Literature review on the inquiry-based method by Vilnius Pedagogical University,
Lithuania
CONTENTS
1. Understanding of the inquiry-based method …………………………………………………….2
2. The usage of the inquiry-based method during science lessons in Lithuanian schools of general
education ……………………………………………………………………………………………2
3. Reflection of the application of the inquiry-based method in the context of national and
international survey …………………………………………………………………………….…..3
4. Reflection of application of the inquiry-based method in school teachers‘ publications …….. 5
5. Application of the inquiry-based method and teaching science in scientific works of Lithuanian
educologists …………………………………………………………………………………………7
6. References ………………………………………………………………………………………..8
1
1. Understanding of the inquiry-based method
The contents of the inquiry-based method consists of two dimensions. From the broader
point of view, the inquiry-based method is a learning method based on research and experiments.
The research is a process having some phases: formulation of a problem (hypothesis), prediction of
objectives, research itself, the analysis of data gathered, formulation of conclusions and checking the
hypothesis. From this we get more narrow understanding of the inquiry-based method: problem
teaching, teaching how to generalize, formulate conclusions and to apply them in new situations.
Application of knowledge in new situations can broaden the understanding of the inquiry-based
method and it makes closer to the inner and interdisciplinary integrated teaching. It is necessary to
shift knowledge to pupils from one subject into another in each interdisciplinary teaching situation
(horizontal shift). The shift of knowledge from one subject into the contents of teaching situation of
another subject provides new character, creates problem situations, encourages to acquire new
information or envisage new aspects of the knowledge acquired. Similar psychological situation is
created applying inner integration, but vertical shift is used (more intricate competences and skills
are formed).
After the claimed independence in 1990, Lithuania started to change its educational system.
Documents regulating educational system were changed (e.g. Study Programs, Educational
Standards), new textbooks appeared, teaching priorities and goals were modified. Using the
experience of foreign countries, a national school was formed. It was attemped to change the
teaching style from academic to the basic literacy, to shift from knowledge to skills, and from theory
to practice, and interpretative educational system was created. Teaching methods were changed as
well: from lecture-type teaching to various active teaching methods [26].
The analysis of national (Lithuanian) literary sources was carried out according to these
principles:
 Inquiry-based method is a method based on research and experiments;
 Inquiry-based method is a method of problem-oriented teaching and learning;
 Inquiry-based method is a method of inner and interdisciplinary integration.
2. The usage of the inquiry-based method during science lessons in Lithuanian schools of
general education
The inquiry-based method is used during science lessons in formal (lessons) and informal
(after-school) education in Lithuanian schools of general education.
The inquiry-based method is regulated in General Programs devoted for Lithuanian general
schools (http://www.pedagogika.lt/index.php?-469374926). Integrated and exploratory teaching is
emphasized there. According to the General Programs, pupils should find and feel recognition
delight, should develop skills of recognition and solution of different problems related to animate
and inanimate environment, formulation of questions and hypothesis, planning of experiments,
using laboratory equipment and materials, generalizing data obtained, formulation of conclusions.
General Programs provides the number of compulsory lessons for the laboratory work during
science lessons. There are possibilities to perform real or virtual laboratory works, while the
possibilities of virtual works are better, as laboratory equipment is quite old and not sufficient at
Lithuanian schools of general education. World Summit Award recognized Lithuanian version of
2
„Virtual teaching environment for 5–6 grades“ as one of the best teaching programs in „E-learning
and education" category in 2009 (http://mkp.emokykla.lt/gamta5-6/).
Interdisciplinary relationships is a very important principle in General Programs, that is
realized in different levels in Lithuanian schools of general education. An integrated course of
natural sciences „Nature and Man“ is taught at 5–6 grades. The course is integrated not defining
specific subjects. It consists of Biology, Ecology, Chemistry, Physics, Earth science, Health
education, and Technology (some elements of Geography are integrated at the 5th grade, while it
becomes a separate subject from the 6th grade). Biology, Chemistry and Physics become separate
disciplines at 7–8 grades, but strong interdisciplinary relationships remain. These courses are taught
not integrated at 9-10 grades.
Inquiry-based method is used in after-school lessons as well. Projects having exploratory
elements are quite popular in Lithuania. They are carried out on school, district or town, national
and international levels. Lithuanian pupils participate in the EU contest of young scientists for
thirteen years (http://www.njmk.smm.lt/apie.htm). For example, approximately 200 pupils presented
130 exploratory works for this contest in 2009.
