
message to Chicago.43
Seymour’s revival is now seen as a triumph for Pentecostalism and
for social justice, it is also seen as a period of enlightenment for
African Americans who saw that ‘racism and the idea of the white
master-race had been overcome’. Seymour died in 1922 by heart
attack.44
41
W. J. Hollenweger, Pentecostalism, Origins and Developments Worldwide,
(Hendrickson Publishers, Inc, 1997), p23
42
W. J. Hollenweger, Pentecostalism, Origins and Developments Worldwide,
(Hendrickson Publishers, Inc, 1997), p19
43
J. Hill, The New Lion Handbook, The History of Christianity, (Lion Hudson Plc,
2007), p452
44
W. J. Hollenweger, Pentecostalism, Origins and Developments Worldwide,
(Hendrickson Publishers, Inc, 1997), p365
25
Bibliography
C. Carson, (edit), The Autobiography of Martin Luther King, JR, (Abacus
Publishers, 2000)
C. Carson and P. Holloran, A Knock At Midnight, The Great Sermons Of Martin
Luther King, JR. (Abacus Publishers, 2000)
Dr. T. Dowley (edit), A Lion Handbook, The History of Christianity, (Lion
Publishing Plc, 1996).
J. Hill. The New Lion Handbook, The History of Christianity, (Lion Hudson Plc,
2007)
W. J. Hollenweger, Pentecostalism, Origins and Developments Worldwide,
(Hendrickson Publishers, Inc, 1997)
S. Tomkins. William Wilberforce, A Biography. (Lion Hudson Plc, 2007)
THERESA N OZOEMENAM
FOX/ LIVINGSTONE/ WHITEFIELD
Introduction:
In this essay writing, we are going to look at the life, work and
lasting impact of George Fox. For many years George Fox
struggled painfully in searching for the truth about God. No one
could give him the answer and solution that he wanted to hear.
Fox was ‘a remarkable man, a blend of religious visionary and a
social reformer.’’45
Birth, Early life and Background: George Fox was born in July
1624 in Drayton, England. Fox was the founder of the ‘Quakers
meaning the religious Society of Friends.’46 Fox was said to be a
non systematic theologian. As he grew in maturity at the time
English civil war was on, ‘Fox discovered how the inner spirit was
more powerful than external standards,’47 especially churches,
45
Jonathan Hill. A new Lion handbook. The history of Christianity Lion Hudson Plc.
2007 P270.
46
Tim Dowley. A Lion Handbook, The History of Christianity. Lion Publisher Plc. 1977
P 500
47
Ibid, P 500
26
creeds, rituals, ministries and even the Holy Bible. Fox ‘never had
any former education, yet he believed to be more able than any
other learned oxford don, such as in the area of Bible.’48 Around
1646, Fox believe in having a personal encounter with God was
the best in original faith. This conviction led him to preach his ‘new
message of inner light.’ He was imprisoned in many occasions.
Though his preaching was powerful and resulted in many new
followers were converted to his movements. Due to his impact on
this movement concerning the inner Spirit, ‘he fought for religious
liberty within the state.’49
The consequences of searching for the truth: In course of this
search for the truth, the young George Fox was sentenced for six
months in jail in Derby; England. The judge at the time charged the
young George Fox of blasphemy. George Fox was only 14 years
old when this incident took place. His only crime was claiming that
Christ the Saviour, had washed away his sins; and in Christ, sin is
taken away completely.
The formation of the Quakers and its Nickname: “As the young
George was sentenced, he told the judge to tremble in the fear of
God.”
However, and that talking about Christ was not good enough but
following Christ is more important than any other thing in life.
However, the judge instantly knew about secret meetings taken
place with Fox and his followers. As judge told the young George
Fox that “you folks are the tremblers, and you are the Quakers”
This is how the name of the Quakers came into existence and
hence forth, as the people of which the name is connected to,
often referred to themselves as Christian of the light, and in some
cases referred to as the people of God. And some used the word
friends as in the exact word of Jesus. “You are my friend if you do
what I command you.”50 While others nicked named them as
Quakers because of the way of their worship as they shake and
moved their body.
48
Ibid, P 500
Tim Dowley. A Lion Handbook, The History of Christianity. Lion Publishing Plc.
1977 P500.
50
Ibid, P500.
49
27
However, as time moved on, the Quakers called themselves “the
society of friends,”51 when the Church of England was made legal.
George however, became tired of the formal religion as the English
church was mainly a church under control of the State rule.
Church under State control: George Fox was very concerned
about England churches being under control of state. Instead the
church of God is rather being managed by State appointed
officers. ‘He was concerned that the spiritual aspect of church has
been exchanged for state protection. And not according to God’s
plan and will but like kind of public service.’52
“George Fox went on to say that church had turned to apostate
even though Christ was not a kind of commodity to ‘’buy and sell”.
George did not get the right answer and advice as he wanted and
got frustrated. As all the spiritual advice he got did not satisfy and
comfort him, he called them a second hand rate of advice.
Travel and Evangelism: Then, in a moment of truth, he heard a
voice telling him that, “there is one. Even Christ Jesus, who can
speak to thy condition.”53
Hence Fox had Jesus Christ revealed to him in a most wonderful
experience he had ever longed for. As Fox ‘had a wonderful
encounter with Jesus Christ, his preaching became powerful and
people sensed the power of God within him.’54
Sometimes as Fox preached, people would argue with him and
even hit him with the bible. These incidents happened as people
became jealous of him, because he knew the bible very well.
“George climbed Pendle Hill on one occasion, in the north of
England, where wind sweeps grey mists across grassy slopes and
rocky crags.”55
51
Tim Dowley. A Lion Handbook. The History of Christianity Lion Publishing Plc.
1977. P 500
52
Ibid, P 500
53
Ibid, P 500
54
Ibid P500
55
Tim Dowley A Lion Handbook, The History of Christianity. Lion Publishing Plc.
1977 P501
28
George Fox had a “vision of people gathered unto the Lord”. As he
was on top of the Pendle Hill.
“In his vision, George saw Jesus Christ gathering people into
victory over Satan’”
Moreover, Fox had a need to proclaim Christ who frees people
from the evil power of sin in their lives.
