History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teacher Education – The HST Project
-
History of Science and Technology (HST) for European
Teacher Education – The HST Project
Training Manual for History of Science and
Technology Courses
General Editor:
Bert Sorsby
September 2002
1
History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teacher Education – The HST Project
Contents
Author(s)
Pages
Bert Sorsby
3-4
Svein Hoff; Danielle Fauque;
Jorge Arroteia; Bert Sorsby;
Emanuel Vasiliu
6-20
Ray Kirtley
21-33
Bert Sorsby; Peter Ellis; Sam
Ellis; Danielle Fauque; Daniel
Bensimohn Jorge Arroteia;
Svein Hoff; Mary O’Brien;
Emanuel Vasiliu; Mihai Vasiliu;
Mihai Nechifor; Maria Gansari;
Lăcrămioara Stonescu
34-89
Paul Carlile; Sam Ellis; Bert
Sorsby
90-102
Unit 5
Teaching and learning online –The HST public
website and Merlin
Svein Hoff; Bert Sorsby
103-109
Unit 6
How effective was the teaching and learning?
Carrying out action research in the classroom.
Bert Sorsby; Danielle Fauque
110-119
Bert Sorsby
120-124
Bert Sorsby; Danielle Fauque;
125-132
Introduction & Acknowledgements
PART 1
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Unit 1
Communicating with other schools about HST
Unit 2
Understanding and accessing European education
programmes
Unit 3
HST in education curricula in six European
countries
PART 2
IN-SERVICE TEACHER TRAINING in HST
Unit 4
Developing HST education in your
in your school
Unit 7
Additional Tasks for HST Courses for Teachers
Unit 8
Resources and Information
Where to look for information about HST
133
SHORT BIBLIOGRAPHY
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History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teacher Education – The HST Project
Introduction and Acknowledgements
This training manual has been written for teachers and lecturers who want to introduce
European dimensions into their teaching of history of science and technology. It is one of the
major resources developed during 1999-2002, as part of the HST Project which was funded
by the European Commission Socrates programme through Comenius 3.1 and Comenius 2.1.
The manual has been prepared by a group of teachers and teacher educators from six
European countries, England, France, Norway, Portugal, Romania and Ireland. It will be the
core document to be studied by teachers from around Europe who have been successful in
gaining a place on one of a series of international in-service training courses for teachers. The
first five-day course was run in May 2001 and there will be more courses from 2003 onwards.
Other resources produced by the HST Project which are designed to be used in close
conjunction with this core Training Manual are: HST Resource Manual;
The public website at www.hib.no/shof/hst-int/
The virtual, online learning intranet environment Merlin at www.hull.ac.uk/merlin
The Resource Manual and the Training Manual are also available on CD-ROM and there is
also a book to assist the dissemination of the HST Project’s work which contains the early
units of the Training Manual.
An important feature of the development of the HST Course and the resources has been the
strong partnerships, established between teachers and teacher educators in each of the
countries involved in the HST Project. Teacher educators in the project have provided a
distinctively broad overview of HST with a European dimension, and also some background
details of the development of science and technology in Europe. Teachers in each country
have provided specialist insights into what is possible with pupils and students, as well as
contributing useful ideas for school-based learning and teaching in HST. These ideas are
mostly found in the HST Resource Manual although some appear in the Training Manual too.
The Training Manual
The Training Manual is then arranged in two sections.
Part 1 deals with general issues concerning the general background information which
teachers need to know when considering their work in history of science and technology
within a broad European setting. In Unit 1 there is help with finding and establishing partner
schools in Europe to share in projects and Unit 2 provides details of how to apply for funding
from the European Commission. Unit 3 gives a series of brief overviews and statements about
HST in a number of national curricula in Europe as well as giving other information about
the development of science and technology in Europe.
Part 2 concerns the practicalities of learning and teaching history of science and technology
and the units in this section will form the basis for the face-to-face in-service courses in HST.
As teachers and lecturers become more familiar with the information technology associated
with the HST Project, then there will be increasing support for them in their school s and
colleges through the online learning environment Merlin.
Also in Part 2 is an introduction to the resources which already exist for teaching and learning
history of science and technology.
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History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teacher Education – The HST Project
Partners and contributors to the HST Project
England:
Dr Bert Sorsby
University of Hull
(HST Project Co-ordinator & Editor)
Paul Carlile
Foredyke Primary School
Sam Ellis
Howden School
Ray Kirtley
University of Hull
Peter Ellis
PREText
Dr Clive Sutton
British Society for the History of Science
(HST Project Evaluator)
Ireland
Prof Kieran Byrne
Dr Eric Martin
Finbarr O'Tuama
Mary O’Brien
Michael Kavanagh
Mary O'Driscoll
Anne Beechinor
Tom Lyons
Waterford Institute of Technology
Waterford Institute of Technology
Department of Education
Dungarvan
..
Knockskeagh N. School
..
Darrara N. School
France
Dr Danielle Fauque
Odile Jacob
Dominique Alécian
Paul Logié
Daniel Bensimhon
Lycée Stanislas
Portugal
Prof. Jorge Carvalho Arroteia
Isabel and Mariana Arroteia
Norway
Assoc. Prof. Svein Hoff (Webmaster) Høgskolen i Bergen
Odd Netland
Romania
Prof. Emanuel Vasiliu
Prof. Mihail Vasiliu
Mihai Nechifor
Lacramioara Stoenescu
Maria Gansari
University of Aveiro
Esgueira Primary School
{Universitea ‘Politehnica’
{Bucuresti
..
{Colegiul National ‘Dmitrie
{Cantemir’ Bucuresti
Acknowledgements
All partners gratefully acknowledge the financial support of the European Commission for the
Socrates programme grant.number 71684-CP-2-2000-2000-1-UK-COMENIUS-C31 Also we
are indebted to our various institutions and organisations. Each has supported us generously,
by allowing us time to be involved in this important transnational project
On a personal note, I should like to record my grateful thanks to all my colleagues throughout
Europe for their support and advice at each stages of the project. I should like also to thank
staff at the University of Hull especially Ray Kirtley, Manager of the European Resource
Centre, Antonia White in the Research Support Office and Carolyn Brown, for her design
work. Your warmth, friendliness and professionalism have made this project possible.
Dr Bert Sorsby
July 2002
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History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teacher Education – The HST Project
PART 1
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
5
History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teacher Education – The HST Project
Unit 1 Communicating with other European schools about History of
Science and Technology
Introduction
There is great value in letting other schools in Europe know about the HST developments
there have been in your own country, especially if the pupils themselves are involved in the
study. If perhaps your country is particularly proud of an important scientific idea or a
technological invention, (for example a development in railway technology, a particular type
of surgical operation, or specialised navigation system) then this knowledge should be shared
more widely.
There are advantages too when you link with another school in another part of Europe to tell
them details of an achievement about which you are very proud. If however this is just a one
way process, where you tell them about what you have done, then an important educational
opportunity has been lost. Far richer opportunities for learning and co-operation exist when
projects are shared, and when each partner feels an ownership for a particular part of the
overall project.
However, this does not mean that the partnership has to be equally divided at every stage.
One school may initiate the project, send interim details of their study to the partner schools,
and the partners then add their own thoughts and insights to broaden and extend the project.
The purpose of Unit 1 is to: explore the benefits and challenges of forming study networks with other schools for
history of science and technology;
give procedures and ideas about how these networks might be formed.
What are the benefits and challenges of linking with other schools in Europe for history
of science and technology studies?
The following benefits are easy to identify but there may be more advantages which you can
find.
(a) The pupils are likely to be better motivated when they work on an international project.
(b) It can give the pupils pride in their own work and in the work of scientists, engineers etc.
from their own country
(c) Pupils and teachers can learn a great deal about HST developments in their own country,
as well as in other European countries.
(d) It promotes a broader view of our shared European heritage
Among the challenges which can be identified are the following, and there may be many
more:(a) Language difficulties;
(b) The financial costs of exchanging information;
(c) How to find the best way of exchanging information.
(d) How to find one or more partner schools who are willing to work with us.
(e) How to ensure that the work for the shared project is in accord with the demands of the
school curriculum in each country.
(f) How to find a suitable project.
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History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teacher Education – The HST Project
The sections that follow aim to provide some strategies to enable you to respond to most of
these challenges. For example you can find out more about funding for projects through the
European Commission, in Unit 6 of this training manual.
What will the partner schools need to know?
They will need to know some basic information about the school, such as its name, postal
address, email address, fax, and telephone numbers. They will also need to know the size of
the school, whether it is single sex or co-educational, and the age range of the pupils. These
are included on the pro-formae, which are set out below in four languages. Your partner
school will also need to know the preferred languages for communication, as well as the
proposed topic or study area for history of science and technology.
How do you find a partner school?
Obviously you may already know schools in other countries with whom you would like to
work, because you or a colleague have worked with them before.
In addition you can contact your national agency to see if they have been approached by
schools from other parts of Europe who are looking for a partner school in your country. You
might like to look at the 'Windows on the World' website at http://www.wotw.org.uk which links
schools and colleges throughout the world who are interested in sharing projects.
The HST Project has its own database for schools and colleges who are interested projects in
history of science and technology. You can find this by visiting the public website of the HST
Project at http://www.hib.no/shof/hst-int and clicking on 'School Projects'. Please send details of
your proposals to the email address which you will find there.
Alternatively you can complete one of the Request for a Project Partner form below and send
it to Dr Bert Sorsby, University of Hull, Hull HU6 7RX, UK
.or to Svein Hoff, Høgskolen i Bergen, Avdeling for laerutdanning, Landassvingen 15N-5096
Bergen, Norway
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History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teacher Education – The HST Project
(HST) Project for European Teacher Education
Request for a Project Partner
SCHOOL OR COLLEGE DETAILS
School:
Name:
Contact Person:
Name:
Address:
Telephone:
Fax
Email
Languages spoken:
Telephone:
Email:
More details about the school:
Number of pupils in the school
Boys and girls?
Type of schools:
Primary
(7 to 11 years)
Secondary
(11 to 16)
Upper Secondary
(16 to 18)
Any special features of the school?
Ages of pupils involved in the project:
Details of a proposed history of science and technology project area
Preferred means of communication (fax; mail; email)
Preferred language (s) for communication:
Please send the details to the HST Project Co-ordinator, Dr Bert Sorsby, University of Hull, Hull HU6 7RX,
UK. or to Svein Hoff, Høgskolen i Bergen, Avdeling for laerutdanning, Landassvingen 15N-5096 Bergen,
Norway
After a short while you will find details of your entry at :http://www.hib.no/shof/hst-int/ and you will be able to
search for links to other schools from there.
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History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teacher Education – The HST Project
Communiquer en histoire des sciences et des techniques avec d’autres
établissements scolaires d’Europe
Introduction
Il est très valorisant de faire connaître à d’autres écoles européennes le développement de
l’histoire des sciences et des techniques dans son propre pays, surtout si les élèves eux-mêmes
ont pris part à une telle entreprise. Si peut-être son pays tire une fierté particulière d’une idée
scientifique majeure (élaboration de lois en chimie, radioactivité, etc.) ou d’une invention
technique importante (par exemple dans le domaine des transports, des communications ou
autre, un nouveau type d’intervention chirurgicale, etc.), ce savoir mérite d’être partagé plus
largement.
En s’associant à une autre école européenne, on peut lui communiquer non seulement ce que
l’on a fait mais aussi bien des détails supplémentaires sur ces idées scientifiques ou ces
innovations techniques. Renoncer à ce dialogue serait perdre une opportunité pédagogique
essentielle de développements futurs, riches de coopération et de connaissances. Ainsi
partager un projet permet un engagement personnel sur une partie particulière de l’ensemble.
Il n’est cependant pas indispensable que la répartition de l’étude soit égale entre les différents
partenaires. Un établissement scolaire peut initier un projet puis en envoyer une première
version aux écoles partenaires lesquelles pourront commenter puis ajouter leurs propres
suggestions. Dans ce va-et-vient de propositions et de lectures critiques, le sujet s’enrichit et
s’élargit pour devenir oeuvre commune à l’ensemble des partenaires.
L’objectif de ce chapitre est :
1- d’explorer les bénéfices et les défis de la constitution d’un réseau d’étude entre écoles
partenaires autour de l’histoire des sciences et des techniques ;
2- de donner des idées, de susciter des procédures sur la façon dont les réseaux pourraient être
constitués.
Quels sont les bénéfices et les défis d’un partenariat avec d’autres écoles européennes
autour d’une étude en histoire des sciences et des techniques ?
Les bénéfices suivants sont aisément identifiables mais on peut en trouver d’autres :
a) les élèves sont davantage motivés si leur travail entre dans un projet international ;
b) les élèves prennent davantage confiance dans leur propre travail et dans le travail
qu’effectuent les scientifiques, les ingénieurs ou les techniciens de leur pays ;
c) les élèves comme les enseignants peuvent apprendre beaucoup sur le développement des
sciences et des techniques au cours de l’histoire dans leur propre pays comme dans les autres
pays européens.
d) ce type d’action favorise le développement d’une vision élargie de l’héritage européen
commun.
Parmi les nombreux défis que l’on peut identifier, on peut relever les suivants :
a) comment surmonter la difficulté de la langue ;
b) comment financer l’échange d’informations ;
c) comment trouver la meilleure façon d’échanger l’information ;
d) comment trouver l’école ou les établissements scolaires partenaires qui accepteront de
travailler avec soi ;
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History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teacher Education – The HST Project
e) comment s’assurer que le travail effectué sur ce projet commun reste en accord avec les
obligations du programme officiel en vigueur dans chaque pays concerné ;
f) comment élaborer un projet adapté.
Les pages qui suivent proposent quelques stratégies permettant de répondre à plusieurs de ces
défis. Par exemple, des subventions pour ce projet peuvent être sollicitées auprès de la
Commission européenne ; voir à ce sujet le chapitre 7 de ce recueil.
Quelles sont les informations que l’établissement partenaire peut demander ?
L’établissement scolaire partenaire peut demander des renseignements administratifs (nom,
adresses postale et électronique, numéros de téléphone et de fax) mais aussi des
renseignements sur l’importance de l’école (nombre d’élèves, classes d’âge) ou désirer savoir
si l’école est mixte ou non. Dans ce recueil, on trouvera un formulaire correspondant à ce type
de demande. De plus on pourra y ajouter ce que l’on préfère comme langue de
communication, et préciser ce que l’on projette d’étudier comme thème d’histoire des
sciences et des techniques.
Comment trouver un établissement scolaire partenaire ?
On peut déjà connaître un ou d’autres établissements scolaires européens parce que soi-même
ou un collègue y a travaillé en association et on désire poursuivre cette coopération. On peut
aussi contacter l’agence nationale de la commission européenne et lui demander si d’autres
établissements européens sont à la recherche d’une école partenaire pour partager un projet en
histoire des sciences et des techniques. On peut aussi consulter le site « Windows on the
world’s website » à http://www.wotw.org.uk qui regroupe les établissements primaires ou
secondaires à travers le monde intéressés à partager de tels projets.
Le projet d’histoire des sciences et des techniques ici présenté a sa propre base d’adresses des
différentes écoles intéressées par des projets en histoire des sciences et des techniques. Ce site
est public et peut être consulté à l’adresse suivante : http://www.hib.no/shof/hst-int puis en
cliquant sur l’icône « School Projects ». On peut envoyer ses propositions à l’adresse
électronique que l’on choisira.
On peut aussi compléter la « Demande d’association au projet » incluse ci-après et l’envoyer à
Dr Bert Sorsby, University of Hull, Hull HU6 7RX, Grande-Bretagne, ou à Svein Hoff,
Høgskolen i Bergen, Avdeling for laerutdanning, Landassvingen 15N-5096 Bergen, Norvège.
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History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teacher Education – The HST Project
Projet de formation en histoire des sciences et des techniques
pour les enseignants européens
Demande d’association au projet
Renseignements
Établissement
Nom
Personne à contacter
Nom
Adresse
Langues parlées
Téléphone
Fax
Email
Téléphone
Fax
Email
Renseignements sur l’établissement scolaire
Nombre d’élèves
Garçons ou filles
Type d’établissement :
primaire
secondaire collège
(7-11 ans)
(11-15ans)
secondaire lycée
(15-18 ans)
Particularités de l’établissement
Âge des élèves impliqués dans le projet :
Renseignements sur le champ d’histoire des sciences et des techniques envisagé
Moyens préférés de commmunication (poste ; fax ; email)
Langue(s) préférée(s) de communication :
Merci de bien vouloir envoyer ces renseignements au coordinateur du projet HST, Dr Bert
Sorsby, University of Hull, Hull HU6 7RX, Royaume-Uni. Ou à Svein Hoff, Hogskolen i
Bergen, Avdeling for laerutdanning, Landassvingen 15N - 5096 Bergen, Norvège.
Peu après, vous trouverez les renseignements de cette page à : http://www.hib.no/shof/hst-int/ et
vous pourrez établir des liens avec les autres établissements déjà inscrits.
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History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teacher Education – The HST Project