3. Reflection of the application of the inquiry-based method in the context of national and
international survey
The situation of natural education in Lithuania is evaluated during some international
surveys. Lithuania participates in international TIMSS survey. It was carried out in 1995, 1999,
2003 and 2007. 7th, 8th and 12th grade pupils attended this survey in 1995, 8th grade pupils – in
1999, 4th and 8th – in 2003, and 4th and 8th - in 2007(national TIMSS reports, available from
www.egzaminai.lt).
The analysis of the results of natural sciences showed that pupils’ knowledge were lower in
comparison to other countries in 1995, while later the results improved. In 2007, Lithuania was in
the 21st position among 68 participated countries according to the achievements of 4th grade pupils
(pupils’ knowledge were a little bit higher than the average calculated), but the results were similar
as in 2003. The results of 8th grade pupils showed that Lithuania was the 12th country among 14
situated above the average of TIMSS scale, and the results were similar as in 2003. Anyway, the
achievements of Lithuanian pupils in natural sciences practically doubled since 1995. TIMSS data
revealed that there is no statistically significant difference between boys and girls according to the
results of natural sciences. Anyway, girls are little bit superior in Biology and Chemistry, while boys
– in Physics (the results of 1995 showed that boys were much more superior in all spheres than
girls). Girls show a little bit better theoretical knowledge of science subjects, while boys have better
skills to use them in practice.
It was revealed that mathematics achievements of Lithuanian 8th grade pupils improved from
1995 to 2003, and it can be explained by the reformed mathematics Study Programs, Educational
Standards, textbooks. There is strong relationship between mathematics achievements and the type
of school locality. It can be partly explained by the change of pupils’ attitudes towards mathematics
and by the fact that pupils learned to do multiple choice item format tests and can not be explained
by changes of pupils’ home socio-educational environment. Out of the countries that participated in
the TIMSS Lithuanian pupils’ mathematics achievements improved the most during some years.
Therefore, pupils showed better results in mathematics in 1995, but later the situation was better in
the sphere of natural sciences ([25], [26], [27], [34]).
3
TIMSS survey showed another problem: number of hours devoted to study mathematics and
subjects of natural sciences per year is quite low in Lithuania in comparison to other countries.
Among 19 countries having similar education system of separate subjects taught in upper classes,
Lithuania is in the last position according to the number of hours devoted for Biology teaching per
year (30 hours only), while the situation is a little bit better with Chemistry and Physics (58 hours
per year). Besides, number of hours of Biology, Chemistry and Physics slightly decreased in 2007
than it was in 2003. Similar decrease of hours of natural sciences taught per year was seen in
Cyprus, Slovenia and Hungary.
In Lithuania, it is quite usual to read textbooks of natural sciences during lessons, but facts
related to natural sciences are memorized during some lessons or never by the majority of pupils.
The data of other countries is different: besides common usage of textbooks, pupils memorize some
facts as well. Lithuania, together with Russia, Slovenia and Morocco, practically has no teachers
that could teach subjects of natural sciences without help of textbooks.
TIMSS surveys disclosed attitude of Lithuanian pupils towards mathematics and natural
sciences. Approximately 81 per cent of 4th grade pupils like natural sciences, while this percentage
is lower towards mathematics. 8th grade pupils like Biology most (about 55 per cent), while Physics
is least popular (37 per cent of pupils express positive attitude). Therefore, popularity of Biology
significantly decreased in comparison to 1995 and 1999 surveys. The same tendency is seen in
Physics, as it became more unpopular than it was earlier. The attitude towards Chemistry is
different: there was an increase of pupils thinking positively and negatively towards this subject. In
spite of negative attitude towards Physics, 54 per cent of Lithuanian 8th grade pupils think that the
latter subject is quite useful, while only 47 per cent of pupils express similar opinion towards
Biology (they like it but think that it is not very valuable). There is a tendency of increase of a part
of pupils negatively estimating their skills in natural sciences in Lithunia and the whole Europe.
Lithuania participates in the PISA (Programme for International Student Assessment) survey
since 2004. Achievements of reading, mathematics and natural sciences of 15 years old pupils are
evaluated. The tasks of natural sciences used in this survey comprise the usage of basic concepts
related to the understanding of natural world. Pupils should recognize scientific questions, should
use evidences, accept and to formulate scientific conclusions. (national reports, available from
www.egzaminai.lt).