As a result of this, George went into open air preaching to
thousands of people. According to George, “Christ has been
locked up for too long in the mass or in the book.”56
He openly told the people as he preached the gospel, to let “Jesus
Christ be your Prophet, Priest and King. Obey Him.” 57
The message of truth appealed to both young men and women
and most of them became the Evangelists of the Quaker
movement. As the time moved on, they were known as the “valiant
sixty.”58
Impact: The Quakers went across England preaching the gospel
and as far wide as wherever the ships would land them. In the
course of this movement, many soul seekers joined this movement
of hope. And in course of time other denominations joined the
movement to proclaim the word of God. This, within three years of
his Pendle Hill encounter vision with Christ, the follower of Quakers
movement for Jesus grew to fifty thousand members. Before the
end of seventeenth century its number had doubled. He fought for
religious liberty within the country and got freedom for the people.
They found settlements within West Indies and North America. .
Friends’ churches are in many places of the world today and half of
them are not of European origin.
Lifting barrier: Notwithstanding, Fox ‘had done away with cultural
obstacles and maidservants were allowed to take part in worship
alongside the aristocrats,’ e.g. scholar Robert Barclay.
Fox and his Quakers did not participate in State affairs, such as
paying state tithes or taking oaths are forbidding and many of his
Quakers were imprisoned and hanged on Boston common
56
Ibid P 501
Ibid p 501
58
Ibid, P502
57
29
between 1660 – 1661. This is because the Quakers chose to hold
onto their own convictions instead of obeying authorities.
In conclusion, Fox believed that every individual had a kind of
direct access to God. He does not agree that churches and priests
are places to find God and as he denied the views of churches and
priests, he found himself in trouble and sooner was imprisoned
again and again. Though he was able to preach across the country
and won several disciples. Most of the time ‘they relied on the
inner light of the Holy Spirit as a ruler of life’59. Their beliefs landed
them at odds with both Church of England and the accepted social
order. According his view, if everyone had direct access to God,
no one was more special than anyone else! As his followers
refused to take off their hats before magistrates and would not take
oaths, since Jesus forbade it in Mathew 5:33-37. This behaviour
led to the thousands of Quakers being imprisoned. Thus, towards
the end of Fox life, about fifty thousands new members were
converted to the movements. ‘The inner spirit discovered by Fox
helped him greatly as it was more powerful than external standards
like churches, creeds, rituals, ministries and even the holy bible.’60
Fox however, passed away in 1691 and Quakers movement
doubled twice in a couple of decades. Thus, Fox was a
remarkable man, a blend of religious visionary and social reformer
of his time.
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Jonathan Hills. The new lion Handbook. The History of Christianity. Lion Hudson
Plc. 1977
59
S. M. Houghton Sketches From Church history. The banner of Trust truth. 1980 P 160
Patrick W. Carey & Joseph T. Lienhard. Biographical Dictionary of Christian
Theologians. Hendrickson Publisher Inc. 2002 P198.
60
30
S. M. Houghton. Sketches from Church History. The banner of Trust Truth. 1980
Tim Dowley. A Lion handbook, The History of Christianity. Lion Publishing Plc.
1977
Patrick W. Carey & Joseph T. Lienhard. Biographical Dictionary of Christian
Theologians
LIVINGSTONE
Introduction: In this essay, we will be covering the life, work and
the lasting impact and achievements on David Livingstone who
was a great and powerful missionary. He was also an explorer who
explored round the world in his time. Despite all criticisms against
him, Livingstone went ahead to win the hearts of those who read
about him in the history.
Birth, Early life and background: He was born in Blantyre in the
industrial west of Scotland in 1813. ‘He came from a poor
background but had Christian parents.’61 They were of members of
an independent church. When he was just only ten years of age,
he started work in a local cotton mill with a book which propped up
on the machine. However, the young David was ‘able to educate
himself through the ordinary gain from his poor work’. 62 ‘He did his
education through night classes.’63 ‘He was then converted and
believed he was called by God to do a missionary work and soul
winning for Christ.’64
Education: In a period of time, Livingstone was able to study
medicine in Glasgow, London hospitals and studied theology in
England. Despite his efforts in training himself, he was not a clever
student. We learnt ‘he was an awkward, heavy and down
61
Dowley Tim. A lion handbook. The History of Christianity. Lion Publishing Plc. 1977
p 564
62
Ibid p564.
63
Ibid p 564
64
Ibid p 564
31
person.’65 Between 1841 and 1856, David Livingstone was able to
serve under the London missionary society. He also served in
South Africa under celebrated Robert Moffat and later married his
daughter. David later went into uncharted territory where he
eventually laid foundation for missions.
Livingstone ‘built a very good relationship by getting more
knowledge of the geographical areas, transportation businesses
and movement of the people in general.’66 He was also known to
have been involved in playing a crucial role in abolition of slave
trading especially in Africa and among the Arabian moguls.
Travel & missionary works: He was noted as a good teacher
between 1851 and 1856 which included walking across Africa from
west to east. However, his committee did not acknowledge his
missionary travel as something of relevance. He had British
government expedition to explore the river Zambesi. Livingstone
himself called ‘this expedition God’s highway into the interior of
Africa.’67 However, the expedition did not succeed and it was
stopped and called back in 1863. However, Livingstone has been
classified as a Christian evangelist, an imperialist and an egoist by
his critics. But his whole life has been interpreted as a sacrifice.
His venture was supported by the British government with about
£5,000. According to him, ‘he went to East Africa in order to
benefit both British and African people.’68
During this period, his world fell apart after the death of his lovely
wife. His keen interest was questioned by his critics. However, he
was able to set out on another expedition without his European
companions accompanying him. He continued his expedition
through Zanzibar in 1866 and went through hardship, suffering and
endurance throughout the East African coasts and interior. In the
cause of this long terrible journey, he died in 1873. His African
supporters and well wishers took his dead body to the coast. His
65
Dowley Tim. A Lion handbook. The History Christianity. Lion Publishing plc. 1977 p
564.
66
Ibid p 564
67
Ibid p 565
68
Johnson Paul. The History of Christianity. A Touchstone Book by Simon Schuster.
1976. p447
32
body was eventually shipped to England and ‘he was lastly buried
in Westminster Abbey.’69
David Livingstone’s achievement.