Portugal
Introdução
Existem grandes vantagens em divulgar, entre as escolas europeias, o projecto “History of
Science and Technology” (HST), principalmente no caso dos alunos estarem envolvidos em
estudos relacionados com esta matéria.
Se o seu país se distingue por uma cultura científica aprofundada ou por invenções técnicas
relevantes (como, por exemplo, o aperfeiçoamento de tecnologia relacionada com os
transportes ferroviários, com a medicina, com os sistemas de navegação marítima ou outras)
então estes conhecimentos devem ser largamente divulgados.
Existem igualmente vantagens quando se estreitam laços com outras escolas em qualquer país
europeu e se trocam informações sobre temas que nos são particularmente gratos. Este é
apenas um processo que temos em divulgar o que fazemos e uma oportunidade que não deve
ser perdida. Outras oportunidades em aprender e cooperar com outras instituições escolares
surgem sempre que cada um dos participantes sente ter uma responsabilidade pessoal no
desenvolvimento global de um determinado projecto. Contudo isto não significa que a
colaboração num determinado projecto seja igualmente dividida em todas as fases do seu
desenvolvimento. Uma escola pode iniciar um determinado projecto, enviar às escolas
associadas os detalhes provisórios sobre o seu andamento e estas remeterem o seu contributo
por forma a ampliar e aprofundar o projecto inicial.
Os objectivos desta unidade, são os seguintes:
1. explorar as vantagens e os desafios que se colocam às redes de escolas associadas no
desenvolvimento de projectos no âmbito da HST;
2. divulgar alguns procedimentos e sugestões relativas à constituição destas redes.
Quais são as vantagens e as dificuldades em se ligar em rede com outras Escolas na
Europa interessadas no aprofundamento de estudos sobre HST?
As vantagens nesta ligação são facilmente identificáveis. Destacam-se no entanto, as
seguintes:
a) O alunos ficam mais motivados quando trabalham num projecto internacional;
b) Valoriza o trabalho dos alunos e o trabalho que os cientistas, os engenheiros, etc.,
desenvolvem no seu país;
c) Os alunos e os professores aprendem melhor acerca da evolução da HST quer no seu
próprio país, quer nos demais países Europeus;
d) Permite uma visão mais alargada sobre a nosso passado e herança europeia comum.
Entre as dificuldades que podemos identificar, as que indicamos a seguir parecem-nos as mais
relevantes:
a) Domínio das Línguas estrangeiras;
b) Custos financeiros resultantes da troca da informação;
c) Encontrar os melhores meios de comunicação;
d) Encontrar outras parceiros interessados em trabalhar connosco;
e) Assegurar-se que o trabalho desenvolvido no âmbito do projecto está de acordo com
os requisitos do currículo oficial em cada um dos países;
f) Elaborar um projecto adequado.
As alíneas seguintes ajudam-nos a encontrar algumas estratégias capazes de responder a
muitos destes desafios. Por exemplo, pode encontrar sugestões relativas ao financiamento de
projectos, através da Comissão Europeia, na “Unidade 7” deste manual.
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History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teacher Education – The HST Project
O que é que uma Escola precisa de saber?
Os interessados em participar num projecto internacional precisam de dispor de algumas
informações básicas sobre a Escola, tais como a sua designação, o endereço postal e os nºs de
telefone, de fax e o E.mail. Precisam ainda de saber a dimensão da Escola, se se trata de uma
escola mista ou não, o total de alunos e a sua idade. Estas informações fazem parte da
listagem (pro-forma) que se indica a seguir. A Escola com quem deseja trabalhar precisa
igualmente de saber quais a(s) língua(s) que vai utilizar bem como o temas(s) de estudo
relacionado(s) com a HST.
Como desenvolver o intercâmbio com outra Escola?
Em princípio deve ter conhecimento de escolas existentes noutros países, que pretendam
trabalhar consigo. Tal pode resultar de um conhecimento anterior através do desenvolvimento
de outros projectos.
Além disso deve contactar os Serviços de Relações Internacionais do seu Ministério da
Educação (ou outro serviço equivalente) para proceder a um levantamento das possibilidades
e das ofertas disponíveis.
Pode igualmente consultar o website: “Windows on the World”: http://www.wotw.org.uk que
lhe permite fazer “links” com escolas estrangeiras interessadas no estabelecimento de
projectos internacionais.
O projecto HST dispõe igualmente de uma base de dados de escolas interessadas em
desenvolverem actividades na âmbito da história da ciência e da tecnologia. Para tanto pode
consultar o website do “HST Project”: http://www.hib.no/shof/hst-int e procurar a tecla
correspondente a:”School Projects”. Envie em seguida os detalhes e a sua proposta através de
E.mail para os endereços que entender.
Complementarmente pode preencher o formulário: “Request for a project Partner”, em anexo, e enviá-lo para:
Professor Dr. Bert Sorsby, University of Hull; Hull HU6 7RX, UK ou então para: Professor Svein Hoff,
Hogskolen I Bergen, Avdeling for laerutdanning, Landassvingen 15N-5096, Bergen, Norway.
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History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teacher Education – The HST Project
HST Project for European Teacher Education
Boletim
Características da Escola
Escola:
Nome:
Contacto pessoal:
Nome:
Endereço:
Telefone:
Fax
Email
Língua(s) utilizada(s):
Telefone:
Email:
Outros elementos:
Número total de alunos:
Nº de rapazes e nº de raparigas?
Tipologia da Escola:
Ensino Básico
Ciclo 2ªe3ª Ciclo
(6 a 9anos)
(10 a 12anos)
Ensino Secundário
Outra
1º
(13 a15anos)
Particularidades da escola?
Idade dos alunos envolvidos no projecto:
Caracterização do projecto (objectivos, fases e actividades a desenvolver)
Meios de comunicação a utilizar (fax; mail; email):
Língua preferida para comunicação:
Enviar estes dados para o Coordenador do “ HST Project”: Professor Dr. Bert Sorsby,
University of Hull, Hull HU6 7RX, UK. Ou para: Professor Svein Hoff, Høgskolen i Bergen,
Avdeling for laerutdanning, Landassvingen 15N-5096 Bergen, Norway
Poderá encontrar outros detalhes no website :http://www.hib.no/shof/hst-int/ que lhe permite
estabelecer “links” com outras escolas
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History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teacher Education – The HST Project
Enhet 1. Kommunikasjon med andre europeiske skoler angående
utviklingen i vitenskapens og teknologiens historie (VTH)
Introduksjon
Det er viktig å informere andre skole i Europa om utvikling innen VTH som har blitt gjort i
ditt land, spesielt dersom elevne har vært involvert i utviklingen. Hvis dessuten landet ditt har
vært involvert i utviklingen av viktige vitenskapelige ideer eller spesielle teknologiske
nyvinninger, er det ønskelig at denne informasjonen blir spredt videre.
Det er positivt om du kontakter en annen skole i en annen del av Europa for å informere om et
prosjekt som du er stolt over, men hvis dette er informasjon som bare går en vei så har en
viktig lærings mulighet gått tapt. Det er mye større muligheter for læring når prosjekter deles
mellom skoler, og hver partner utvikler og føler eiendomsrett til en spesiell del av prosjektet.
Dette betyr ikke at partnerskapet må deles likt på et hvert stadium. En skole kan ta initiativ til
et prosjekt og sende foreløpige detaljer til partnerskolene, der partnerne legger til sine egne
forslag for å utvide og gjøre prosjektet bredere.
Hensikten med denne enheten er å:1) utforske fordelene og utfordringene med å danne læringsgrupper med andre skoler
angående vitenskapens og teknologiens historie.
2) å gi prosedyrer og ideer om hvordan disse nettverken kan formes.
Hva er fordelene og utfordringene ved å knytte seg sammen med andres skoler i Europa for å
arbeide med vitenskap og teknologihistorie?
Følgende fordeler er lett å se, men det kan og være andre
a. Elevene er mer motivert når de arbeider på et internasjonalt prosjekt
b. Det gir elevene mulighet for stolthet i sitt eget arbeide og i arbeidet gjort av
vitenskapsmenn, ingeniører mm. fra deres eget land.
c. Elever og lærere kan lære en god del om VTH utvikling i deres eget land samt i andre
europeiske land
d. Det støtter opp om et bredere syn på vår felles europeiske kulturarv.
Blant de utfordringene som kan identifiseres har en blant annet følgende:
a. Språkvansker
b. De finansielle vansker med å utveksle informasjon
c. Hvordan en finner de beste måtene for å utveksle informasjon.
d. Hvordan en skal finne en eller flere partnerskoler som er villige til å arbeide med oss.
e. Hvordan en skal sikre seg at arbeidet med et felles prosjektet er i samsvar med pensum i
hvert land
f. Hvordan en skal finne et passende prosjekt .
I de følgende seksjonene er målsettingen å gi noen strategier for å kunne hanskes med de
fleste av disse utfordringene. For eksempel kan du finne ut mer om finansiering gjennom den
Europeiske kommisjonen, i enhet nr. 7 i denne manualen.
Hva vil partnerskolene trenge kunnskap om?
De trenger basis kunnskap om skolen som navnet, postadressen, email, fax og telefon. De
trenger og informasjon om skolens størrelse, alderen på elevnene og om skolen er en ren
15
History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teacher Education – The HST Project
gutte/pikeskole eller om den har elever av begge kjønn. Dette er inkludert i skjemaet
nedenfor. Partnerskolen trenger og informasjon om det foretrukne språket for kommunikasjon
samt det foreslåtte emne man vil studere innen vitenskap og teknologihistorie.
Hvordan finner du en partnerskole?
Det kan være at du allerede kjenner skoler i andre land som du ønsker å arbeide med hvis du
har vært i kontakt med dem før.
Du kontakte ditt nasjonale kontor for internasjonalt samarbeide for å se om de har blitt
forespurt av skoler fra andre deler av Europa om samarbeidsskoler i ditt land. Du kan og se på
nettstedet ”Windows on the World” som ligger på http://www.wotw.org.uk og knytter
sammen skoler og høyere læreanstalter over hele verden som ønsker å samarbeide og dele
prosjekter.
VTH prosjektet har sin egen database for skoler og høyere læreanstalter som er interessert i
prosjekter i vitenskap og teknologihistorie. Du kan finne dette ved å gå til nettstedet for VTH
som ligger på http://www.hib.no/shof/hst-int og trykke på valget for ”Skole prosjekter”.
Vennligst send detaljene i forslaget ditt til email adressen som du finner der.
Alternativt kan du fylle ut skjemaet Request for a Project Partner som du finner nedenfor og
sende til Dr Bert Sorsby, University of Hull; Hull, HU6 7RX, UK. eller til Svein Hoff,
Høgskolen i Bergen. Avdeling for lærerutdanning, Landåssvingen 15, 5096 Bergen, Norge.
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History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teacher Education – The HST Project
Prosjekt for vitenskapens og teknologiens historie (VTH) i europeisk lærer
utdanning
Forespørsel om en prosjekt partner
Detaljer om skole eller institusjon
Skole:
Navn:
Kontaktperson:
Navn:
Adresse:
Telefon:
Faks
Epost:
Språk som kan nyttes:
Telefon:
Epost:
Flere detaljer om skolen:
Antall elever i skolen
Ren gutt/pike skole eller begge kjønn?
Type skole
Småskoletrinnet Mellomtrinnet Ungdomstrinnet Videregående
(6-10 år)
(11-13 år)
(14-16 år)
(17-19 år)
Noen spesielle egenskaper ved skolen?
Alderen til elevene som er involvert i prosjektet:
Detaljer i et foreslått emne innen vitenskap og teknologihistorie
Foretrukket kommunikasjonsmedium (faks; post; epost)
Foretrukket (ne) språk for kommunikasjon:
Vennligst send detaljene til prosjektkoordinatoren for VTH, Dr Bert Sorsby, University of
Hull, Hull HU6 7RX, UK. eller til Svein Hoff, Høgskolen i Bergen, Avdeling for
lærerutdanning, Landåssvingen 15, 5096 Bergen, Norge
I løpet av kort tid vi du finne detaljene i din forespørsel på: http://www.hib.no/shof/hst-int/ og
du vil kunne søke etter linker til andre skoler derfra.
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History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teacher Education – The HST Project
Stabilirea de colaborări cu alte instituţii de învăţământ din Europa în
domeniul Istoriei Ştiinţei şi Tehnologiei
România
Introducere
Este foarte important de a face cunoscute altor instituţii de învăţământ europene realizările
ştiinţei şi tehnologiei din perspectiva istoriei din propria ţară, mai ales în cazurile în care
elevii sunt implicaţi în asemenea studii. În general, fiecare ţară este mândră de ideile
ştiinţifice majore cum ar fi: elaborarea unor teorii a fenomenelor fizice şi chimice, sau
elaborarea unei invenţii tehnice importante, de exemplu în domeniul transporturilor şi
comunicaţiilor, sau introducerea unor noi metode de intervenţii chirurgicale elaborate de
proprii cetăţeni. Merită cu prisosinţă ca aceste idei şi invenţii să fie cunoscute pe o scară cât
mai largă.
Prin cooperarea cu o altă şcoală Europeană se pot face cunoscute nu numai
ideile şi inovaţiile respective dar şi o mulţime de detalii suplimentare.
Renunţarea la acest dialog este echivalentă cu pierderea unor oportunităţi
pedagogice importante pentru dezvoltarea ulterioară atât a colaborării cât şi a
elaborării de noi cunoştinţe. În cazul participării a mai multor ţări la un proiect
fiecare ţară îşi poate alege un domeniu particular din sfera de activităţi a
proiectului. Nu este neapărat necesar ca repartiţia cercetărilor să fie egală pentru
toate ţările. O şcoală poate iniţia un proiect, apoi poate trimite o primă versiune
a rezultatelor obţinute altor parteneri care la rândul lor, prin sugestii proprii
favorizează desăvârşirea studiului respectiv. În acest mod subiectul devine mai
larg şi mai bine abordat.
Obiectivele acestui capitol sunt:
1- explorarea beneficiilor şi sfidărilor determinate de constituirea unei reţele de studiu dintre
şcoli partenere în domeniul Istoriei Ştiinţei şi Tehnologiei;
2- de a elabora idei şi de a favoriza elaborarea unor proceduri prin care reţelele pot fi
constituite.
Care sunt beneficiile şi sfidările parteneriatului dintre şcolile Europene în domeniul
studiului Istoriei Ştiinţei şi Tehnicii ?
Următoarele beneficii sunt foarte uşor de identificat:
a) elevii sunt mai bine motivaţi dacă munca lor se efectuează în cadrul unui proiect
internaţional;
b) elevii capătă încredere în propria lor muncă, precum şi în munca pe care o efectuează
oamenii de ştiinţă, inginerii şi tehnicienii din propria lor ţară;
c) elevii pot să capete mult mai multe cunoştinţe privind dezvoltarea Ştiinţei şi Tehnologiei
de-a lungul Istoriei propriilor ţări, precum şi a altor ţări Europene;
d) acest tip de acţiune favorizează dezvoltarea unei viziuni lărgite asupra moştenirii Europene
comune.
Evident, şi alte beneficii şi sfidări pot fi identificate.
Dintre numeroasele sfidări care pot fi identificate se remarcă următoarele:
a) cum pot fi surmontate dificultăţile de limbă;
18
History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teacher Education – The HST Project
b) cum poate fi finanţat schimbul de informaţii;
c) care este cea mai bună metodă privind schimbul de informaţii;
d) cum pot fi identificate şcolile care acceptă parteneriatul între ele;
e) cum poate fi verificat faptul că munca efectuată într-un proiect comun este în concordanţă
cu obligaţiile programei oficiale în vigoare în toate ţările participante;
f) cum se poate elabora un proiect adaptat unor cerinţe specifice.
În paginile care urmează se prezintă strategia pe baza căreia se poate răspunde la aceste
sfidări. De exemplu, subvenţiile pentru un anumit proiect pot fi solicitate Comisiei Europene
(vezi capitolul 7 din acest volum).
Care sunt informaţiile necesare pentru stabilirea unui parteneriat ?
O instituţie de învăţământ poate solicita informaţii cu caracter administrativ (denumirea şcolii,
adresa poştală şi electronică, numerele de telefon şi de fax) precum şi informaţii privind
importanţa şcolii (numărul de elevi, vârstele elevilor) sau doreşte să cunoască dacă şcoala este
mixtă (băieţi şi fete) sau numai de băieţi, respectiv numai de fete. În această carte se găseşte
un formular corespunzător acestui tip de solicitări. Evident, se pot adăuga informaţii
suplimentare cum ar fi: limba preferată de comunicare sau precizarea unei anumite teme
particulare de Istorie a Ştiinţei şi Tehnologiei.
Cum se poate găsi o instituţie şcolară parteneră ?
Poate fi deja cunoscută o altă instituţie şcolară Europeană întrucât s-ar putea ca în aceste şcoli
să se afle colegi care doresc să coopereze. De asemenea se poate contacta Agenţia Naţională a
Comisiei Europene şi de a solicita informaţii privind alte instituţii de învăţământ care sunt în
faza de identificare a unor şcoli partenere pentru împărţirea domeniilor de studii ale unui
proiect de Istoria Ştiinţei şi Tehnicii. De asemenea se poate consulta site-ul “Windows on the
world’s website” la adresa http://www.wotw.org.uk care grupează instituţiile primare sau
secundare de-a lungul întregii lumi, interesate să participe la asemenea proiecte.
Proiectul de Istoria Ştiinţei şi Tehnologiei prezentat în această carte are baza sa proprie de
adrese a diferitelor şcoli interesate de proiecte în diferite domenii ale Istoriei Ştiinţei şi
Tehnicii. Acest site care este public poate fi consultat la adresa următoare:
http://www.hib.no/shof/hst-int prin apelarea siglei “school projects”. Se pot trimite propuneri
la adresa electronică aleasă.
Se poate de asemenea completa: “Cererea de asociere la proiect” prezentată în pagina
următoare şi trimisă Dl.doctor Bert Sorsby, University of Hull, Hull, HU6 7RX, Marea
Britanie sau domnului Svein Hoff, Høgscolen I Bergen, Avdeling for laerutdanning,
Landassvingen 15N-5096, Bergen, Norvegia.
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History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teacher Education – The HST Project
Proiect de formare în Istoria Ştiinţei şi Tehnologiei
pentru învăţământul din Europa
Cerere de asociere la proiect
INFORMAŢII DE BAZĂ
Instituţia:
Nume:
Persoana de contact:
Nume:
Adresa:
Telefon:
Fax
Email
Limbi cunoscute:
Telefon:
Email:
Informaţii despre instituţia şcolară:
Număr de elevi
Băieţi sau fete?
Tipul instituţiei:
Primară
(7 to 11 years)
Gimnazială
(11 to 15)
Liceală
(15 to 18)
Specificul instituţiei?
Vârsta elevilor implicaţi în proiect:
Informaţii privind domeniul anvizajat al Istoriei Ştiinţei şi Tehnologiei
Metodele preferate de comunicare (fax; poştă; poştă electronică)
Limbile preferate de comunicare:
Vă rugăm să aveţi bunăvoinţa de a trimite aceste informaţii la HST Project Co-ordinator, Dr
Bert Sorsby, University of Hull, Hull HU6 7RX, UK. or to Svein Hoff, Høgskolen i Bergen,
Avdeling for laerutdanning, Landassvingen 15N-5096 Bergen, Norway
Ulterior veţi găsi informaţiile din acest chestionar la
adresa:http://www.hib.no/shof/hst-int/ şi veţi putea stabili
legături cu instituţiile deja înscrise în acest site
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History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teacher Education – The HST Project
Unit 2
Understanding and accessing European education
programmes
The purpose of this unit is to help you to:
 gain an overview of the European funding programmes which are relevant to schools;
 select the actions appropriate to your type of project;
 find the necessary information and forms to apply for funding.
Background information
In 1995 The European Commission has created two funding programmes in order to support
the international co-operation in education and training: SOCRATES and LEONARDO DA
VINCI. Both programmes operated until the end of 1999. They were succeeded by new
programmes using the same names and sharing many of the original aims and objectives. This
Unit concentrates on the Socrates programme which deals with education. It does however
provide sufficient information on Leonardo da Vinci – the vocational training programme – to
enable information to be located. In general Leonardo da Vinci is directed at students who are
taking part in initial vocational training courses at school or college. Both new programmes
are designed to operate up to 31st December 2006.
Socrates – European Action Programme for Education
The main aims of the programme are:




to strengthen the European dimension in education at all levels;
to improve the knowledge of European languages;
to promote and facilitate co-operation in education;
to encourage innovation in education.
PARTICIPATING COUNTRIES
Thirty one countries will take part in the programme:




All the 15 member states of the EU:
The 3 EFTA countries: Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway;
The 10 Associated Countries of the EU: Bulgaria, Cyprus, the Czech Republic,
Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Romania, Slovakia and Slovenia;
Turkey - it is advisable to check the current situation with your National Agency for
this country.
SOCRATES supports projects from all types of schools and training institutions and is aimed
at all levels: pre-school education, primary, secondary, higher education and life long
learning.
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History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teacher Education – The HST Project
A Summary of the Programme
The following pages aim to provide readers with a broad understanding of the Socrates
Programme. For the majority of teachers the practical application of the programme
will be within Action 1 – Comenius.
ACTION 1 School Education Comenius
Aims:
To improve the quality of and develop the European dimension in education by:
 Encouraging co-operation and supporting partnerships between schools in
participating countries;
 Contributing to initial and in-service training of staff in the school education sector;
 Promoting the development of networks of school partnerships and in-service training
projects to enhance co-operation and the dissemination of good practice.
Comenius School Partnerships
This action features:
 Comenius School Projects
 Comenius Language Projects
 Comenius School Development Projects
 Plus Preparatory Visits
Comenius Action 1 1 - Comenius School Projects*
These projects must include at least three schools or colleges across at least three countries.
These institutions can range from Nursery Schools to Vocational Colleges. Up to three years
of funding is available to support such projects. There are several important criteria.
Comenius School Projects:
 Must be integrated into the regular activities of the school;
 Take place within the curriculum;
 Involve several class groups;
 Have a wide impact in school;
 Involve pupils in the planning, organisation and evaluation of the work;
 Be multi-disciplinary.
The projects may be completely focused on the process of co-operation and linking but for
many there will also be outcomes: Newsletters, websites, CD-ROMs

