Infer
Inferring is a strategy used before, during and after reading. Predicting is
a part of inferring. Inferences need to be based on references in the text
and then mixed with background knowledge. Students need to be taught
how to infer what words mean, the setting(s) of the story, the answers to
the questions the reader doesn't understand, to what pronouns refer, how
to use text to understand characters, fact from opinion, explanations for
events, and the underlying message from the author. As we continue to
grow as proficient readers, we devote 6 weeks to studying inferring (and
how it integrates with all strategies) around the seventh month of school.
Good readers draw inferences from text. Proficient
readers use their prior knowledge the information
from the text to draw conclusions, make critical
judgments, and form unique interpretations from
text. Inference may occur in the form of conclusions,
predictions or new ideas.
Ellin Keene and Susan Zimmermann, Mosaic of Thought
Getting Started: Defining What Inferring Is and What It Is Not
Inferences vs. Opinions
Explaining inferring to children is not easy! Over the years, I've shared
some tips with children that helped. First of all, inferences and opinions
are not the same thing. An opinion is what I think. An opinion is a
synthesis of my experiences as well as my knowledge which I can
rightfully debate. Inferring is figuring out what an author wants me to
think. An inference should be based mainly on references in the text that
lead me to a conclusion.
For example, when I read Snow White, I notice the author planted clues so
that I will infer that the witch is a bad character, an antagonist. There's
plenty of evidence to support the inference: she tries to feed Snow White a poisonous apple, she
speaks harshly to mirrors, she's horrified when she isn't considered the fairest in the land. She's
so evil she plans to kill off Snow White.
Even though the witch wears black, if after reading I say everyone who wears all black is evil,
I'm expressing an opinion. While opinions can be supported with evidence, most are merely
generalizations heavily laden with prior experience. I've found that making the distinction helps
children.
Inferences vs. Assumptions
Arthur Hyde, in his book Comprehending Math compares assuming to inferring. Assuming is an
inference but it is not backed up by fact. Inferring is grounded in evidence from the text and
sometimes from background knowledge.
Here is an example. Some of our third graders read my "Strange Day in July." (See below.)
When asked, "Is the story fiction or nonfiction?" one child said, "It is nonfiction because my
parents have seen the tooth fairy so this is a true story." The assumption? Because my parents
say tooth fairies exist, this story is a true one.
Don't be timid about critiquing - in the best sense of the word.
Point out what WORDS in the text have lead the student to his assumption. The author wrote
about "spinning rocks into fairies." A tooth fairy is never mentioned. The reader assumed the
author means a tooth fairy probably because he doesn't know any other kind.
Another way to combat thinking gone awry is to consider 100 opinions. Would 99 out of 100
people agree with my conclusion? When given this new set of criteria on which to judge,
children usually see that their thinking has gone off track usually because (1) a wrong piece of
background knowledge slipped into their consciences or (2) they focused on one clue, not all.
In the story, "Strange Day in July," adding up ALL the references - spinning rocks into fairies,
magic wands, fairy dust, strange forces that make the main character fly - leads MOST people to
agree the fairy is not a factor in determining whether the story is fiction or nonfiction. The reader
jumped to an assumption too quickly.
Inferences vs. Predictions
Predicting falls under the umbrella of inferring. The dictionary says that a prediction is a
prophecy - an idea that we think will come true. The best way to prophesize what will happen
next is to use the facts we've already been given. Even before reading, I show students how to
reference the picture, the author, the title and any other information on the cover. I ask students
not to make up an imaginative story but to base their predictions on the details they see or read.
I had to think through how I taught children to predict just like I re-examined the way I taught
connections. When connections turned into Show and Tell in my classroom, I knew I had to
demand more of my children and ask them to explain how their connections helped them
comprehend.
Predicting Off Track
Predicting can become purely imaginative if I let it. You probably had this experience. Upon
showing the book cover and asking children to predict what the story will be about, I get some
random responses. Usually, space aliens fly somewhere and gold is discovered at the end of the
rainbow. For example, when I showed a second grader a book with a sweet, cartoon drawing of a
dog in a bathtub, he predicted that the dog would attack everyone in the story. Huh?
Solutions
I've found several solutions. First, instead of asking, what do you predict will happen, I ask what
are you reading to find out? That subtle change requires that children focus on the details of the
text and illustrations. The second is to ask students to back up their predictions with references.
What in the text leads you to say that?; What do you notice? With my second grader, I said,
"What do you notice in the picture? (The dog is in the bathtub.) "What are you reading to find
out?" (Why is the dog in the bathtub?) Works so much better for me.
Confirm
I also ask readers need to read to confirm predictions. To help, I record their predictions on the
board or chart paper with names beside the predictions. When predictions turn out to be true, I
ask the expert predictor to explain the reasoning behind the prediction. We then record the
references that prove the thinking and the page number where we can find the evidence. Practice
in justifying their statements is just what the students need to improve inferring skills.