David Livingstone was ‘an explorer but he was ranked as one of
the greatest missionary and explorer of his time.’70 He walked
through and across South Africa, Zambia, Malawi, Tanzania,
Eastern Zaire and Botswana. He did a better record than most of
his contemporaries. ‘He defended and held on to the end, his early
belief in both unity and all truth, biblical and scientific was his great
pride’.71 His main goal was ‘to help to drain the open sore of Africa
known as the Arab slave trade.’72 ‘He was greatly moved by the
human suffering, poverty and slave trading and always wanted to
do more for people of Scotland and Africa.’73 ‘He fearlessly stood
by the abolition of the human slave trade and left a legacy of a true
missionary and explorer and Christianity growth, commerce and
civilization.’74
Livingstone had ‘hoped to solve the mystery of
source of the River Nile but this interest eluded him because of
many problems.’75
In conclusion, Livingstone soon found out that his vision of white
settlement could not cure poverty in both Scotland and Africa.
However, ‘he believed economic growth, trade and agriculture
development could help to improve people’s lives.’76 As well as
gospel being spread to all parts of this area could help to enlighten
and improve people’s standards. Notwithstanding, Livingstone had
excellent relations with African’s but his European counterparts
failed him greatly. His aim was not to exploit poor people but help
liberate them. Even though, he was a missionary for half of his
thirty years in Africa. Livingstone’s work was seen as that of
69
Dowley Tim. A Lion Handbook. The history of Christianity. Lion Publishing Plc.
1977 p 565
70
Ibid p 564.
71
Ibid p 564
72
Ibid p 565
73
Ibid p 565
74
Ibid 565
75
S. M. Houghton. Sketches from Church History. The Banner Trust Truth. 1980 p205
76
Dowley Tim. A Lion handbook. The History of Christianity. Lion. Lion Publisher
Plc.1977 P 565
33
providential plan with gospel preaching to increase the people’s
knowledge and help in relieving their suffering.
As a result of his death in 1873, the Church of Scotland opened
central African mission and Anglican ministries mission in Central
Africa. In the course of getting strength, Livingstone quoted the
following words of the Lord below as: ‘’Would you like me to tell
you what supported me all the years of exile among a people
whose attitude toward me was always uncertain and often hostile?
It was this, ‘Lo, I am with you always, even unto the end of the
world.’ On these words I started everything, and they never
failed.’’77 [1896]
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Jonathan Hills. The new Lion Handbook, The History of Christianity, Lion
Hudson Plc.1977
Patrick W. Carey & Joseph T. Lienhard. Biographical dictionary of Christian
Theologians. Hendrickson Publishers. 2002
77
Jonathan Hill. The History of Christianity. The New Lion Handbook, Lion Hudson
Plc. 2007. P 381
34
S. M. Houghton. Sketches from Church History. The banner of Truth Trust. 1980
Tim Dowley. A Lion handbook, The History of Christianity. Lion Publishing
Plc.1977
WHITEFIELD
Introduction: This essay will cover the life, work and the lasting
impact of George Whitefield in general. We will also look at how
George was an outstanding preacher in his time and his
participation in both revival and great awakening period. Members
increased enormously, social reforms and increase in moral
consciousness took place. ‘’If Jonathan Edwards was the mind of
American revival, Whitefield was their heart.’’78
Birth and early life: George Whitefield was born in Gloucester in
1714. He took his education at Permbroke College in Oxford and
studied drama. He then got converted in 1935 and went on to be
ordained as a deacon in 1736. ‘’In course of these new events in
his life, he met Wesley brothers and became close to the Wesleys
and many others in a club called Holy Club.’’79
Tour & evangelism: He travelled to Georgia in America and while
he was in America, he participated in a different charitable and
church works. In a short time, he visited England between 1738
78
Jonathan Hills. The new Lion Handbook. The History of Christianity. Lion Hudson.
2007. P332.
79
Tim Dowley. A lion Handbook, The History of Christianity. Lion Publishing Plc.
1977. p, 442
35
and 1739 so as to be ordained as a priest. He later renewed
interest in his Indian missions.
He then raised some money towards his orphanages and schools
projects. While on this visitation, he discovered a talent for open
evangelism which was a gift from Holy Spirit. He had a contact with
Howell Harris and the welsh revival.
Conflict: Meanwhile George decided to come back to Georgia in
1740, ‘’his Calvinistic form of Methodism fell out with the Wesleys’
Arminaism.80’’ This conflict led to a painful break and never
recovered from it. As a result of the problem facing him, he
decided to come back to England in 1741. However, Whitefield
started a missionary tour which took him to far places. He
continued on his missionary journey till the end of his life time and
was regarded as one of the best and finest preacher of his period.
Life and lasting impact of his works: In his life and works, we
discovered that, Whitefield visited Scotland 14 times. Whitefield
supported and helped to organise the famous Cambuslang revival
in 1742. He was able to visit America up to seven times and widely
travelled all over England and Wales, with such a great zeal and
confidence to do the works of God. It was his love for God that
moved him for the great awakening which set and touched almost
the American colonies in 1740.’’81
He continued to associate with the Welsh Calvinistic Methodists,
though touring both south Wales with Howell Harris on many
occasions. The two great associates, Whitefield and Harris
preached to a large audience in several occasions, touching
people’s lives as the great multitude found new lives with Christ
through his powerful preaching.82 Whitefield often preached in
English while Harris preached in welsh. He was invited many times
to preach in different chapels, which was owned by the countess of
Huntingdale then. He also preached at Preacher’s college of
Trerecca in 1768. But unfortunately, George travelled back to
America when he passed away in 1770.
Generally Whitefield is regarded as a fervent persuader. He left a
legacy of many Christians to build and support churches out of his
80
Ibid, p 442
Ibid, p 443
82
Ibid p 443
81
36
many new converts. He was able to trust the administrative tasks
and caring for infant churches in the hands of associate friend
Harris as Whitefield was not good at administrative works
Some of the important churches such as Moorfields and tabernacle
at Tottenham court road boast his ministry abilities and
responsibilities. Those London chapels were known as the
countess of Huntingdale’s connection in both south and west of
England.
These London chapels existed on their own until in 19 th century
when they were completely absorbed in to congregationalism.
However, Whitefield continued his theological work and studies on
the old English puritan themes.
This theme reflects the principles of original sin, justification in form
of faith and regeneration.
While preaching with a rare passion for soul winning for Christ, he
was also known as a militant Calvinist in his days. People regarded
him as a Calvinistic Methodist. Though his preaching style was
compelling and dynamic, he spoke with zeal and plain style.