The projects will be funded on an annual basis. The school that takes on the responsibility
to run the project (the co-ordinator) may receive up to €2000 per year while the partner
schools receive up to €1500. This may be used for materials, communication costs, the
purchase of software and a proportion of the lease of IT equipment for use in connection
with the project. Travel and accommodation costs for meetings are paid in addition to
these amounts and are related to the geographical location of the partnership schools (for
example a partnership featuring Finland, Greece and Ireland would receive a higher travel
costs than a partnership between the Benelux countries). Most projects will organise 2 or
3 meetings per year and use these occasions to organise and evaluate the work of the
project. It is permissible for a small number of pupils to accompany teachers to these
meetings. They will act as project workers and ambassadors for their school. Up to six
teachers can apply to undertake some kind of mobility activity each year and up to four
pupils can participate in the planning or evaluation meetings for the project each year.
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History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teacher Education – The HST Project
* Participants in the first phase of Socrates will recognise many of the features of Multi-lateral
School Projects or ‘Comenius Projects’ in this action.
Why take part in a Comenius School Project? Here are some outcomes for pupils reported
by schools previously involved in Comenius projects:
 raising pupils’ self-esteem, confidence and motivation
 development of pupils’ interpersonal and communication skills
 increased motivation for language learning
 reduced stereotyping
 awareness and appreciation of life outside their own environment
 increased awareness as citizens of Europe.
Comenius Action 1 2 - Comenius Language Projects
These are language learning projects between two schools from two eligible countries. They
enable a minimum of 10 students in the 14 – 25 age group to take part in a reciprocal two
week exchange closely involved with a project. The students must make use of the foreign
language in planning for their exchange and also use the target language in a real context
while the exchange takes place. There is usually a distinct end product of the project - a
magazine, drama performance or design and build task for example. Priority will be given to
the less widely used and less taught languages. Funding can be directed to language tuition if
the target language is not taught in school. In common with Comenius School Projects there is
a standard grant of up to €2000 with a variable contribution towards student and teacher travel
and subsistence. There is an expectation that the families of students will act as hosts for the
visiting group.
* Participants in the first phase of Socrates will recognise many of the features of Lingua E
projects or ‘Joint Educational Projects’ in this action.
Why take part in a Comenius Language Project?
 increased confidence and ability in the target language
 greater motivation for pupils’ studies and improved interpersonal skills
 valuable experience of other cultures and societies.
Comenius Action 1 3 - School Development Projects
These are a new element of Comenius which enable school managers and teachers to
exchange experience and information with partner schools elsewhere in Europe. Once again a
minimum of three eligible countries must be involved. The issues include:





The prevention of violence at school;
The integration of ethnic minorities;
Classroom management;
Equal opportunities;
The specific needs of the children of migrant workers, gypsies, travellers and itinerant
workers.
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History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teacher Education – The HST Project
These projects are funded in a similar way to Comenius School Projects but mobility is
restricted to members of staff. Strong links with the community are encouraged in the
planning of these projects. Up to six teachers can apply to undertake some kind of mobility
activity each year.
A summary of Comenius 1
Schools and colleges can apply for three kinds of project under Comenius 1:
Comenius School
Project
Pupil-centred
√
Comenius
Language
Project
√
Comenius School
Development
Project
√
School-centred
Partnership
Duration
at least three schools
or colleges
max three years
two schools or
colleges
normally one year
at least three schools
or colleges
max three years
Comenius Action 2 – The Training of School Education Staff
Aims:
To improve the quality of and develop the European dimension in education by:


Promoting quality in the teaching of EU languages;
Promoting intercultural awareness in school education in Europe.
Comenius Action 2 1 – European Co-operation Projects
These are projects which create, test and deliver training courses for teachers or other
educational staff. They may involve the development of curricula for initial teacher training,
promote the mobility of student teachers and develop teaching strategies for specific learner
groups. In general these projects are accessible to educational institutions other than schools
and colleges – but schools may be involved eg as partners to local authorities or universities.
Comenius Action 2 2 – Individual Mobility Activities
Individual mobility and training opportunities for teachers are published annually in the
Comenius Catalogue. The National Agencies for Socrates will direct users of their sites to
these courses, see http://europa.eu.int/comm/education/socrates/comenius/natagenc.htm for a
complete list of all agencies. Many of these courses are concerned with language learning and
resemble the Lingua B courses well known to teachers of modern foreign languages under the
previous programme. There are also courses concerned with particular curricular areas or
school management issues. Funding is available to cover individual members of staff in terms
of the cost of the course plus travel, accommodation and a contribution towards subsistence.
Courses last up to a week for non-language training up to 4 weeks for language courses.
Grants are available up to €1500.
Comenius Action 2 3 – Comenius Language Assistants
These are prospective teachers of foreign languages who apply to work in school for between
3 and 8 months. They take part in activities which broadly support the European dimension
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History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teacher Education – The HST Project
across the curriculum and help to introduce their own language and culture to the host
institution. Your school can host a Comenius Language Assistant wholly supported by the
Socrates programme.
Why host a Comenius Language Assistant?
 The main benefit a Comenius Assistant will bring to your school or college is an
authentic presence from another European country. This can act as a way of introducing
your pupils to other European cultures, languages and perspectives.
 Comenius Assistants are paid a monthly allowance by the European Commission. This
means that an Assistant represents a valuable teaching resource which comes at no cost
to your school or college.
Comenius Action 3 – Networks
Comenius 3 provides support for Networks of institutions who have already been involved in
Comenius projects in order that they may share experience, good practice and innovation.
Comenius Networks involve at least one organisation from each of at least six different
countries, and partnerships should be designed to bring on board new organisations during the
course of the project.
Activities may include:


conferences, seminars and symposia
publication of findings and experiences including best practice guides, resources and
materials
.
Cross-sector and / or cross-phase Networks are particularly encouraged.
Applying for a Comenius project – summary of deadlines
Comenius School Projects
1 February
De-centralised
Comenius Language Projects
1 February
De-centralised
Comenius School Development Projects
1 February
De-centralised
Comenius 2.1 European co-operation inservice training projects
Comenius 2.2 Individual training grants for
school and college education staff:
- Initial training
- Comenius Language Assistants
- In-service training
Comenius 3 Networks
1 March
Centralised
Varies
De-centralised
1 November preproposal
1 March full
proposal
Centralised
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History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teacher Education – The HST Project
Notes:
a. Some National Agencies may require earlier deadlines
b. De-centralised applications are submitted to National Agencies.
c. Centralised applications are submitted to the European Commission with a copy sent
to the National Agency of the co-ordinating country, with the exception of Networks
which are sent to the European Commission only.
Programme Management
The SOCRATES programme is managed by the European Commission. The responsible
Directorate is Education and Culture. The programme is divided into Actions. Some of these
actions are administered directly by the Commission and in these cases applications are made
directly to Brussels. These are called centralised actions. Other actions are administered by
the member states and applications are made to the National Agency (N.A.). These are
decentralised actions. This agency may be in an independent institution or within the
administration of the Ministry of Education of the member state concerned.
Making an application: the use of the Comenius Plan
The Comenius plan is a strategic tool the purpose of which is to enable your
school/institution to plan its European/international cooperation activities over a longer
timespan. The plan will also serve as a source of information for the National Agency
and will help in the assessment of your project proposals. The Comenius Plan will
therefore form part of the application form for Comenius projects. The questions in Part
A allow the National Agency to build up a picture of the school or college. The questions
in Part B provide a background to your school’s European activities in general and
indicate to the National Agency all the Comenius activities which the school intends to
undertake under Comenius 1, 2 or 3. The completion of a Comenius Plan does not
guarantee the provision of funding for these activities and it is highly likely that National
Agencies will require schools to prioritise their requirements. The following document is
therefore indicative of the Comenius Plan.
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History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teacher Education – The HST Project
PART A.
General information on your school/institution
(See Unit 1 for more details)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Name of the school/institution:
Address of the school/institution:
Location:
Total number of pupils:
Age of pupils:
Total number of teachers:
Total number of other staff:
rural □
Female:
Youngest:
Female:
Female:
urban □
Male:
Oldest:
Male:
Male:
suburban
□
8.
Please indicate the particular focus of your school/institution, if any, such as, for example, humanities, sciences,
environmental education, early language learning, music, sports:
9.
Does your school/institution have a significant number of:
pupils at risk of social exclusion □ pupils with special educational needs □
If yes, please explain:
10.
Is your school/institution located in a socio-economically disadvantaged area, or is it in a disadvantaged situation for
any other reasons?
Yes □
No □
If yes, please explain:
PART B.
1.
Your school’s/institution’s European Activities
Has your school /institution already been involved in European/international co-operation activities?
Yes □ No □
If yes, in what kind of activities?
2..
What kind of European cooperation activities, and in particular Comenius activities, does your school/institution
intend to pursue in the future? Please present the activities year by year, if possible. ( 1st year, 2nd year etc.)
3
.Who has been involved in the production of the Comenius Plan? Participants may include members of staff, the
European Co-ordinator and members of the wider community in which the school is situated.
Signature of the person legally authorised to sign on behalf of the school/institution
Stamp of the school/institution
Name and position in capital letters
3.
Why does your school/institution wish to become involved in these activities? Which concrete
outcomes do you expect of them for the participating pupils and teachers, and potentially, for the whole
school/institution?
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History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teacher Education – The HST Project
Activities for pupils, teachers, heads and school administrators
The following pages contain an overview of the different programmes and actions structured
according to the target groups: pupils, teachers, heads and school administrators. For more
information contact your National Agency.
ACTIONS FOR PUPILS
a)
Schools of all types can create a multinational partnership with a minimum three
different countries involved. Within this partnership schools can develop a Comenius
School Project (which is sometimes called a multi-lateral school partnership). This is a
cross curricular project on a common theme (e.g. environment, cultural heritage...).
Pupils and whole classes work simultaneously on the same project and then exchange
data, opinions or materials. This is then incorporated into their normal work in class.
This type of project is supported by COMENIUS Action 1.1
A basic project grant from the Commission is available up to a maximum of €2000/year
for the co-ordinating school and €1500/year for each partner school. A proportion of
travel costs for project meetings may be claimed in addition to these amounts depending
upon the costs incurred. Some national agencies may be able to increase these amounts
for schools which can demonstrate special needs or disadvantage. Special schools
should automatically apply for these higher amounts. Comenius School Projects will
support a project for up to three years with an annual renewal. The grant can support
teacher travel for planning meetings, subsistence costs, materials and telephone and fax
accounts. They can also support limited pupil travel (2-4) to project meetings but not the
purchase of capital equipment. Up to €1000 is also available for Preparatory Visits
before a project begins.

Application procedure: the co-ordinator and each partner apply to their own
National Agency - not to the European Commission.
Application deadline: 1 February,. Some National Agencies require earlier
applications for example France and Germany require applications in advance of
this date. The situation is similar for Preparatory Visits – some National Agencies
allow applications at any time, others may set deadlines.

b)
Comenius Language Projects are aimed at pupils/students in the 14 – 25 age group
who will co-operate with a single partner school abroad. Direct communication in a
foreign language and a pupil exchange are the core elements of each project. A wide
range of subjects can be used as a theme for a Comenius Language Project: history,
environment, music, sport, fashion etc but it must be related to the curriculum
followed by the pupils. The exchanges are reciprocal and last for a minimum of two
weeks each. This can include parts of the holiday periods and can be spread over two
school years. A standard grant of up to €2000 per school is available to support project
organisation. A proportion of the costs of the visit will also be reimbursed but there are
no accommodation allowances as pupils stay in host families. Additional funds are
available for pre-exchange language training if the target language is not normally
taught in school. In disadvantaged areas schools may apply for up to 75% of their
costs. Up to €1000 is also available for Preparatory Visits before a project begins.


Application: each school has to apply at its National Agency
Deadline: 1 February – but note the possible exceptions listed under Comenius
School Projects
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History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teacher Education – The HST Project
c)
Schools can ask for a Comenius Language Assistant. This is a student or a young
qualified language teacher from one of the member states willing to spend a period as
an assistant in a school of a country where the language s/he teaches is one of the
official languages. This assistant can help in the teaching of languages, provide
lessons about country and culture, exchange information on education, help to plan a
European project at school etc.. The assistantship can last from three months to a full
school year. The Comenius Language Assistant action pays for travel and
accommodation.


Application: assistants and host schools: at their National Agency
Deadline: 1 February
Note to UK readers: This scheme is not accessible to secondary schools which teach the
mother tongue of the Comenius Language Assistant. This is to avoid competition with
bilateral schemes which are organised between departments of education.
ACTIONS FOR TEACHERS
a) Teachers can apply for Preparatory Visits in order to prepare a project: Comenius
School Projects, Comenius Language Projects and School Development Projects
all offer grants of up to €1000/person for this purpose.