The results of PISA survey show that the achievements of Lithuanian pupils become better every
year. Anyway, two main problems remain: weak skills to solve problems, and skills of exploratory
work are not sufficient. This survey shows that Lithuanian pupils like studying natural sciences, but
related professions are not popular (about 21 per cent of pupils plan to choose such professions, and
this number is lower than average of countries belonging to Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development. The results showed that family members related to science have a
positive influence on the achievements of pupils towards natural sciences.
National survey of pupils‘ achievements were started in Lithuania in 2002. The survey was
carried out realizing the program of the „Improvement of Schools“ created by Lithuanian Ministry
of Education during 2002–2005. It continues according to the Strategy of State Education since
2006. The studies of pupils’ knowledge and skills towards natural sciences are carried out since
2003, and national reports were prepared (available from www.pedagogika.lt). The results of
national surveys repeat problems disclosed during international studies. Young pupils express their
4
positive attitude towards natural sciences, while their popularity decreases in upper classes. Subjects
of natural sciences are more atractive to pupils living in villages than in towns, girls like Biology
and Chemistry, while boys prefer Physics. Pupils have better skills to use theoretical knowledge, but
they encounter problems performing practical tasks. They do not have enough abilities to plan and
realize experiments, to read and analyse measurements, to use different sources of information.
Lithuanian pupils lack deeper understanding of concepts, processes and phenomena, they meet
difficulties to use knowledge in practice. Quite a big percentage of pupils state that they never or
very rarely observe or perform experiments or laboratory works, do not formulate hypothesis. So it
is necessary to improve pupils‘ skills towards problem solving and exploratory work.
4. Reflection of application of the inquiry-based method in school teachers‘ publications
Scientific-practical conferences of education of natural sciences are organized in Lithuania
since 1995 (http://www.gu.projektas.lt/informacija.htm). Educologists and teachers working at
schools of general education participate in these conferences. The analysis of the participants during
2004–2009 show that more than a half (53 per cent) of them were teachers of natural sciences. In
total, 442 scientific publications dealing with education of natural sciences were published during 15
years (http://www.gu.projektas.lt/GUkonferencijuleid.htm). Of these, 362 publications were
prepared by Lithuanian authors. Themes of publications depend on the program of the conference
and its sections. It means that it is difficult to evaluate real themes teachers of natural sciences are
interested in. The majority of articles deal with ecology and protection of the environment (16,1 per
cent). Methods of teaching of natural sciences were analysed by 7,7 per cent of the participants, half
of them were teachers. Publications deal mainly with the application of active teaching methods,
that coincide with the understanding of the inquiry-based method. Quite few teachers (3,6 per cent)
analyse another active problem – exploratory teaching. It shows that it is necessary to encourage
teachers to use the inquiry-based method in educational practice. The possible ways could be
through the improvement of qualification of teachers, better preparation at universities, and
improvement of teaching programs.
Teachers of science subjects can improve (but it is not compulsory) their qualification
participating in scientific practical conferences, centers of qualification improvement, and some
seminars are organized at local schools. It means that private initiative of teachers is very important
and depends on personalities. Qualification improvement system is decentralized in Lithuania. There
is no one particular institution responsible for the improvement of teachers‘ qualification. That can
be done by different institutions having accreditation. One of the main institutions is „Education
Development Centre“ located in Vilnius (www.pedagogika.lt). Quite an important center for the
improvement of teachers qualification is established in Vilnius Pedagogical University as well
(www.vpu.lt). The main themes analysed are different from year to year, and is mainly related to the
reformation of education system in Lithuania, e.g. long-term planning of lessons, renewal of General
Programs, usage of informational and communicative technologies in natural sciences, presentation
of new textbooks and exercise-books, while didactic methods do not attain special attention for
some years.
Another possibility to improve qualification is through the participation in international
projects and programs, e.g. Comenius and its parts (www.socrates.lt). The purpose of the Comenius
programme is to boost the quality of education and strengthen its European dimension by supporting
the transnational cooperation and mobility of schools.
5
Scientific journal „Education of Natural Sciences“ (http://www.gu.projektas.lt/
GUwww/indeks.htm) is published in Lithuania since 2004. It is devoted to scientists and teachers.