He was physically well built and this attracted attention. His voice
was powerful and astonishing. In his period the Anglican banned
him from using their pulpits. People interrupted his open air
services because he was a favourite target for anti Methodist
campaign. Notwithstanding, he has been a good evangelist of his
time.
His good works has been complemented to that of Wesleyan
Methodism. In most cases, he was a herald or precursor of the
Wesley brothers. For example, he chose Bristol as a base for his
evangelism, publishing magazines. His choices in founding a
school, preaching in open air and even summoning a conference
of many preachers reflects his strong connections on the Wesley
brothers. The famous actor David Garrick once said, ‘’I would
give a hundred guineas if I could say ‘oh’ like Mr. Whitefield.’’83
In conclusion, Whitefield was one of the greatest preachers of the
England awakening. Mr. Whitefield was a great pioneer in the
English revival. During the time of Whitefield preaching, the crowds
were enormous that he had to use open air most of the periods.
83
Ibid p 443
37
In a period of three years, ‘’around one hundred and fifty churches
were affected by the awakening and revival.’’ 84 This is not only in
England but also in New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania and
Virginia. The awakening period was not only through campaigns of
preachers. Instead, Whitefield visited the churches in America in
order to rouse the ministries; he believed that they were dead
asleep. As such, he revived the dead preachers so that they can
revive their own dead men to be awake and alive again for Christ.
However, as a result of the great awakening and the revival of the
men and their churches, missionary works were encouraged.
Denominational obstacles were broken down and a new spirit of
co-operation, unity and support came into effect. In course of this
awakening, higher education was encouraged and major
institutions such as Princeton colleges were built and made
available. Thus, this paved way for spiritual and the political
liberations which contributed largely to the American Revolution.
‘’Whitefield based his entire sermon on importance of Grace,
Christian experience and inner subjective union with Christ
Jesus.’’85 However, it was said that Whitefield accused Wesley of
the heresy of universalism, and told him: ‘Your God is my devil.’86
Sadly and ironically, Whitefield requested God to allow him to
preach one more time in the open field.87 And God granted his
request and desire before his death in 1770 at the age of fifty five.
Thus, ‘Whitefield lived and died as the greatest evangelist of the
modern age.’88 If ever an English man lived to the glory of God, it
was George Whitefield.’89
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
84
Ibid, p443
Patrick W. Carey and Joseph J. Lienhard. Hendrickson Publishers 2002. P 531
86
Paul Johnson. A history of Christianity. Borders Books Inc. 1976 p 366.
87
S.M. Houghton. Sketches from church History. The Banner of Truth Trust. 1980. p
201
88
Ibid p 201
89
Ibid p 201
85
38
Jonathan Hills. The New Lion handbook. The history of Christianity. Lion
Hudson Plc. 1977.
Paul Johnson. A History of Christianity. Borders Books Inc. 1976.
Patrick W. Carey & Joseph J. Lionhard. Biographical Dictionary of Christian
Theologians. Hendrickson publishers. 2002.
S. M. Houghton. Sketches from church History. The banner of Truth Trust. 1980.
Tim Dowley. A Lion Handbook. The history of Christianity. Lion publisher Plc.
1977.
CONNIE THOMAS
MOODY/ WILBERFORCE/ WHITEFIELD
INTRODUCTION
Throughout history there have been great men of historical and
political influence who have helped to shape the world we live in
today.
Amongst these giants were evangelicals such as
Whitefield, Charles and John Wesley, Jonathan Edwards, Gilbert
Tennent, Dwight Moody, William Wilberforce (Slave Trade),
William Booth (Salvation Army). These evangelicals paved the
way for the gospel message to be taken to another level,
particularly in the worship arena and freedom of expression of
one’s faith.
However, my main purpose here is to describe and discuss the
drive of three of these great evangelists namely Wilberforce,
39
Moody and Whitefield. These men in particular Wilberforce,
played a huge part in the freedom of slaves in the 18 th Century.
He was a key figure in the abolition of the Slave Trade in Britain in
1807. Whitefield was the first evangelist to teach the gospel to the
black slaves and one scholar has described his passion as, “the
concentration on conversion and holy living that marked
Whitefield’s activity, as well as his flexibility with respect to church
form and inherited religious tradition, have always been important
characteristics of evangelical movements.”90
1.
DWIGHT LYMAN MOODY
Personal life
Dwight Lyman Moody was born on 5th February 1837 and died on
22 December 1899.
His birthplace was at Northfield in
Massachusetts in the United States. He was of 6 children.
Apparently his father died aged 41 in 1841, which meant that his
mother raised the children thereafter. This made life very hard for
the family. Dwight was severely affected by the death of his father
who died when he was just aged 4. He is recorded to having said,
“The first thing I remember was the death of my father … his death
has made a lasting impression upon me.”91
90
Mark A. Nicholl: The Rise of Evangelicalism: The Age of Edwards, Whitefield and
the Wesleys: Apollos (an imprint of Inter-Varsity Press), 2004.
91
Internet: http/www.wholesomewords.org/biography/biomoody.html: Christian
Biography Resources
40
As a very young boy he worked in his uncle’s shoe shop and whilst
working there, one of the terms of his employment there was to
attend his uncle’s church, which was called “Mount Vernon
Congregational Church”. He was so impressed with this church
and its teachings that he soon began to go there regularly and
applied for admission.
Dwight married Emma Revell in 1862 who happily helped him in
his work as an evangelist. They had two children, a boy and a girl.
His works
Moody had very strong Calvinistic theology. He preached to
thousands and 300 converts attended his services regularly
although he was still an unordained pastor. In the year of 1856 he
decided to go to Chicago and obtained a job as a salesman.
However during that time he became more and more involved in
religious activities. He was a Sunday school teacher and in 1863
managed to attract a large number of people and formed a church
called the Illinois Street Church. From there he became a
missionary after giving up full-time work; primarily to be involved
with the Christian Commission in the Civil War. At this time he also
became involved in the Chicago Young Men’s Christian
Association.
The impact of his ministry
It would appear that Moody’s tireless evangelism to reach out to
souls saved so many who themselves became scholars and
educated. He helped financially as well as spiritually. I believe he
is definitely a classic example of what a true pastor should be. His
child-like faith in God is remarkable. He certainly dropped
everything to follow Jesus. Like Jesus he looked for causes.