Application: National Agency
Deadlines: usually three or four months before the project deadline
b) Comenius School Development Projects are aimed at teachers and school managers
who are interested in the exchange of information and experience. Like Comenius
School Projects a minimum of three schools in three countries must be involved.
There is also the expectation that appropriate agencies or community organisations
will be incorporated into the project. The choice of issue is up to the project group but
might include





The prevention of violence and conflict;
The integration of ethnic minority groups;
Teaching methodologies;
School organisation and management;
Preparation for employment.
A basic project grant from the Commission is available up to a maximum of €2000/year
for the co-ordinating school and €1500/year for each partner school. A proportion of
travel costs for project meetings may be claimed in addition to these amounts depending
upon the costs incurred.


Application: only by the coordinating institution at the N.A.
Application deadline: 1 February,. Some National Agencies require earlier
applications for example France and Germany require applications in advance of
this date.
c) Teachers can also apply for a Teacher Exchange ( of 1 - 4 weeks) as part of a
Comenius School Project or Comenius School Development Project. There is an
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History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teacher Education – The HST Project
expectation that such an exchange will facilitate and further the project. A teacher can
teach in the partner school, compare education systems, didactic approach, manuals,
examination systems or the teachers can jointly plan the project and associated
materials. The appropriate project will be provided with an extra grant up to a
maximum of €1500 for a Teacher Exchange.

Application: National Agency as part of the Comenius Plan
d) Teachers can also apply for a Teacher Placement in a business (of 1 - 4 weeks) as
part of a Comenius School Project or Comenius School Development Project. There
is an expectation that such an placement will facilitate and further the main project. A
teacher can use the placement to assist with the preparation of materials, the collection
of data or for any other purpose associated with the project. The appropriate project
will be provided with an extra grant up to a maximum of €1500 for a Teacher
Placement.

e)
Application: National Agency as part of the Comenius Plan
Teachers can take part in international in-service training seminars outside of projects.
National agencies will provide grants up to a maximum of €1500 for teachers to travel
and take part in training sessions organised by training institutions. The European
dimension at school, transnational co-operation, intercultural education, exchange of
information, new technologies, improvement of language skills… are some of the
themes in these courses. They offer the opportunity for partner finding and the creation
of Comenius School partnerships as well. All courses are featured in the Comenius
Catalogue.


Application. National Agency
Deadlines will be provided by the National Agency
ACTIONS FOR SCHOOL HEADS AND ADMINISTRATORS
a)
School heads and administrators can also apply for a study visit (maximum 1 week) to
their Comenius partner schools as part of either a Comenius School Project or a
Comenius School Development project. These visits must be part of the workplan of the
project and should aim at strengthening the partnership. The project will be provided
with an extra grant of max. €1500 to any school taking part. School heads and
administrators and also careers guidance personnel and inspectors and advisors can
apply for an in-service training grant to attend an international in-service training course
(see the teachers’ section above).

Application: National Agency as part of the Comenius Plan
b) ARION is a programme for educational policy-makers nominated by the participating
countries. Educational staff active in management, evaluation, training and guidance can
take part in one week visits organized in and by one of the member states in order to
exchange information and experience on matters of common interest. ARION is included
in Action 6 of Socrates – Observation and Innovation.

Application: National Agency
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History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teacher Education – The HST Project
Additional information
1
The Remainder of the Socrates Programme
ACTION 2 Higher Education Erasmus
This action aims to enhance the quality and reinforce the European dimension in higher
education and does not come within the scope of this unit.
ACTION 3 Adult Education And Other Educational Pathways Grundtvig
Grundtvig complements the school education and adult education actions by promoting a
European dimension in lifelong learning. It is targeted in particular at young people who have
left the school system with insufficient training and wish to resume their studies. Grundtvig
will encourage the creation of European networks and enable greater co-operation in these
areas.
ACTION 4 Teaching And Learning Of Languages Lingua
This action aims to promote the teaching and learning as foreign languages of all the official
languages of the Member States. Financial assistance is available to trans-national language
learning projects such as:




Awareness raising activities;
Activities to promote innovation such as the early learning of languages;
The development of new curricula, teaching materials and instruments of
language proficiency;
The networking of resource centres.
ACTION 5 Open And Distance Learning; Information And Communication
Technologies In The Field Of Education Minerva
The purpose of this action is to complement and enrich the other actions of the programme by
promoting the use of new information and communication technologies especially in terms of
Open and Distance learning. Support is available for:



Projects which develop quality criteria for the use of educational multimedia;
Projects to develop materials and methodologies;
Projects to support the exchange of ideas and experience including the
networking of resource centres.
ACTION 6 Observation And Innovation
This action aims to develop the quality of education through the observation of education
systems including study visits for decision makers (ARION), information on national
education systems (Eurydice) and the Network of National Academic Recognition
Information Centres (NARIC).
ACTION 7 Joint Actions
The Commission intends to implement joint calls for proposals that may involve the
vocational training and youth programmes.
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History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teacher Education – The HST Project
ACTION 8
Accompanying Measures
This part of the new programme will promote activities that are not eligible for assistance
under the other actions but which still promote the objectives of the programme.
2
Leonardo da Vinci
This is the European Commission programme for Vocational Training launched at the same
time as the new Socrates programme with the same lifespan. Leonardo provides support for
young people over the age of 14 to take part in work related activities with a partner school or
college. To qualify they must be enrolled on an initial vocational education course.
All eligible countries have a National Co-ordination Unit to oversee the Leonardo
programme.
3
Domestic funding programmes
Some member states have domestic funding programmes to support international activities for
their own schools:
For example in the UK the National Agency offers a number of schemes including:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
North-South linking reciprocal visits;
North-South Curriculum Development Grants;
Teachers International Professional Development;
School Linking Visit Grants;
Regional Inservice Training Programme
International School Award Accreditation Programme.
Some of these schemes are supported by the Department for International Development and
have applications for links with Latin America, the Caribbean, Africa and Asia.
32
History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teacher Education – The HST Project
Some In-service Course Tasks
Task U2.1
Read the description of the different actions and tick (  ) all the actions for which your
school is eligible. Select the actions of which you think the school might be interested in.
Contact your National Agency and ask for more information (guidelines) and for the
necessary paperwork to apply for funding.
Task U2.2
Use the model Comenius Plan to prepare a strategic plan for European activities at your
school for the next three year period. Relate the plan to the priorities of the school in terms of
the pupils and the curriculum but also consider management issues. Show this to the Head
and other key members of staff and use this work as the basis for Task 3.
Task U2.3
Obtain the appropriate application forms and use these to prepare detailed proposals. Include
a provisional budget. Show this to the Head and other key members of staff and use this work
as the basis for a real application.
Task U2.4
Handbook users from the UK
Contact the Central Bureau and find out which of the UK domestic funding programmes may
assist your European developments in school.
Handbook users outside the UK
Contact your national agency and ask about funding programmes other than those offered
through Socrates and Leonardo.
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History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teacher Education – The HST Project
Unit 3 History of Science and Technology in Education in some
European Countries.
The purpose of this unit is:
 to show where HST may be found in the school and higher education curricula for a
number of European countries.
 to present some insights into how HST is taught in various countries.
 to present some comments from various parts of Europe on the teaching of HST ;
 to consider some European contributions to the growth of science and technology.
England and Wales
Summary
In England and Wales the curriculum is governed by act of Parliament in all schools funded
by the state, and in most schools funded privately,. There are statutory national tests in
English, Maths and Science based on these curricula for all children aged 7, 11 and 14 years
and examinations at 16 years relate to these curricula too. Initial teacher training courses are
also governed by act of Parliament. There are regular inspections of schools and teacher
training courses -every few years. The latest national curriculum for schools was published in
1999 and that for initial teacher training in 2002.
For HST in particular: Recent legislation requires history of science and technology to be taught to children in
state schools in England and Wales. An understanding of the nature of science is also
required at the moment ( 2001) in the training of all primary teachers and all secondary
science teachers in England.
 HST is found mainly in the science and history curricula for schools and is for all children
aged 5 to 16 years. in science, and 5 to 14 years for history. Some aspects can also in the
new national curriculum for Citizenship.
 In the science national curriculum HST is found under ‘Ideas and Evidence’ and also in
‘Breadth of Study’. In initial teacher training it appears in the documents concerning
exemplification of the standards.
 In spite of the legislation, HST is usually not taught in school science lessons in England
and Wales because (a) teachers are generally unsure about the subject and (b) it is not
assessed in the national tests at age 7, 11 and 14.
BUT this is changing because examination boards in England are setting questions which
relate to the public understanding of science and also to ‘Ideas and Evidence . Peter Ellis tells
how this is being done in the next section.(pages34-48)
You can find the complete school National Curriculum for England and Wales at the web
address: http://www.nc.uk.net For initial teacher training, the document is at
http://www.canteach.gov.uk/community/itt/requirements/qualifying/index.htm
Some extracts from the school national curricula for history and science are given below.
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History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teacher Education – The HST Project
Science National Curriculum for Pupils in England
'Promoting pupils' spiritual, moral, social and cultural development through science
For example, science provides opportunities to promote:
….cultural development, through helping pupils recognise how scientific discoveries and
ideas have affected the way people think, feel, create, behave and live, and drawing attention
to how cultural differences can influence the extent to which scientific ideas are accepted,
used and valued.'
'Through science, pupils understand how major scientific ideas contribute to technological
change – impacting on industry, business and medicine and improving quality of life. Pupils
recognise the cultural significance of science and trace its world wide development. They
learn to question and discuss science-based issues that may affect their own lives, the
direction of society and the future of the world.'
Key Stage 2 (7 to 11 year olds)
'Ideas and evidence in science
1 Pupils should be taught: a) that science is about thinking creatively to try to explain how
living and non-living things work, and to establish links between causes and effects [for
example, Jenner's vaccination work]……….'
Key stage 3 (11 to 14 year olds)
'1 Pupils should be taught:
'a about the interplay between empirical questions, evidence and scientific explanations using
historical and contemporary examples [for example, Lavoisier's work on burning, the possible
causes of global warming]………..
c about the ways in which scientists work today and how they worked in the past, including
the roles of experimentation, evidence and creative thought in the development of scientific
ideas.'
Key Stage 4 ( 14 to 16 year olds
'Ideas and evidence in science
1 Pupils should be taught:
a how scientific ideas are presented, evaluated and disseminated [for example, by publication,
review by other scientists]
b how scientific controversies can arise from different ways of interpreting empirical evidence
[for example, Darwin's theory of evolution]
c ways in which scientific work may be affected by the contexts in which it takes place [for
example, social, historical, moral and spiritual], and how these contexts may affect whether or
not ideas are accepted
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History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teacher Education – The HST Project
History National Curriculum for Pupils in England
Key Stage 1 (5 to 7 years)
'During the key stage, pupils should be taught:….
c the lives of significant men, women and children drawn from the history of Britain and the
wider world [for example, artists, engineers, explorers, inventors, pioneers, rulers, saints,
scientists]'
Key Stage 2 (7 to 11 years)
'During key stage 2 pupils learn about significant people, events and places from both the
recent and more distant past. They learn about change and continuity in their own area, in
Britain and in other parts of the world. They look at history in a variety of ways, for example
from political, economic, technological and scientific, social, religious, cultural or aesthetic
perspectives.'
11 . Victorian Britain
a A study of the impact of significant individuals, events and changes in work and transport
on the lives of men, women and children from different sections of society.'
OR
'Britain since 1930
b A study of the impact of the Second World War or social and technological changes that
have taken place since 1930, on the lives of men, women and children from different sections
of society.'
'A European history study
12 A study of the way of life, beliefs and achievements of the people living in Ancient Greece
and the influence of their civilisation on the world today.'
Key Stage 3 (11 to 14 years)
'Britain 1500-1750
9 A study of crowns, parliaments and people: the major political, religious and social changes
affecting people throughout the British Isles, including the local area if appropriate.'
For example:
…advances in medicine and surgery including the work of William Harvey; the founding of
the Royal Society and the scientific discoveries of Isaac Newton, Robert Boyle and Edmund
Halley; developments in the arts and architecture.'
'Britain 1750-1900
10 A study of how expansion of trade and colonisation, industrialisation and political changes
affected the United Kingdom, including the local area.'
For example:
…..industrialisation in the local area; changes in agriculture the role of scientists and
inventors such as Edward Jenner, Humphry Davy, James Watt, Michael Faraday, Mary
Somerville, Charles Darwin;; '
'A European study before 1914
11 A study of a significant period or event in the pre-history or history of Europe.'
Bert Sorsby(Hull)
May 2002
36
History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teacher Education – The HST Project
Teaching and Examining HST in ‘Ideas and Evidence’ in the Science
National Curriculum in England
Introduction to Ideas and Evidence
A story
In the 1790s argument raged between the supporters of Luigi Galvani and Alessandro
Volta. Both Italians were respected for their contributions to the study of electricity. Galvani
had found that frogs’ legs twitched when hung from metal hooks and thought that the still
living matter generated the electricity that made the muscles move. Volta thought that the
source of the electricity was the metal hooks the frogs’ legs were hung from. Volta carried
out experiments to test his ideas. With no instruments sensitive enough, he used his own
tongue to detect the feeble electric effect generated when pieces of two different metals were
connected together. In 1799 a report on the structure of the electricity generating organs of
the torpedo fish gave him an idea of how he could build what came to be known as his
`voltaic’ pile. The alternating discs of zinc, silver and leather soaked in salt water provided
the first continuous supply of electricity. As his home in Como was undergoing repeated
invasions by Napoleon’s French army and the armies of the Austrian Empire he announced
his invention in a letter to Sir Joseph Banks at the Royal Society in London. Banks
immediately published the letter in the Society’s journal and in the summer of 1800 the news
quickly spread. Soon other scientists were building piles and using the electricity to break
down water and perform other remarkable effects. The victorious Napoleon invited Volta to
Paris and rewarded him with the title of Count. Volta became rich and famous and his
invention helped give birth to the electrical age in which we live.
This short and simple story provide the basis of a lesson that will deliver most if not
all of the requirements for Ideas & Evidence as prescribed by the National Curriculum and
Edexcel1 science specifications, viz.
“Candidates may be assessed on:(a)
how scientific ideas are presented, evaluated and disseminated;
(b)
how scientific controversies arise from different ways of interpreting empirical
evidence;
(c)
ways in which scientific work may be affected by the contexts in which it takes place;
(d)
ways of considering the power and limitations of science in addressing industrial,
social and environmental questions, including the kinds of questions scientists can and cannot
answer, uncertainties in scientific knowledge and the ethical issues involved.”
Each of these points can be drawn out of the story of Volta and his `voltaic’ pile, but this is
just one example of a topic that could be used. The Edexcel specifications signpost a
considerable number of topics from all branches of science, both historical and contemporary,
that may deliver the Ideas and Evidence points. This package contains a range of teaching
materials drawn from some of those topics.
1
Edexcel is one of the three awarding bodies for public examinations in England. It prepares examinations for
all subjects, including science, and the examinations have to conform to the National Curriculum.
37
History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teacher Education – The HST Project
Why Ideas & Evidence?
The need to include teaching on the nature of science has been recognised ever since the
teaching of science was regularised by the first National Curriculum orders of 1988. Since
then the relevant statements have moved from the programmes of study to the introduction
and finally to Sc1 where it is now an assessable element of Scientific Enquiry. In response to
feedback from teachers, Edexcel, like the other awarding bodies, has decided to include Ideas
and Evidence in the external assessment of Sc2, 3 and 4 where it will make up 5% of the total
mark allocation.
While the weighting appears small, the importance of Ideas and Evidence should not be
underestimated. An understanding of how scientists work, the way a science develops and the
strengths and limitations of the scientific method makes the content of a science course
meaningful and relevant. Unless one is training to be an engineer or ballistics expert there is
little need, professionally, to learn the relationship between mass, acceleration and force.
However, knowing that Isaac Newton’s laws of motion explained the movement of the
planets and subsequently enabled engineers to design buildings, machines and vehicles
provides considerable motivation for studying this rather dry and difficult bit of physics.
Similarly learning about the factors that affect the populations of animals and plants may be
professionally important only to ecologists. Nevertheless, all citizens can understand
something of contemporary studies by marine biologists on the life history of the cod.
Studying the conflicting interests of fishing communities and conservationists may lead pupils
to understand why cod and chips could soon become a rare or even illegal dish.
Attending to the interplay of Ideas and Evidence also allows teachers to examine the human
aspects of science. Scientists are no less creative and imaginative than artists, musicians, and
historians. They display the same character strengths and weaknesses as everyone else. Their
tools may be laboratory apparatus and instruments, but the outcomes, the papers and theories,
are as individual as any work of art. Spending a little time looking at the way scientists live
and work brings them back into the community and stops them being looked upon as
mysterious geniuses or distant and frightening figures in their laboratories.
None of this need add to the learning load of a pupil if the teacher preparing their scheme of
work keeps the I&E points at the forefront of the planning so that pupils become familiar with
the issues which will form the basis of the assessment. The following pages explore the I&E
statements in more detail and look at possible teaching strategies.
What do the I&E statements mean? Some comments.