Amend
Good readers amend their predictions when they get new information. I show students how to
record the page and reference that caused the reader to change her mind. Again, I praise
changing one's mind when confronted with new information - a definition of synthesis, by the
way.
Prediction Page number
and/or
reference
Confirmed: page number
and/or reference that proves
my prediction
Changed my mind: page number
and/or reference that made me
change my prediction
Resources
Through modeling, daybook entries, and helping children to explain their thinking, I push
students to think more deeply about any text they read. Since I just scratched the inferring
surface on this page, I would recommend more reading. Consult Arthur Hyde's book,
Comprehending Math and Harvey and Goudvis', Strategies That Work. Another helpful book for
teachers AND PARENTS is 7 Keys to Comprehension by Zimmermann and Hutchins. All books
are referenced on my bibliography page.
Sample Lesson I: Referencing the Text
1. I made up a game to play with my students called "referencing
the text." I find it's a good way to introduce inferring.
2. We read the same book or story ahead of time.
3. I begin by explaining "referencing the text." I put a sentence
on the board. The boy stared into the dark corner wide-eyed. I
ask, "Is the boy (1) annoyed, (2) scared or (3) angry and how do you know?"
4. I give them some time to think and then I ask my students to respond by holding up one,
two or three fingers to match the answer they choose. Immediately they see that everyone
chose scared.
5. "How do you know?" I push them. Through a short discussion we arrive at the conclusion
that dark corner and wide-eyed are two clues that the boy was scared. The text never said
the boy was scared but we know because dark is almost always associated with scary and
wide-eyed gives us a mental picture of a boy who looks more scared than angry or
annoyed. The two clues together make us infer "scared."
6. Then we compete to see who can get the best score in this game - one point for each right
answer. There are two teams: my class against me.
7. I ask them one question. Anyone can raise their hand and be called on to answer. One
point if the answer is correct AND the explanation includes a reference.
8. Next, it's my turn. Any child can ask me a question. I answer and also reference the text. I
challenge them; "I've never lost," I tell them. The game usually lasts 45 minutes and
many days after that.
I realized that through this game we were constantly inferring, drawing conclusions, and making
predictions through asking effective questions. Making the children point to the parts of the text
that made them answer they way they did forced them to reason and defend their thinking. (It
works for literal questions, as well, obviously.)
As the students grow more confident, I eliminate most literal questions and concentrate on
inferential questions. Sometimes the students need 2-3 references to completely prove their
response. As the game progresses, the kids learn to ask inferential questions of me as well. They
catch on quickly because I'm answering their (literal) questions so easily! They hear my
questions and imitate the kind of questions I'm asking since they want to win.
Over the years, I've come to realize that students move towards the wrong inference because they
ignore all the clues and hyper-focus on one. I used this example in class one day. "He pulled his
reindeer coat around his shoulders. He was glad to have his sealskin boots and his heavy trousers
to guard him against the stinging wind. He snapped the whip and the dogsled took off with a jolt.
Where does the man live?"
One of my students saw the word reindeer and said, "The man is Santa Claus and he lives at the
North Pole." I find this problem to be true often. It is important to teach students to use every
clue and put them together to make the best inference. Otherwise, they will move in some very
strange directions. Reference the Text moves them in the right direction as they examine their
thinking in a supportive environment with an element of fun.
(By the way, I do always win!)
Sample Lesson II: Inference Game
Read the story. Underline, highlight, circle words and otherwise mark the page in any way to get
ready for the game.
A Strange Day in July
by Karen Haag 02/04
My brother and I were dressed for the family reunion. I had on my best white dress with a red
satin belt and my most wonderful black patent leather shoes. My brother looked his Sunday best
in his ironed khaki pants and his laced-up boots. My mother told us firmly, "Sit on the couch in
the living room. Don't move until the family gets here."
We sat perfectly still right next to one another on the couch like my mother said. The room was
so silent. The grandfather clock ticked away. Tick. Tock. Tick. Tock. We waited. We waited
some more. "When was the family ever going to get here?" we wondered. Then my brother
asked me if I wanted to skip some stones in the lake beside our house.
We were off in a minute. Out the door, down the hill and right to the edge of the lake we ran, as
fast as our legs would carry us. When we got to the lake, we picked up some perfect skipping
stones and threw them out over the lake. First one and then another. We watched them skip in
perfect steps across the sparkling lake. Then the strangest thing happened. My brother threw
with all his might, but the third stone came skipping back.
Stranger still, it lifted off and flew into the air. The next thing we knew, the rock started spinning
and turned into a little tiny fairy like the one in Peter Pan. "Come with me," she called as she
twittered above our heads. "Come fly with me." She sprinkled us with fairy dust.