During the early days of his ministry it didn’t matter to him whether
41
he had a building or not: it was simply a matter of how he could
help the people. I have to argue however that direct opposition
came from other evangelists such as C.H. Spurgeon who “was
empathetically against the idea that any power to convert men lay
in the hands of man”.92
2.
WILLIAM WILBERFORCE
Personal Life
William Wilberforce was born on 24th August 1759 into a wealthy
family. He lived with his Aunt and Uncle. His father died when he
was 10 years old. His aunt raised him as an evangelical Christian:
“she raised the boy in the same faith teaching him daily devotions
and taking him to Methodist meetings. ”93 He studied at St John’s
College in Cambridge in 1776 and by 1780 became an MP in Hull.
He became friends with William Pitt who later went on to be the
Prime Minister. One scholar has said: “At the age of 14 he had
already written a letter to a local paper attacking the evils of
slavery.94 He was born with the gift of “argumentative and
eloquent speech, and soon distinguished himself as a leading
debater”.95
His conversion
When he became 25, through his friend Isaac Milner he became a
Christian. However, it was after reading a book entitled “Rise and
Progress of Religion in the Soul” that he became very spiritual. He
became a believer of the Gospel and immediately focussed on
92
Murray, Iain H: Revival & Revivalism: The making and marring of American
evangelicalism (1750-1858); The Benner of Truth Trust, 1994, p.406.
93
Stephen Tomkins: William Wilberforce: A biography: Lion Hudson plc, 2007, p.11
94
D.W. Bebbington; A Lion Handbook: The History of Christianity: Lion Publishing
plc, 1977, 1990, p.563.
95
Revival Times Publication: Vol 9 Issue 3, March 2007 (Kensington Temple London
City Church), 2007.
42
God’s work. He wasn’t sure where God was leading him so he
sought advice from his friends Newton and Pitt who told him “It is
hoped and believed that the Lord has raised you up for the good of
His church and for the good of the nation”.96
His works
a)
b)
c)
He is more likely remembered for his abolition campaigns
with regard to the slave trade.
In 1797 he wrote a book called “A Practical View of the
Prevailing Religious System of Professed Christians”.
He became again another MP for Yorkshire in 1784 until
1812, but retired in 1825.
He was responsible for the abolition of the slave trade in 1834. In
the Lion Handbook entitled “History of Christianity” one writer
quotes: “His conversion gave Wilberforce the dynamic to lead the
campaign against the slave trade, which he had abominated since
the age of fourteen.”97 God used him mightily.
Impact of his ministry
Wilberforce was a political force in Parliament: he became one of
Britain’s greatest and influential statesmen. He made friends with
folks in high places. In fact he even befriended William Pitt, the
Prime Minister of that time. He managed to influence Pitt as well
as other prominent figures in the political area. He had great charm
and was highly educated thus suitable for God to use in that field
of politics. He was called of God to impact the upper class of his
generation. He spent most of his lifetime fighting the abolishing of
slavery. “He endured 44 years’ struggle to the end when on his
deathbed he received news that Abolition of Slavery had finally
96
Ibid, 2007
D.W. Bebbington; A Lion Handbook: The History of Christianity: Lion Publishing
plc, 1977, 1990, p.563
97
43
become law”.98
Wilberforce once commented:
“Slavery is
chargeable with holding in bondage, in darkness and in blood, onethird of the habitable globe; because it erects a barrier along more
than 3,000 miles of the shores of that vast continent, which shuts
out light and truth, humanity and kindness”.99 A certain Robert
Peel, MP in the House of Commons actually thought that, “the
Africans were not yet sufficiently mature to deserve liberty”.100
Because of opposition from such Members in the House of
Commons, “the parliamentary effort to end the slave trade would
constitute a long struggle”.101
As well as the slave trade, Wilberforce also “helped to open India
to missionaries in 1813.”102 He once said in a statement on 28th
October 1787: “God Almighty has set before me two great objects,
the suppression of the Slave Trade and the Reformation of
Manners”.103
He was indeed a giant in his day. He was known as one of the
greatest abolitionists during the slave trade era. He died in 1833.
3.
GEORGE WHITEFIELD
Early life
George Whitefield was born in 1714 in Gloucester (England). He
was a minister in the Church of England and a great leader and the
founder of Methodism. He was poor and therefore could not afford
his college fees. He attended Oxford as a ‘servitor’, which means
98
Revival Times Publication: Vol 9 Issue 3, March 2007 (Kensington Temple London
City Church)
99
Ibid, 2007.
100
Hugh Thomas: The Slave Trade: The History of the Atlantic Slave Trade 1440-1870:
Papermac (an imprint of Macmillan Publishers Ltd), 1998, p.535.
101
Ibid, 1998.
102
D.W. Bebbington; A Lion Handbook: The History of Christianity: Lion Publishing
plc, 1977, 1990, p.563.
103
Revival Times Publication: Vol 9 Issue 3, March 2007 (Kensington Temple London
City Church)
44
that he had to work as a servant to the more wealthy students. He
was however somebody of great talent. He had a passion for
acting. At Oxford University it was there he met with John and
Charles Wesley, the other evangelical revivalists of that time. As
regards his personality, he was charming and eloquent.
His works
The Great Awakening movement made him famous for his
preaching in America. He was best known for his peculiar ministry
of open-air preaching because other denominations didn’t give him
an opportunity to preach in their churches. He was however
determined to preach. He was a follower of the Calvin doctrine. It
has been said that because of his ‘acting’ career he preached with
a powerful voice, “Whitefield preached with a Calvinist theology.
He was known for his powerful voice and his ability to appeal to the
emotions of a crowd, and unlike most preachers of his time, spoke
extemporaneously, rather than reading his sermon from notes”.104
He appealed to the American people and it is believed that to date,
there are certain modern day preachers who have adopted
Whitefield’s style of preaching. At one point the president of
America, Benjamin Franklin came to listen to him preach and was
so impressed. Whitefield was revolutionary with his preaching and
had tremendous revival meetings. It is estimated that he preached
more than 18,000 sermons throughout his ministry. In one week
he could preach at least 5 sermons a day. He travelled extensively
throughout America, England, Scotland, Bermuda and The
Netherlands. However, although Whitefield was a deeply profound
spiritual evangelist, I would question why then he ‘owned’ slaves
and ‘bequeathed’ them to his friend the Countess of Huntingdon
upon his death. The writer Mark Noll made the comment that
“Whitefield at first attacked the slave system, but then eventually
came to accept it and even to own slaves himself.”105 I am baffled
that slaves were even seen as a commodity even by such
‘spiritual’ leaders of the 18th Century.