(a) how scientific ideas are presented, evaluated and disseminated.
The now traditional and accepted way of publishing ideas and the results of experiments is
that one or more people (group sizes are growing) write a report of their work for other
members of a research network or a scientific society. Their paper is reviewed by a number
of scientists from a similar field before being published in a respected academic journal. The
readership of the journal may be very specialised but the abstract of the paper will be
published in collections that are available to a wider audience. Readers may comment and
other papers confirming or denying the original findings may appear. Later a book may be
published providing an overview of the team’s work. Publishing is still largely on paper but
increasingly academic journals are appearing on the Internet.
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History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teacher Education – The HST Project
Before the huge growth of the academic publishing industry, scientists relied on personal
letters and face-to-face meetings to pass on ideas. These are still important in spreading news
of results and ideas before they have reached a publishable state. Crick and Watson gained
immensely from their informal and perhaps unauthorised look at Rosalind Franklin’s X-ray
crystallography results on DNA, while the 1987 conference of the American Physical Society
was so astounded by the initial reports of high temperature superconductors that many
delegates hurried back to their own labs to repeat the experiments.
The public receive news of scientific research through the popular media. This may be
written by scientists but is more likely to be produced by journalists with an eye on the
circulation or viewing figures. One side of an argument may be presented more sensationally
than the other.
Occasionally scientists have been unorthodox and reported their work directly to the popular
media. This usually angers others scientists. The announcement of Cold Fusion by Pons and
Fleischman in 1989 was one such occurrence. The surprise that this raised persuaded a
number of research teams to repeat the experiments very quickly, something that may have
taken considerably longer if the results had been hidden away in an obscure journal. Soon the
overwhelming negative results discredited the advocates of cold fusion

(b) How scientific controversies arise from different ways of interpreting empirical
evidence
Science has sometimes been portrayed to children as a solitary process. The scientist has an
idea, devises an experiment to test the idea and publishes the result. This has been the model
used by previous versions of Sc1 in the National Curriculum. It is a false and incomplete
model. In fact controversy and argument have a vital role in the practice of science and new
facts and theories are invariably challenged before gaining general acceptance. Imagination
and creativity are necessary qualities for the innovative scientist. Experimental data isn’t
always reliable, doesn’t always suggest a pattern and theories are not always common sense.
Discussion and argument throw up original ideas and controversy stirs other scientists to
perform further research to add their contributions.
Controversies arise from varying interpretations of observations and data. The existence of
mountain ranges on the Earth’s surface drew a variety of explanations including at one stage
the idea that the Earth was shrinking and later the idea that drifting continents were colliding.
Further evidence (magnetic patterns on either sides of mid-ocean ridges) was necessary to
resolve the issue. Today argument continues in every field of science. A brief perusal of
articles in New Scientist magazine reveals that scientists argue over the interpretation of
almost every new fact. Sometimes the same data is used to support opposing theories.
The corollary of controversy is that no theory is ever proved; there is always the chance that
an alternative way of interpreting the data may produce a more successful theory. Newton’s
classical mechanics survived for over two hundred years until Einstein provided a different,
more generalised way of considering motion from an entirely different set of ideas.
The major revolutions in science e.g. Copernican Cosmology, Newtonian Mechanics,
Darwinian evolution, Lavoisier’s oxygen theory, all involved a new interpretation of data,
much of which had been available for many years previously. These stories are very complex
and with hindsight it is often difficult to appreciate how the superseded theories could have
been accepted for such a long period of time. It may be unrealistic to ask pupils to choose
between opposing theories where one theory has been very publicly discredited and the
evidence for it shown to be misinterpreted. It may be advisable that pupils should explore
39
History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teacher Education – The HST Project
simpler situations in which the alternatives have equal appeal, as for example the theories
about the origins of mountains.
Science doesn’t really work in the way the public expects. People look for scientific progress
but scientists are expected to show certainty. Perhaps one of the causes of the disillusionment
with science that has occurred as a result of the various “scare stories” of the recent past is the
failure to realise that facts can be interpreted in various ways and that acceptance of scientific
theories is provisional on something better coming along. The public were quite nonplussed
by the uncertainty that scientists showed in the case of BSE and AIDS and could not
understand why scientists were unable to give unequivocal explanations for the causes.

(c ) ways in which scientific work may be affected by the contexts in which it takes
place.
(i)
The religious and cultural context.
Most of the scientists of the European Renaissance, or `natural philosophers’ as they were
called, were Christians and many were ordained clergy. Their worldview was provided
substantially by the Christian Bible and by their interpretation of the works of Greeks such as
Aristotle. A lot of their thought was shaped by their faith in God as the `architect of the
universe’. It took a bold (even an arrogant) man to dispute the traditional view of the place
of the Earth in this Universe. Copernicus was perhaps not that person although he had
fundamentally new ideas published at his death in 1543. Giordano Bruno had the arrogance
and he very quickly ran into conflict with established opinion and power leading to him being
burnt at the stake in 1600. Galileo however brought to his writing the right mixture of
authority, expertise and imagination. He added his own new ideas to those of others and
compiled a lot of new evidence, for example about planets. Some groups found this new
evidence convincing but others resisted fiercely and these quarrels were all mixed up with
religious conflicts and changes in society that accompanied the switch to Protestantism in
northern Europe. Even Galileo had to bow to pressure to rescind his view of the universe.
This illustrates that the way science is done, the way scientists think, the degree to which new
ideas are accepted depends very much on the context in which the scientists live and work. A
related point is that from the time of Galileo, white, Christian, males have dominated science.
In the last century women have increasingly been allowed to have careers in science and other
parts of the world contribute to modern scientific research, so now there is much discussion
about whether the feminine outlook might produce a different interpretation of evidence
compared to the male viewpoint. There is even discussion of an Islamic, Hindu, Buddhist,
Confucian or even Marxist science that sees different patterns in the same evidence available
to a Western scientist. Much of this discussion remains controversial.
(ii)
The context of who pays.
Workplaces also have an effect on the way science is done. The traditional image of the lone
scientist at work in his home laboratory is now replaced by teams of workers filling cathedrals
of science collaborating on research topics. Similarly the rationale for scientific research has
changed from personal interest (e.g. of the amateur geologists of the C19th) to governmental
concern and industrial competition. These factors certainly affect the type of science that is
done and perhaps even the way the evidence is interpreted. Would penicillin have been
studied intensively without government funding in the 1940s? Compare the search for the
structure of DNA with the Human Genome Project (although whether the latter should be
considered as innovative science rather than an application of techniques is another question).
Today scientists work for government agencies, academic institutions, industry and
campaigning groups. Each may have a different attitude to the way they collect and interpet
their data.
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The conclusion is that science is as much a cultural activity as literature and art. The
outcomes of scientific research depend on the personality of the individual and the historical,
social, cultural and religious context in which they worked. This doesn’t diminish science but
instead shows that rather than standing aloof it is a fully integrated factor in human
civilisation.