Some elements of exploratory teaching can be found in publications of this journal. According to
teachers, experiments of disciplines of natural sciences can be organized in three ways: 1) an
experiment is demonstrated directly by a teacher, while pupils observe it and answer to questions
raised by the teacher; 2) pupils make the same actions at the same time according to the directions of
a teacher; 3) pupils make experiments independently according to the instructions provided. The
latter experiments are of the exploratory type, and they are used when pupils have some particular
skills to work with the laboratory equipment, can analyse the obtained results and make some
conclusions. Such experiments are mainly carried out studying some theoretical themes, such as
„Air“, „Water“, „Atmospheric pressure“, or „Vapour in air“.
Teachers suggest to make some long lasting experiments after school, e.g., to evaluate effect
of soil, moisture, light and temperature on the growth of plants. Some simple experiments are
recommended to do at home as it is impossible to do them due to the lack of time during lessons.
Some authors suggest to use non-traditional methods to teach natural sciences, e.g. didactic game. It
helps to repeat and acquire some knowledge.
Results of TIMSS surveys showed that, according to Lithuanian teachers, pupils try to relate
the subjects of natural sciences with every day’s life. During lessons of Physics pupils observe
experiments demonstrated by a teacher, while in Biology it is not popular. Planning of a scientific
experiment or research is not common in all subjects of natural sciences. Therefore, TIMSS results
show that Lithuanian pupils have a little bit different opinion than their teachers. The tendency that
the subjects of natural sciences are related to every day’s life remains, but pupils think that teachers
try to explain different themes not relating with practice. Planning of exploratory work is one of the
rarest activities in classes of all subjects of natural sciences, while scientific experiments and
research are rare as well. Pupils usually observe experiments of Chemistry and Physics performed
by teachers during lessons, while independent group work is not popular, so it is quite a weak part of
teaching of natural sciences in Lithuanian schools (www.egzaminai.lt).
Projects of the environment protection are quite popular in Lithuania, especially during afterschool learning. Pupils are encouraged to prepare and perform projects under the control of a
teacher. They get some specific skills, as to organize independent work, to work in a team, and to
communicate with each other. Projects help to solve some specific problems, teach to explore, help
to find particular problems and ways to solve them. Teachers indicate that themes of projects are
related to theoretical questions studied at school and some local problems. Some actions towards
environment protection or entertaining events dealing with natural sciences are organized.
Additional training schools dealing with natural sciences appeared in Lithuania at the end of
the XXth century. Republic part-time school of young naturalists, a school of young biologists,
Ecological training school „Drūkšiai“, a school of young physics „Fotonas“, and a school of young
chemists „Pažinimas“ are very active nowadays. These schools try to give pupils additional
knowledge of science, to meet the requirements of self-expression, to educate skills of scientific
work, to teach critical thinking and help to choose future profession. Most of teachers relate
ecological education with scientific and conservational work.
6
5. Application of the inquiry-based method and teaching science in scientific works of
Lithuanian educologists
There are three schools of higher education dealing with training of natural sciences in
Lithuania: Vilnius Pedagogical University, Vilnius University and Šiauliai University, having
educologists: N.Cibulskaitė, R. Makarskaitė-Petkevičienė, E.Motiejūnienė, P.Pečiuliauskienė
(www.peciuliauskiene.skynet.lt),
L.Salickaitė-Bunikienė,
V.Lamanauskas
(www.lamanauskas.projektas.lt/), L.Railienė, J.Ragulienė, V.Šlekienė, and others. Their study
fields are quite different. The main directions are methodological and historical approaches towards
science education, inner and interdisciplinary integration, ecological and conservational education,
project-based science education, usage of informational and communicative technologies during
science lessons, scientific literacy, scientific competencies of teachers and pupils, preparation of
science teachers, contents of science subjects, informal education, and methods of science
education. That reflects the understanding of the inquiry-based method.
Improvement of didactics of natural sciences should be based on the methodological
background. Lithuanian educologists, paying attention to the experience of foreign educologists,
deal with the role of constructivistic and humanistic theory in natural sciences‘ education ([1],
[3],[14],[28], [38], [41], [57], [62], [90], [102]), [117]). Special attention is paid to experience of
pupils, its role in the construction of new knowledge acquiring some competences.
Interdisciplinary and inner integration based on constructivism is a very important principle
of didactics. It is analysed by M. Barkauskaitė, V. Dagienė, P. Pečiuliauskienė, A. Rimeika and
other educologists ([19], [40], [63], [96], [109], [111], [112], [118], [120], [131][137]).