104
Internet: http:/en.wikipedia.org/wilki/George_Whitefield,, 17/03/2007
Mark A. Noll: The Rise of Evangelicalism: The Age of Edwards, Whitefield and the
Wesleys; Apollos (an imprint of Inter-Varsity Press), 2004
105
45
The impact of his ministry
Whitefield was responsible for building three major churches in
England, “Whitefield’s Tabernacle” in Bristol, “the Moorfields
Tabernacle” and “the Tottenham Court Road Chapel” (London).
He also built a chapel in London called “the Spa Fields Chapel”
which is still in London to date. In the town of Georgia, USA, he
established an Orphanage called ‘Bethesday’. He was the first to
preach to black slaves in America.
There is a church in
Massachusetts called “The Old South Presbyterian Church in
Newbury Port” under which Whitefield’s body was buried in 1770.
He has been described as one of the great evangelical fathers, “He
was certainly the best-known preacher in America … he drew
great crowds and media coverage, he was one of the most widely
recognized public figures in America before George
Washington”.106
CONCLUSION
In an article entitled “Revival Times Publication” Colin Dye made
the statement: that “the lack of men in today’s church makes it
less likely than ever that we will see a ‘Wilberforce’ again. This is a
tragedy because the old evil of slavery has a new face today, and
we must stand against it in all its forms”.107 In churches today it is
believed that there are more women than men, although there
have been some great women doing great work for God. These
great men whom I have identified were indeed great figures,
especially as good role models for men. For example Wilberforce
clearly stood his ground in Parliament and no doubt went through a
great deal to see the end of slavery in Great Britain.
106
Internet: http:/en.wikipedia.org/wilki/George_Whitefield,, 17/03/2007
Revival Times Publication: Vol 9 Issue 3, March 2007 (Kensington Temple London
City Church)
107
46
Wilberforce, Whitefield and Moody were indeed pioneers in their
own ways. They could be compared to such greats in the Bible
such as Moses, Isaiah, Paul and of course the 12 apostles.
47
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. A Lion Handbook:
The History of Christianity: Lion Publishing plc,
1977,1990.
2. Tomkins, Stephen: William Wilberforce: A biography: Lion Hudson plc,
2007.
2. Mark A. Noll: The Rise of Evangelicalism: The Age of Edwards, Whitefield
and
the Wesleys; Apollos (an imprint of Inter-Varsity Press), 2004.
4. Murray, Iain H: Revival & Revivalism: The making and marring of American
evangelicalism (1750-1858); The Benner of Truth Trust, 1994.
3. Joseph Tracy: The Great Awakening: A History of the Revival of Religion in
the time of Edwards & Whitefield: First Banner of Truth Trust, 1976
5. Adam Hochschild: Bury the Chains: The British Struggle to abolish slavery;
Pan Macmillan Ltd, 2005.
6. Hugh Thomas: The Slave Trade: The History of the Atlantic Slave Trade
1440-1870: Papermac (an imprint of Macmillan Publishers Ltd), 1998.
7. Revival Times Publication: Vol 9 Issue 3, March 2007 (Kensington Temple
London City Church)
48
GILBERT MSENGI
EDWARDS/ MOODY/ BOOTH
JONATHAN EDWARDS (1703-1758)
In this essay I will firstly give a brief life account of Jonathan
Edwards, his works and impact.
He was born on October 5,1703, in East Windsor, Connecut, the
only son of among 11 children. He graduated from Yale College in
1720 and remained there for two more years studying theology
and then as Pastor in New York but he returned to Yale as tutor
before accepting a position as an Associate Pastor in
Northampton, Mussachusetts, to his grandfather, Solomon
Stoddard.
After Stoddard’s death in 1729,Edwards stayed on there until
1750,from 1751 until 1757 he served a congregation at
Stockbridge, Mass and then moved on to become president of the
College of New Jersey (now Princeton University). He had just
taken up his duties there when he caught smallpox and died on
March 22,1758.
Edwards delivered a series of sermons on “Justification by Faith
Alone”. In November 1734.The result was a great revival in
Northampton and along the spring of 1734-1735,during which
period more than 300 of Edwards’ people made confession of faith.
His subsequent report, A Faithful Narrative of the Surprising work
of God (1737), made a profound impression in America and
Europe and particularly his description of the types and stages of
conversion experience.
In 1740-42 came the Great Awakening through the colonies.
George Whitfield a highly successful evangelist in the English
Methodist movement and Gilbert Tenet a Presbyterian Minister
from New Jersey drew huge crowds; their emotional sermons
resulted in violent emotional response and massive conversions.
In 1751,Edwards became Pastor of the Frontier Church at
Stockbridge Mass and missionary to the Indians, which were
49
hampered by language difficulties, Indian wars and conflicts with
powerful personal enemies, as a result he discharged his pastoral
duties and found time to write his famous work on the Freedom of
Will (17454).
By 1757 he finished his Great Christian Doctrine Defended (1758),
which was mainly a reply to John Taylor of Norwich whose works
attacking Calvinism; based on the thought of the 16th century
Protestant Reformer John Calvin, had caused disagreements in
America. Edwards defended the doctrine not only by citing biblical
statements about the corruption of man’s heart but also by arguing
that the empirical evidence of men’s universal commission of sinful
acts point to a sinful predisposition in every man.
In conclusion, Edwards ability to combine religious intensity with
intellectual rigour and moral earnestness, the cosmic sweep of his
theological vision, in his emphasis on faith as an existential respect
to reality, his insistence that love is the heart of religion and his
uncompromising stand against all forms of idolatry are some of the
reasons his life and writings are being seriously studied.
Robert Hall, the eminent 19th century Baptist, said of him, “I
consider Jonathan Edwards the greatest of the sons of men. He
ranks with the brightest luminaries of the Christian Church, not
excluding any country or age, since the apostolic.”
50
William Booth (1829-1912)
“Go For Souls and go for the worst!” was the cry of William Booth,
founder of the Salvation Army. I am going to discuss his life, work
and the impact, through the Salvation Army.