(d) ways of considering the power and limitations of science in addressing industrial,
social and environmental questions, including the kinds of questions scientists can and
cannot answer, uncertainties in scientific knowledge and the ethical issues involved.
European science has exerted a huge influence over human civilisation and the environment
in the last five hundred years. For most of that time “scientific progress” was seen as a good
thing to the extent that other cultures have adopted what they perceive as the scientific
method. Today there is probably little obvious difference between scientific laboratories in
Britain, the USA, Japan, India, Egypt or Kenya although, as we have mentioned, the thought
processes of the scientists in the laboratories may differ. Today though, the benefits of
science are being questioned and the right of scientists to follow any course of research they
wish is in dispute. Science is no longer seen as neutral but as possibly being in part
responsible for the horrors of modern warfare, environmental disasters and health scares. The
modern scientist, in this view, must give consideration to the possible consequences of the
application of his or her discoveries, including unforeseen consequences such as those which
followed the development of DDT as an insecticide.
One wonders what Thomas Midgely would have felt had he been alive today. In the 1920s he
developed lead tetraethyl as an anti-knock additive for petrol and later synthesised CFCs,
which became important refrigerants and aerosol propellants. Would he have continued with
his work if he had been aware of the problems resulting in lead pollution and the destruction
of the ozone layer? Would his employers have marketed the products if they had been aware
of the future problems?
The history of science shows that discoveries were often quickly utilised to provide
technological solutions to industrial problems. Science provides humans with the power to
control their immediate environment. But time and time again the wider consequences were
hardly glimpsed. The growth of the alkali industry in the early nineteenth century provided
textile manufacturers with abundant supplies of soap and bleaches but devastated the land
around the factories. The invention of phosphate detergents gave housewives of the 1950s
efficient washing powders but destroyed life in rivers by encouraging the growth of algae.
Science has certainly given us the means to tackle limited technological problems such as
manufacturing artificial fertiliser or providing plastics for almost every purpose, or for putting
men on the Moon. But, increasingly we see that the application of science has failed on the
broader questions of maintaining the Earth as a place to live for countless millions of species,
or providing a decent standard of living for the whole human population. Perhaps these
questions are only soluble by changes in human nature rather than being treatable by science
alone.
Science has also created new ethical questions. The development of weapons of mass
destruction places a dilemma on the shoulders of governments. Even medical advances have
created ethical problems. When the means exists to save one of a pair of Siamese twins, how
do we decide if other should be deliberately killed or whether they both should be left to die
in their own time, as they would surely have done some years ago.
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These questions cannot be answered by merely learning facts, theories or the processes of
science. Instead a feel for the problems can be gained by examining how real scientists
behave and how people reacted to past attempts to answer the questions.
Science is often seen to be in conflict with religion. Indeed there are a number of welldocumented examples of apparent conflict. But science rarely tackles the central questions of
religions – the significance of human life, and cannot provide the certainty that religious
believers find in their faith. The conflicts in this area can often be seen as essentially
struggles for power amongst different groups in society and there is some danger of `science’
being cast as one of the groups competing for allegiance in belief.
Most scientists have a strong commitment to searching for evidence unrelated to any beliefs.
This does not prevent a large number of them from being active Christians, Moslems, Hindus,
etcetera. Nor does it stop them from seeing their scientific work as part of their religious life,
in the way that Robert Boyle and Michael Faraday did. This is very much an area of active
dispute, especially because some scientists insist that present theories of cosmology,
evolution, genetics, quantum theory, and biochemistry, show that the universe and its
inhabitants are entirely explicable and that they have, as it were, no need for divine guidance.
All of the Ideas & Evidence statements may be summed up in three words – who, what, why.
Who was involved in the discovery or controversy? Can we picture them and imagine how
they thought and felt?
What did they do. What old ideas were they using? What new ideas did they launch?
Why did they do it? Why did they do it in that particular way? Why was it important to
whoever paid for the study?
Apply those three words to any teaching on scientific knowledge and if all three can be
answered then the objectives of Ideas and Evidence will be met.
Some Teaching Strategies
Telling stories
Traditionally teachers have delighted in telling (and re-telling) the humorous or dramatic
anecdote – Archimedes and his bath, Newton and the apple, for example. Anecdotes are
memorable but are not sufficient alone to deliver the requirements of I&E. Nevertheless
telling stories is still a very important teaching strategy. A story can deliver the concepts, the
personalities and the background and need not be passive. Pupils can be asked for their
reactions and opinions during the story telling and prompted to provide summaries (in poster,
poem or cartoon form) and respond to questions. Stories can be supplemented by pictures,
artefacts, models and demonstrations, and be recorded on audio or videotape.
Story telling is a skill. With a bit of practice you will find that it is a natural part of your
professional armoury.
Activities related to text
The most familiar style of work will be to use the printed word and the resources that follow
this introduction are largely of this type. Text may be an account of a scientist and their work
or a general account of discoveries and controversies. Whether the topic is historical or
contemporary the account will be helped by extracts from the scientists’ own work in their
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own words. Text may be continuous or broken down into blocks which pupils can access
rather like a database. Illustrations break up text but should add to the story rather than just
provide distraction. Questions may test comprehension, ask for opinions or empathy or
involve other learning tasks. Pupils can be involved in discussion groups. Audio, video and
computer resources can supplement the printed word.
Re-discovery and reconstruction
Some topics lend themselves to pupil practical activities. It has been proposed that children’s
learning goes through similar stages to the historical development of a scientific topic e.g.
understanding about burning, but there is little evidence that this is the case. Nevertheless
pupils can carry out practical exercises in order to “re-discover” laws and theories. For
instance pupils can investigate pendulums and argue about the laws governing the period of
oscillation. This can give an insight into scientists’ thought processes and the difficulties they
faced both practically and in convincing others. However the lack of time in science lessons
does limit the degree to which a discovery can be repeated.
Perhaps an easier task is simply to reconstruct an experiment or invention to give some
understanding of the difficulties faced by the scientist and their methods of overcoming them.
This is easier with experiments performed over a hundred years ago when apparatus was
relatively simple, such as Faraday’s first electric motor. However health and safety
considerations demand some alterations to the original specifications.
Role play and drama
Many science teachers are wary of using role-play in their lessons, as it is an unfamiliar
technique. Those that do embrace it are aware of the skill and enthusiasm children bring to
this style of work. Children do enjoy taking on roles and it can bring a new insight into old
stories. Dramas can be monologues, for small groups or involve casts of thousands (well,
whole classes anyway). Theatrical styles can vary immensely. There are some published
plays but children may like to write their own treatments given the background and the
characters. Role-playing in which children improvise from a short outline of a character or
job also allows pupils to develop understanding of controversies and ethics.
Drama is also an opportunity for cross-curricular work and can provide material for the
science department to make presentations to a wider audience either as live performance or
recorded on video.
As well as performing themselves, pupils also enjoy seeing dramatic presentations. There are
a number of theatre groups and individuals that visit schools to put on performances that
illustrate concepts, a scientific event or portray a character.
Visits
Schools have made good use of museums and science centres and many research
establishments have a programme of visits. With forethought and planning these can be used
to make children consider the issues raised by I&E. There are also many places around the
country where children can see where a well-known scientist worked. These sites provide the
context for a discovery as well as often showing the tools that the scientist used. Examples
include Newton’s home at Woolsthorpe, Faraday’s laboratory at the Royal Institution,
Darwin’s home in Kent, and the Herschels’ house in Bath.
Peter R Ellis
Wantage UK
July 2002
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Teaching the History of Science and Technology in Secondary Schools in
England
History of Science and Technology needs no justification for those already committed to it,
either as a basis for teaching or as a subject in itself. Unfortunately in the current times where
we in England are increasingly driven by utilitarian content and specific targets it is easy to
lose sight of the benefit which History of Science and Technology can bring to the school
curriculum both as a context for learning and as a component in itself. The current climate of
testing and target setting tends to emphasise the factual aspects of the curriculum and this can
obscure hierarchies of concepts. Factual knowledge and recall of facts becomes secondary to
understanding. History of Science and Technology provides an ideal framework for many
areas where the relevant concepts can be built in a meaningful way, providing a framework
the student can use to assimilate the essential detail.
A classic example of this is the study of motion and the basic concept of a force. The fact that
this area of the curriculum is so poorly understood, even by graduate scientists, many of
whom have at best an algorithmic understanding of the subject makes the point that at heart,
the Aristotelian view of motion prevails. The historical development of ‘non-common sense’
ideas like inertia and forces occurring in pairs are contexts which can be used to great effect to
teach some otherwise difficult ideas. To paraphrase Newton, there is a lot to be said for,
‘standing on the shoulders of giants’.
There are two other dimensions to the curriculum at the start of the second millennium which
are important and to which History of Science and Technology can make a strong
contribution if it used as a vehicle to teach science or technology. These areas are Literacy,
and ICT.
Literacy can be pursued or supported through the use of structured source material in the
historical context, and examples are given in section 2B of Unit 3. .as well as in the Teacher
Resource Manual. At an obvious level there are basic comprehension and data extraction
exercises. At a more sophisticated level one can use the historical context for descriptive or
persuasive writing. – ‘Write a letter from Galileo to the Pope attempting to persuade him that
the earth moves around the sun and not vice-versa.’
The history of science is a rich area for discussion and debate for and against significant
developments The use of antibiotics, atomic power, genetic engineering, the internal
combustion engine, the development of amphetamines and other drugs. There are thousands
of examples.
The following ideas and comments relate to the programmes of study for 11 to 16 year olds
in the National Curriculum for Science in England.( See above)
The first section of Sc1, Scientific Enquiry, points to some examples in the history of science
in both key stage three and key stage four. The history of science and technology is a very
rich source of contextual material for teaching scientific enquiry. Some examples for key
stage three are given below.
The National Curriculum indicates the possible use of Lavoisier’s work on burning at this
point. There are other examples;
 Vesalius starting to question the work of Galen
 The whole debate about the earth being the centre of the solar system.
 The work of Mendel
 Harvey and the circulation of the blood.
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There are many many examples of key points in science where the dual purpose of
introducing them in an historical context not only serves as an interesting and accessible
vehicle but also subscribes to point SC1a in the programme of study.
SC1 b that it is important to test explanations by using them to make predictions and by
seeing if evidence matches predictions
Examples include;
 The observation of the solar eclipse in 1927 to confirm the predictions of the theory of
relativity.
 The measurement of the speed of light as a test to distinguish between the theories of
Huygens and Newton with regard to refraction.
SC1 c about the ways in which scientist work today and how they worked in the past
including the roles of experimentation, evidence and creative thought in the development of
scientific ideas.
The experimental work of Galileo which shifted the scientific emphasis from purely argument
to observation is an obvious area here. If a single example is needed then one of the simplest
is probably the way that Galileo constructed an Aristotelian type of argument to meet the
‘common sense’ view that heavy objects fell faster than lighter objects as well as using an
experiment to demonstrate what happens. Another more detailed example is Newton’s first
ideas on his theory of Gravitation which appears to fail when he puts it to the test because he
uses an inaccurate estimate for the distance between the earth and the moon in his
calculations. Only some years later when he hears a better estimate for the distance does he
realise that his original ideas were not wrong after all.
Using History of Science and Technology as a basis for a section of work.
Some areas of science can be taught using an historical context which can aid the
development of concepts for the learner. Electricity, Forces and motion and The Earth and
beyond are examples of such areas.
Electricity for example can be taught by looking at the work of Gilbert to detect ‘charge’.
Examples of early electrostatic phenomena then lead to the work of Franklin and a two charge
theory. The development of the cell and the link to current electricity can then be made.
This is a short indication of the type of work that can be undertaken. A note of caution must
be sounded. There is a risk that the scheme of work can deviate too far from the dictates of the
National Curriculum both in terms of content and time available. Students can gain a lot of
knowledge and understanding of both electricity and electrochemistry by an historical pursuit
through the development of cells. This may well fire the interest and imagination of many. It
may well equip them superbly for studies beyond sixteen. Sadly it will probably have little if
any positive effect on the school’s National Test or GCSE results and teachers using this
approach will need to strike a balance between local and immediate targets and students wider
learning.
Sam Ellis
Howden, UK
September 2000
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France
Introduire l’HST au niveau secondaire en France
Au collège (11-15ans)
Les idées développées pour l’école primaire sont reprises par les concepteurs des programmes
du collège et du lycée de façon plus ou moins accentuée selon les disciplines. En sciences
naturelles, cela n’apparaît pas. en technologie, l’histoire des techniques apparaît clairement à
la fin du collège, au dernier trimestre de la classe de troisième.
L’enseignement de physique-chimie commence en classe de cinquième. Le programme est
commun à la cinquième et à la quatrième. Il porte sur l’étude de la matière qui nous
environne, la lumière et le courant électrique. L’introduction générale du programme insiste
sur la dimension historique qu’il est nécessaire d’introduire mais en fait peu d’articles du
programme s’y réfèrent précisément. Seule est proposée une étude documentaire sur l’histoire
du modèle moléculaire.
En troisième, le programme porte sur l’étude des matériaux de la vie courante (emballages en
particulier) : comportement physique et chimique, propriétés techniques. On aborde aussi les
mouvements et les forces, l’électricité dans la vie courante. On poursuit l’étude de la lumière
commencée l’année précédente. L’introduction au programme insiste encore sur la dimension
historique de l’évolution des idées. Dans le programme, on propose une étude d’un texte
historique sur l’atome.
Le professeur peut introduire des textes historiques relatifs à certains points du programme
mais il peut aussi n’en rien faire. Le bilan est donc décevant. Il reste cependant une voie