Interdisciplinary integration is analysed in the aspect of a school structure: integration in primary,
basic and secondary schools. It is analysed from the aspects of methods and means – integration of
informational and communicative technologies into teaching process. Interdisciplinary and inner
integration of contents of natural sciences is a very important sphere of studies of Lithuanian
educologists. It is related to preparation of textbooks and their contents ([46], [51], [83], [85], [122],
[141], [157]). The analysis of contents of textbooks of natural sciences written by national and
foreign authors was done by P. Pečiuliauskienė ([109], [111], [112], [118], [121]). It was revealed
that different description of textbooks according to their integrity (integrated and non-integrated) did
not depend on the percentage frequency of interdisciplinary integrated exercises. The textbooks
analysed differed according to the quantity of inner integrated exercises. The number of exercises
having aspects of sociocultural (ecological, historical and ethical) integration was very low.
Statistical methods were used to evaluate didactic aims of exercises of Physics by
P.Pečiuliauskienė [135]. This study was based on the evaluation database of exercises of national
state exams of Physics.
Lithuanian educologists, as their foreign colleagues, are interested in ecological and
environmental questions ([117], [133]). A special attention is paid to the integration of questions of
ecological education into the contents of natural sciences and the usage of some active methods, e.g.
projects ([80],[67]).
Usage of informational and communicative technologies is another important question in
science education in Lithuania and abroad ([1], [2], [4], [5],[6], [19], [43], [47], [172], [53],
[54],[55], [86], [88], [89], [90], [92], [95], [99], [100], [104], [107], [108], [110], [114], [115], [119],
[122], [124], [126], [128], [129], [130], [132], [133], [138], [141], [153], [159], [158], [162],[168],
[169]). This sphere is studied in three ways: computerisation of schools, informational and
communicative technologies (ICT) and didactics, and the improvement of ICT competences of
7
teachers and pupils. Educologists study questions related to didactic computer programs, virtual
teaching environment, and usage of hypertext in science education. In Lithuania, P. Pečiuliauskienė
studied informational and communicative technologies in educational practice ([105], [107], [108],
[122],[124], [125], [127], [128], [129], [131]). The studies were concentrated on the efficiency of
usage of computer programs during lessons of science.
Lithuanian educologists work with the professional development of science competences of
teachers and improvement skills of science of pupils. ([8], [9], [15], [21], [33], [39], [59], [77], [78],
[91], [116], [119], [123], [126], [156], [164]). The science competence is understood as the integrity
of knowledge, skills and abilities towards science. The contents of knowledge and abilities of
science and problems related to their diagnostics are studied more frequently, while studies of valuesystems are rare. Models of science competences are studied as well.
Skills how to manage information is a very important part of competences of science.
Educologists studied factors influencing management of information of pupils of upper secondary
classes [105]. It was revealed that objective factors were teachers, schoolfriends, personal friends,
family members, while subjective – personal demands or dispositions. Factors affecting search of
information, its necessity and usage are studied as well. Skills of management of information are
very important performing exploratory work [106]. Exploratory work of students (teachers in future)
is analysed in two ways: research done by students themselves and supervision for projects carried
out by pupils. The studies showed that students evaluate their own exploratory work more positively
than their abilities to supervise pupils.
Informal education achieves more attention of educologists nowadays. Questions related to
informal education of Biology, Chemistry and Physics are analysed and data mainly presented in the
practical
conference
„Science
education
in
general
education
school“
(http://www.gu.projektas.lt/GUkonferencijuleid.htm). A special attention was paid to the informal
teaching of Chemistry as a didactic phenomenon having objective and educative parts ([74], [75],
[76], [161]).
Project-based learning is used in science education quite often, while it expands and
develops during informal education ([97], [162]). This method helps pupils to become active
participants of an education process. It was revealed that Lithuanian pupils create short projects
during formal lessons, while long lasting projects can be realized during after-school activities only.
Project-based learning method helps to improve inner and interdisciplinary integration.
Preparation for national competitions of different science subjects becomes a very important
part of after-school activities ([24], [68], [69], [69], [70], [71], [72], [73], [79], [174]). It is one of
the means to improve motivation towards science subjects, develops skills of self-confidence, selfexpression, cognition and abilities ([134], [135], [145], [175], [176]).
Evaluation of results of studies of science subjects is rare. Evaluation and self-evaluation of
quality of learning, factors, affecting successful learning, its relationship with social-economical
status of a family was analysed [93].
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