He was born in Nottingham; England. Converted to Christ through
the efforts of a Methodist minister and became interested in
working with the outcasts and the poor people of Nottingham. He
preached on the streets and made hundreds of hospital calls
before he was 20 years of age. He served as a pastor in the
Methodist Church and later with his wife left to do evangelistic work
in East London in 1865 as led by the spirit of God.
In East London he organized the East London Christian Revival
Society, which gave birth to the Salvation Army in 1878,with its
uniforms, organization and discipline. By 1930 they were branches
in 55 countries. The church placed emphasis on street preaching
and personal evangelism. Booth believed in active Christianity, the
moral duty of God’s ministers to go out in the highways and
byways to evangelise, his passion was to take the Gospel out to
back streets.
Soon after Booth’s conversion, James Caughey, a spirit filled
American evangelist, visited Nottingham and preached the
Wesleyan message of sanctification with great unction power. This
preaching made an impression on Booth and energised his desire
to win souls for Christ. Timid for a while, he finally ventured to read
the Bible and deliver some comments on the local street corners.
Although he was jeered and scorned and bricks were thrown at
him, young Booth did not get discouraged this was just a foretaste
of the battle ahead of him. At 17 he preached his first sermon and
was licensed by the New Wesley Connexion.
The sight of the homeless men leaning on the rails of London
Bridge prompted the beginning of heavy social work. The image of
the Army changed as the social services programs began to
expand as General Booth fought poverty with philanthropy. He
realised that the physical and social environment of the masses
51
made it difficult for them to appreciate the message of the Army.
He started social work services to clear the way for evangelism.
The services ranged from night shelters and free breakfast to the
selection and training of prospective immigrants and their
settlements overseas.
“He preached in America 1895 and found 500 people engaged in
the work of the Army. He held 340 meetings in 86 cities, speaking
to 437000 people resulting in 2200 converts. In 24 weeks he spent
he spent 847 hours on a train, twice while in America, he opened
the Senate with prayer and talked to President McKinley for twenty
minutes on one of his tours,”108 Working with the outcast and poor
of Nottingham brought increased burdens for the larger cities.
In conclusion Salvation Army continues to make an impact as it
“operates in 110 countries worldwide. Across the U.K and the
Republic Ireland they have 50000 church members, 4000
employees, 15000 Salvation Army officers and 776 local church
and community centers. In practical terms every year the Salvation
Army: serves two million meals to people in need; reunites 3000
people; helps 13000 people to successfully move from homeliness
to independent living and assist emergency services at 150 major
incidents.”109
108
Www.gospeltruth.net/booth/boothbioshort.htm
Annual Review 2006
109
52
A.E.OLA
CALVIN/ KANT/ RUSSELL
John Calvin was born on the 10th July 1509 in Noyon,
Picardie, France to Gerard Cauvin, an attorney and Jeanne
Lefranc. He was a French protestant theologian during the
protestant Reformation and was a central developer of the system
of Christian theology called Calvinism or Reformed Theology. He
studied humanities and law from the University of Paris and
attained a Doctor of Law degree at Orleans in 1532.
He rejected Papal authority and established a new scheme of civic
and ecclesiastical governance which created a hub from which
Reformed Theology was propagated. It was believed that if Luther
sounded the trumpet for reform, Calvin orchestrated the score by
which the Reformation became a part of Western civilisation. His
four levels of Church organisations include pastors,
teachers/doctors elders and deacons. Joseph Scalinger described
Calvin as alone among the theologians. Calvin rejected clerical
celibacy and married Idelette de Bure, a widow of an Anabaptist in
Strasbourg. They had a son who died after only two weeks.
Idelette died in 1549. John Calvin suffered migraines, lung
hemorrhage, gout and kidney stones. He died in Geneva on 27th
May 1564 and was buried in the Cimetiere des Rois under a
tombstone marked simply with the initials JC.
Part of John Calvin’s training as a lawyer was the newer
humanistic methods of exegesis, which he applied to scriptures.
This helped his teaching and preaching. He was a great logician
and systematizer of the Reformed movement. He reformed the
thought and writings of the early Church fathers, the medieval
schoolmen and the scholastics of the Middle Ages with his
understanding of the bible. His commitments to the absolute
sovereignty and holiness of God made him to be associated with
the doctrines of predestination and election. The five points of
Calvinism, which was actually the product of Synod of Dort to
specific objections that rose after his death, were reflections of his
thought. These include: Total depravity (original sin); Unconditional
election (God’s election); Limited atonement (Particular
redemption); Perseverance of saints (Eternal security). They were
53
answers to Arminiaism/Arminius’ Free will with partial depravity;
Resistible grace; Fall from grace; Conditional election; and
Universal atonement. Otto Heick regards Calvin’s points as
‘Absolute conditionalism, Remonstrant heresy’
People of Geneva saw in Calvin’s reform as imposing new
papacy on them only with different names and different people. He
was thus exiled from Geneva in 1538. In his iron rule, Jacques
Gonet, Bolsec Castellio and Servitus were among 58 sentenced to
death in five years including 76 exiles. On Servitus Calvin was
insistent –“tomorrow he dies”. According to Gibbon, freedom of
opinion was the consequence rather than the design of the
reformation. The Synod of Dort to some was political interference.
Yet Calvin was the first political thinker to model social
organisation entirely on biblical principles. He also mutes the idea
of society as a voluntary association based on own free will.
Calvin founded the academy of Geneva, which later
became University of Geneva as his commitment to education.
His thought in church polity gave rise to the Reformed and
Presbyterian systems. He also founded the silk industry in Geneva
as his contribution to the business life.
Calvin greatly influenced many parts of Europe and the rest
f the Christian world through his writings. These include: De
Clementia, Psychopannychia, Institutes of Christian Religion,
Several Commentaries and letters. Although Calvin’s works were
initially published in Latin and French, they were translated into
English, German and other languages. His works were in
refutation of errors like the soul sleep, Roman Catholicism and the
affirmation of church doctrines like sacrament, justification by faith
alone, Christian liberty and God’s total sovereignty. The institute
present vision of God in his majesty, Christ as prophet, priest and
king, of the Holy Spirit as the giver of faith, of the bible as the final
authority and of the church as the holy people of God. His
commentaries to some critics are less an explanation of the bible
than a piece-by-piece construction of his theological, social and
political philosophy
Critics considered Calvin’s morality absurdly severe, with it’s
banning of plays and its attempt to introduce religion pamphlets
and psalm saying into Geneva taverns also by his insistence on
54
literal reading of the Christian scriptures with which he Christianise
the state.