Slowly, I felt myself being lifted into the air. The lake grew small beneath my feet. The air got
cooler. At first, I was flying with my feet pointed toward the ground. I leaned a little to the left
and then a little to the right. I thought I was losing it but then I realized I was supported by some
strange force and I couldn't fall! Slowly, I got into the idea of flying and straightened my body
out so that I looked more like an airplane. My arms were spread wide and I began to enjoy
flying. My brother hooted as he mastered flying as well.
My brother and I played with one another. I flew under him and then he flew under me. We
raced through the clear blue sky which didn't look blue from where I was flying. We dove
toward the earth and then pulled up and soared toward the heavens. All the while, the fairy was
complimenting us. "Good job!" she'd say. It seemed like we flew for hours over the hillsides,
above the lake scanning the neighborhoods below us. I couldn't get enough.
We looked down and saw tiny cars running along the road and pulling into our driveway. Our
family had arrived. Oh, we were in trouble now. We explained to our new friend, the tiny little
fairy. "No problem!" she announced. "Follow me!" Gladly, we raced after her through the
evening sky. She led us right back to our very own living room. I was SO nervous because mom
would see us now for sure.
She flicked her magic wand and we were sitting perfectly still on the couch. Mom was answering
the door. Our family greeted us one by one. "She hadn't seen," I thought. My heart beat wildly. I
looked at my brother and he winked back at me.
We've been to the lake a hundred times since then and never have seen our friend again. But
when I look down at the lake and see the water shimmering, I know what no one else knows.
Those rocks that you think are just rocks? They can spin and turn into tiny little fairies whenever
they want to.
Inference Practice: Watch out! Read carefully! Think!
Name__________________
Step One:The following inference statements are written about the
story, "A Strange Day in July." Your job is to decide which
inferences are correct after reading the story. Color in true if the statement is most likely true.
Color in false if the statement is not very likely to be true. Color in not enough information if you
do not have enough information in the story to figure out whether the inference is true or false.
Step Two:Make sure you write down the reference from the story so that you can prove your
point to your team and then to your teacher.
Step Three: Talk to your partners. Make sure everyone on your team knows the answer and can
explain the references used to back up the inferences. Remember, no one knows who will be
called on to explain so let everyone practice their response: answer and reference.
Step Four:The teacher will call on one student per question after the teams have had 2-3 minutes
to talk, find the references, and be sure everyone on the team knows how to respond. That person
explains why the answer is true, false or undetermined. That person must reference the text to get
all points.
Step Five:If correct, the class is rewarded 1 point toward the class goal. At the end of the game,
a total of 14 points means everyone worked together to get every question right.
EXAMPLE: This story takes place in the 1850s.
true (very likely)
false (not very likely)
not enough information
References from the text that prove my point:
_ girl is dressed in patent leather shoes_____
_sitting on couch in the living room_______
_family drove in cars_______________
1. This story is nonfiction.
true (very likely)
false (not very likely)
not enough information
References from the text that prove my point:
__________________________
__________________________
__________________________
2. The brother in the story is older than the sister.
true (very likely)
false (not very likely)
not enough information
References from the text that prove my point:
__________________________
__________________________
__________________________
3. The story takes place in the summer.
true (very likely)
false (not very likely)
not enough information
References from the text that prove my point:
__________________________
__________________________
__________________________
4. One could characterize the mother as wicked.
true (very likely)
false (not very likely)
not enough information
References from the text that prove my point:
__________________________
__________________________
__________________________
5. If the author wrote another chapter of this story, the boy and girl would see another
fairy.
true (very likely)
false (not very likely)
not enough information
References from the text that prove my point:
__________________________
__________________________
__________________________
6. The relatives came to visit late in the day.
true (very likely)
false (not very likely)
not enough information
References from the text that prove my point:
__________________________
__________________________
__________________________
7. The children can fly because the fairy sprinkled fairy dust on them.
true (very likely)
false (not very likely)
not enough information
References from the text that prove my point:
__________________________
__________________________
__________________________
8. The children live in the country.
true (very likely)
false (not very likely)
not enough information
References from the text that prove my point:
__________________________
__________________________
__________________________
9. The children get in trouble a lot.
true (very likely)
false (not very likely)
not enough information
References from the text that prove my point:
__________________________
__________________________
__________________________
10. The little girl loved flying after she got used to it.
true (very likely)
false (not very likely)
not enough information
References from the text that prove my point:
__________________________
__________________________
__________________________
11. The rocks in a lake near your house can turn into fairies anytime they want.
true (very likely)
false (not very likely)
not enough information
References from the text that prove my point:
__________________________
__________________________
__________________________
12. The ending of the story could be classified as mysterious.
true (very likely)
false (not very likely)
not enough information
References from the text that prove my point:
__________________________
__________________________
__________________________
13. The story is told from the fairy's point of view.
true (very likely)
false (not very likely)
not enough information
References from the text that prove my point:
__________________________
__________________________
__________________________
14. The children do not have a father.
true (very likely)
false (not very likely)
not enough information
References from the text that prove my point:
__________________________
__________________________
__________________________