Calvin refutes all subtle speculations of secular philosophy.
He was vehement against philosophy to put them in their place.
‘How volubly has the whole tribe of philosophers shown their
stupidity and silliness’’? He was a pure humanist and placed logic
in the curriculum of the Geneva academy. He illustrates faith with
the four-fold causality of Aristotle. He believed that knowledge of
all the sciences is so much smoke apart from heavenly science of
Christ that man with all his shrewdness is as stupid about
understanding by himself the mysteries of God as an ass is
incapable of understanding musical harmony.
References:
Htt://wsu.edu/~dee/REFORM/CALV.HTM
WJ Bousma, Calvin 1987
Breen John, A study in French Humanism (1968)
HJ Forstman, Word and Spirit: Calvin’s Doctrine of Biblical
Authority (1962)
BIele, Andre. The Social Humanism of Calvin. Translated by Paul
T Fuhrman, Richardson: John Knox press 1961
The Internet encyclopaedia of philosophy
W.de Greef, The writings of John Calvin An introductory guide
Translator Lyle D. Bierma
Williams Cunningham, The reformers and the theology of
reformations Banner of truth trust 2000
Ronald S Allace, Calvin Geneva and the reformation
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Immanuel Kant
Immanuel Kant (22 April 1724 – 12 Feb 1804) was German
philosopher with Christian background. He is from Konigsberg in
East Prussia (now Kaliningrad, Russia) and is regarded as one of
the most influential thinkers of modern Europe and the last major
philosopher of the Enlightenment.
He was born on the 22 April 1724 in a pies tic home in Konisberg
to Johann George Kant (1682-1746) a German craftsman and
Anna Regina Porter (1697-1737). He studied philosophy at the
University of Konisgberg and was introduced to the new
mathematical physics of Newton. His father’s death interrupted his
study but continued scholarly research while a tutor. He published
his works and became a University lecturer. His works include:
Thoughts on the True Estimation of living Forces; The False
Subtlety of the Four Syllogistic Figures; Attempt to Introduce the
Concept of Negative Magnitudes into Philosophy; The Only
Possible Argument in support of the Demonstration of the
Existence of God; Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and
Sublime; Inquiry Concerning the Distinctness of the Principles of
Natural Theology and Morality; Inaugural Dissertation and Critique
of Pure Reason.
Some scholars viewed his works as a ‘tough nut to crack’ while
others see them as ‘heavy gossamer’. He believed that David
Humes awoke him from ‘dogmatic slumber’. His reputation rose
through his publications, critiques and Reinhold’s letters on Kant’s
philosophy. His works contained moral philosophy, history, religion,
and politics. Kant set limits on the ability of human knowledge. He
believed that God couldn’t be known by rational proofs. Even
though Kant was a rationalist, he knew that knowledge is limited in
regards to the supernatural. His famous maxim ‘cogito ego sum’ –
‘I think so I am’ is thus limited to things that can be seen. Therefore
metaphysical knowledge is impossible, thus making faith
necessary to know the unknowable God. To Kant faith was a leap
in the dark and God was the highest good we can conceive.
Through his disciples Reinhold, Beck and Ficthe who were radical
idealists, German radical idealism emerged. Kant opposed this and
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publicly denounced Fichte. He died in 1804. His unfinished work
Opus Postumum was published post-humously.
References
Charles Taze Russell
Charles Taze Russell (1852-1916) best known as founder of the
Resselites, International Bible Students Association and (in 1931)
Jehovah’s Witnesses.
Charles Russell was born on February 16 1852 in
Pittsburgh, USA (some sources say Allegheny, Pennsylvania) to
Joseph Lytel Russell (1813-1897) and Eliza Birney (1832-1861).
There is no standard biography of Russell, but he is discussed in a
number of studies of Jehovah’s Witnesses. Sources claimed he is
a lawyer and had early introduction to business by his father. The
Russells were Presbyterians but Charles left the Presbyterian
Church to join the Congregational Church due to his preference for
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organization style. Charles could not reconcile God’s mercy with
the idea of hellfire and eternal damnation. So he developed his
own theology.
He came under the influence of the
Adventist/Millerite. He began to publish his views about Christ’s
return in spirit, millennialism and judgment in the Watch Tower and
Herald of Christ Presence (1879). He came into partnership with
Barbour and jointly published their views and teaching in the Three
Worlds or Plan of Redemption and The Object and Manner of our
Lord’s return. He called Christian leaders in Pittsburgh and
propound his ideas of imminent Christ return and date of rapture.
This was rejected and Christ did not return in 1878 as he
predicted. Subsequently Barbour and Russell split and Russell
began to publish his views in the Zion Watch and Herald of Christ’s
Presence. Charles won many converts despite apparent failure of
his apocalyptic predictions. In addition to the Object and Manner of
our Lord’s Return, his other works include The Time is At Hand;
Thy Kingdom come; The Day of Vengeance/The Battle of
Armageddon; At-one-ment Between God and Men; and The New
Creation.
A serious concern about the Jehovah’s Witnesses is the lie that
has been told consistently and that continuously bombarded the
mind and has almost established its ‘truthfulness’. Today the
Jehovah’s Witnesses and their numerous literatures sway the
Christian heritage and pose a staunch challenge over the years
that will not just go away.
His wife Maria Frances Ackley with whom he had celibate
partnership established for preaching the gospel separated and
sues for divorce for sexual misconduct. Sources claimed that the
marriage crashed for lack of issue after eighteen years. Apart from
adultery, he was charged with profiteering in the church’s sale of
‘miracle wheat’ to members who were told it would produce
fantastic yields. Some sources also claimed that he was jailed for
perjury during his bible translation. He has claimed he understood
Greek and Hebrew under oath but could not recognize their
alphabets during cross-examinations. He died as a result of
multiple ailments on October 31 1916 at Pampa, Texas and Judge
Joseph Franklin Rutherford succeeded him.
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References
Milton S. Czatt, The International Bible Students: Jehovah’s
Witnesses (1933)
Herbert Stroup, The Jehovah’s Witnesses (1945)
William J. Whalen, Armageddon around the Corner (1962)
Kingdom of Cults
Every Wind of Doctrines
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