indirecte.
*Par exemple, l’étude des propriétés de la rouille permet d’indroduire un texte de
Lavoisier ; l’étude de la pesanteur, quelques textes historiques sur le sujet.
*On demande à l’élève de réaliser une recherche documentaire au cours de l’année.
Lui proposer une recherche historique peut être une solution à l’introduction effective de
l’histoire des sciences et des techniques au collège.
Au lycée (15-18 ans)
En septembre prochain , une réforme générale des lycées entrera en vigueur. Comme dans les
programmes de sciences mis en place en 1992, l’intérêt de faire appel à l’histoire des sciences
et des techniques est soulignée. L’aspect culturel de l’enseignement scientifique au lycée doit
être privilégié, pour deux raisons principales. Il faut d’abord donner envie d’exercer plus tard
un métier scientifique. Il faut ensuite donner envie de lire des revues ou des ouvrages de
bonne vulgarisation scientifique. Enfin, l’initiation à la démarche scientifique doit contribuer
à former le futur citoyen à la responsabilité et à l’autonomie.
C’est pourquoi l’enseignement scientifique est conçu comme un tout et non comme une
juxtaposition de disciplines. Cela permet de privilégier l’interdisciplinarité ; celle-ci devrait
être mise en oeuvre dans la préparation des leçons en équipe pédagogique et dans les travaux
personnels encadrés des élèves dont nous reparlerons un peu plus loin. C’est pourquoi
l’enseignement fondamental est complété par un enseignement thématique (le thème est traité
à la fois en sciences de la vie et de la Terre et en sciences de la matière mais sous des angles
différents).
Le va-et-vient entre l’observation et l’expérimentation d’un côté, la conceptualisation et la
modélisation de l’autre côté doit conduire l’élève à se poser des questions. Il est mis dans une
“situation-problème“ et “dans bien des cas, rien ne peut remplacer l’exposé historique. Celui46
History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teacher Education – The HST Project
ci a un côté culturel irremplaçable, qui situe la découverte scientifique dans son contexte
temporel mais aussi montre comment les découvertes scientifiques ont influencé le cours de
l’histoire.“ (prenons l’exemple de la chute des corps).
Actuellement, seuls les programmes de la classe de seconde (15 ans) sont élaborés. Ceux des
classes de première (16 ans) sont en cours d’élaboration. Ceux de la classe de terminale (17
ans -année du baccalauréat) ne sont pas du tout abordés. Mais on peut dire que, dans le
programme actuel de terminale, les points historiques les plus forts concernent les diverses
conceptions du monde d’Aristote à Einstein pour la physique et l’histoire d’un médicament,
l’aspirine pour la chimie. A chaque occasion, il est conseillé d’introduire des notions
historiques, selon la sensibilité de l’enseignant. Dans les futurs programmes de première
scientifique, on pourra étudier des textes de Galilée et de Newton en physique et tracer un
panorama chronologique des grandes découvertes en chimie organique.
Si nous portons plus d’attention au contenu du programme de la classe de seconde générale
nous voyons que les commentaires insistent très longuement sur l’exposé historique.
En physique, par exemple, on parlera de la mesure du rayon de la Terre par Eratosthène, de la
dimension d’une molécule par la méthode de Franklin, de la dispersion des couleurs selon
Newton, de l’approche du principe de l’inertie avec Galilée, de l’histoire de la mesure des
distances en astronomie, de l’histoire de la mesure du temps, de la mesure de la température,
etc.
En chimie, on fera une présentation historique des techniques d’extraction des huiles
essentielles, de la classification de Mendeleiev, de quelques textes sur la conservation de la
matière en chimie, etc.
En sciences de la vie et de la Terre, l’approche historique n’est pas explicite. Les
mathématiques ont un statut à part et l’approche historique ne semble pas nécessaire dit le
réformateur.
Dans la future classe de première, les Travaux Personnels Encadrés ou TPE, innovation de
cette réforme, seront sans doute le lieu privilégié de l’histoire des sciences et des techniques
dans l’enseignement scientifique des lycées. La réalisation d’un dossier personnel sur un sujet
choisi par l’élève ou le groupe de trois à quatre élèves veut former à la responsabilité et à
l’autonomie. Tout au long de l’année, le projet s’élabore sous l’autorité de deux professeurs
(mathématiques et sciences physiques, ou sciences physiques et sciences de la vie et de la
Terre. Pour documenter ce projet, il sera fait largement appel aux ouvrages de bonne
vulgarisation scientifique tant sur les sciences et les techniques actuelles que sur l’histoire des
sciences et des techniques. Pour la réalisation matérielle, on utilisera les techniques modernes
de communication.
L’introduction de la dimension historique ( petites injections au cours du développement de la
leçon de physique-chimie et non pas cours d’histoire des sciences) est particulièrement
développée en physique-chimie depuis un certain nombre d’années. On espère ainsi mieux
former le futur citoyen en lui donnant de la science une image vivante, inscrite dans la société.
On pourra consulter le site http://www3.cndp.fr/lycee/phychim/
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Introducing HST in secondary curricula in France
At the French collège
The ideas developed at primary school are considered again by the reformers of the secondary
curricula but more or less clearly maintained with the disciplines. In natural sciences, it does
not appear. In technology, history is clearly taught at the end of the last class of the collège.
The physics and chemistry syllabus at the collège level begins in cinquième (the “fifth“ class
in the French system, for ages 12-13) and continues through the following year, quatrième. It
includes the study of the material world about us, and of light and current electricity.
The general introduction to the syllabus refers explicitly to the historical dimension that
should be introduced. But, in the syllabus itself, this requirement is seldom referred to : in
fact, a documentary study of the history of the molecular model is the only topic cited.
In troisième (ages 14-15), the syllabus includes the study of the materials encountered in
everyday life, with special reference to packaging and to their physical and chemical
performance and technical properties. Motion, force, light and the applications of electricity
are also mentioned. As the previous year, the introduction of the syllabus still insistes on the
historical dimension of the evolution of the ideas. But, a historical text on the atom is the only
topic cited.
Teachers are free to introduce historical texts relevant to appropriate parts of the syllabus,
although there is no obligation for them to do so.
The place accorded to history, therefore, is disappointing, even if the opportunities for
indirectly developing historical work exist. Two examples illustrate what might be achieved
in this respect :
* The study of the properties of the rust allows the introduction of a text by Lavoisier;
similarly, the study of the gravity is open to the use of historical sources.
*The pupil is asked to undertake a piece of document-based research during the year :
here, suggesting an historical subject is one way of introducing the history of science and
technology at collège level.
In the French lycée
In September of this year, a major reform will come into effect in the French lycée sytem. As
in the curricula that have been in force since 1992, the importance of incorporating elements
of the history of science and technology in science teaching will be very much to the fore. It is
part and parcel of the reforms that they conceive scientific education as an integrated whole
rather than a set of individual disciplines, and that they thereby promote interdisciplinary
perspectives. Also a constant interaction between observation and experiment on the one hand
and conceptualization and model-building on the other is used to encourage pupils to pose
questions. Pupils, it is intended, will find themselves in what the official documents describe
as a ‘problem-situation’ in which in many cases an historical exposé will be essential. This
necessarily introduces a cultural dimension ‘which places the scientific discovery concerned
in its temporal context and shows how scientific discoveries have influenced the course of
history’. The law governing the fall of bodies would be a typical case-study in which such an
approach might be implemented.
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In the current syllabus for the class of terminale scientifique (that is, the year of the
baccalauréat, normally taken at 17+) there are already opportunities for historical study,
including, in physics, changing conceptions of the universe from Aristotle to Einstein, and, in
chemistry, the history of aspirin. In the new syllabus, these opportunities will be extended to
the curricula for the preceding year, première scientifique (16+), where it will be possible to
study texts by Galileo and Newton on the principle of inertia and the concept of force and to
follow a chronological account of the leading discoveries in organic chemistry.
The place of historical material is especially prominent in the new curriculum for the classe de
seconde (15+). In physics, teachers will be expected to discuss such topics as Eratosthenes’
measurement of the radius of the Earth, the determination of the size of molecules by
Franklin’s method, Newton’s work on the dispersion of colours, Galileo’s notion of the
principle of inertia, the history of the calculation of astronomical distances, and the history of
measurement of temperature. In chemistry, the curriculum includes an historical outline of the
techniques for the extraction of essential oils, the origins of Mendeleev’s system of
classification, and a study of texts concerning Lavoisier’s principle of the conservation of
mass in chemical reactions.
So far, I have spoken only about the syllabuses in physics and chemistry. For the life and
Earth sciences, the historical dimension is not spelled out explicitly and, in mathematics, the
ministerial documents make no explicite mention of history.
It is in project work, the newly introduced Travaux Personnels Encadrés (TPE), that the
history of science and technology is likely to have its most important role in the reformed
scientific curricula at lycée level. In this part of their study, groups of three or four pupils will
be expected to prepare dossiers on a subject chosen by them in collaboration with their
teacher. Over the year, the project will be supervised by two teachers. Sources will include
serious works of popularization concerning not only the science and technology of the present
day but also any relevant historical dimension. Pupils are also required to make full use of the
latest techniques of information retrieval and communication (Nouvelles techniques
d’information et de communication, abbreviated as NTIC).
The introduction of an historical dimension in the form of small injections in science
teaching, rather than as formal instruction in the history of science, has come to be
particularly well developed in physics and chemistry over the last few years.
The new emphasis on the cultural aspect of scientific education is intended, in part, to foster
an interest in careers in science and to encourage pupils to read books and articles of goodquality popularization. But it is also conceived as a means of fashioning citizens who see
science as a vibrant activity and one of immediate relevance to themselves and to society at
large.
It is possible to visit the website: http://www3.cndp.fr/lycee/phychim/
Danielle Fauque (Paris)
19 juillet 2000
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Enseignement de l’Histoire des Sciences et des Techniques (HST) à l’école
élémentaire
Les sciences ont une histoire : objectifs généraux de l’HST à l’école
Nous vivons dans un monde dans lequel les sciences et les technologies sont omniprésentes et
s’efforcer de développer l’enseignement de l’histoire des sciences à l’école repose sur la
volonté d’aider l’élève à mieux percevoir le monde qui l’entoure. De plus, c’est permettre aux
jeunes élèves de mesurer que l’avancée actuelle de la science résulte d’une formidable volonté
humaine. En effet, par exemple, dans le domaine de la médecine, dans celui des
communications, de la production énergétique ou encore de la conquête spatiale, il y a
toujours eu, à une époque, un homme, un « découvreur », sorte de pionnier scientifique, qui
s’est attelé à une tâche et qui a découvert un phénomène scientifique ou conçu un outil
technologique.
En outre, cet enseignement développe une solide culture générale avec des apports cognitifs
conséquents. Montrer que les sciences et les techniques ont une histoire c’est montrer que la
science n’est pas uniquement l’affaire de spécialistes, qu’elle est une construction humaine au
service des hommes. Cet aspect essentiel de l’HST ne peut que favoriser l’émergence de
« scientifiques en herbe ».
Les aspects pluridisciplinaires de l’HST
Cet enseignement offre l’avantage d’être pluridisciplinaire et de permettre aux élèves de
comprendre les liens essentiels qui existent entre les grands domaines du savoir. Le
rapprochement entre sciences et histoire est ici évident : chaque découverte a une histoire et
un impact dans la société de l’époque. Cette démarche s’ouvre aussi sur la géographie
lorsqu’il s’agit de situer un pays ou un savant, ou encore sur les mathématiques lorsqu’il faut
calculer le nombre de kilomètres parcourus par un train à vapeur ou la capacité de production
électrique d’une centrale nucléaire. Le français est aussi une discipline d’enseignement
fortement sollicitée lorsqu’il s’agit, tout simplement, de lire le récit historique d’une
découverte abordée en classe.
La place de l’HST dans l’enseignement de l’histoire
En histoire, cet enseignement élargit le champ de cette discipline. En effet, à côté de l’histoire
politique, celle des rois et des grands hommes, apparaissent l’histoire sociale, l’histoire des
mentalités, l’histoire démographique, l’histoire de l’école, etc. Dans cette perspective,
l’histoire des sciences et des techniques trouve naturellement sa place. Il ne s’agit pas d’en
faire un simple sujet d’étude ponctuel mais de regarder notre histoire nationale d’un oeil plus
intéressé par les sciences.
Les différentes compétences mobilisées par l’HST
Aborder l’HST à l’école peut trouver facilement sa place dans le champ des compétences que
l’on doit mobiliser chez l’élève. La première d’entre-elles est l’acquisition du concept de
temps. En effet, en s’interrogeant sur les traces du passé scientifique, l’élève opère un « pont »
entre l’actuel et l’avant ce qui lui permet de percevoir un passé plus ou moins éloigné. Mais il
est également amené à formuler des hypothèses sur tel fonctionnement technologique, à
observer, à décrire, à comparer et analyser des documents scientifiques accessibles. Il
comprend ainsi que les techniques actuelles hautement perfectionnées sont le fruit d’un long
parcours, qu’elles se sont construites sur des bases qui peuvent nous sembler archaïques de
nos jours mais que c’est à partir de ces dernières que la science a pu progresser.
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History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teacher Education – The HST Project
Etudier l’HST à l’école, c’est certainement contribuer à former de futurs citoyens libres et
responsables dotés d’une curiosité et d’un esprit critique et susceptibles d’agir sur le monde
qui les entoure.
Teaching the History of Sciences and Techniques (HST) in primary schools
Sciences have a history: main objectives about teaching HST at school
In the world today science and technology are present everywhere and so trying to develop
the history of sciences at school is based on the idea to help the pupils to understand the world
they are living in. Moreover it will allow them to understand that the progress in science is the
result of a considerable human will. In fact whether as far as medicine is concerned, or
communications, or energy, or spatial conquest, there has always been, at a time, a person - a
discoverer - a scientific pioneer who settled down to a task and discovered a scientific
phenomenon or imagined a new technological tool.
This form of teaching helps to get a general knowledge. Showing that sciences and techniques
have a history means proving that science doesn’t only concerns specialists, but that it is also
a human construction to the service of men. This aspect of teaching the history of sciences
and techniques will undoubtedly favour the budding of scientists.
Interdisciplinary aspects in teaching HST
Teaching HST offers the advantage of covering many branches of education and allowing the
pupils to understand the links between sciences and history is obvious. Every discovery has a
weight and an impact on the society at the time. It may mean situating a country or a scientist
or it may help the teaching of mathematics when, for example, you have to calculate the
numbers of kilometres a steam train covered or the production of nuclear power station.
French language is also a branch of education which has to be used when the history of a
discovery has to be read in class.
HST in the teaching of history
Teaching HST enlarges the teaching of history. In fact together with the history of kings or
famous people we now have to teach social history, history of mentalities, demography, or
history of school. And naturally teaching HST finds its place there. The idea is not to use it
apart but with it, to have a different approach to the history of our country.
Skills needed by HST
The teaching of HST can develop many skills. One of them is the concept of time. When
trying to understand the scientific past, the pupil has to find the link between before and after.
He is also lead to ask questions on technology, to observe, describe, compare and analyse
scientific documents that are available. This he will understand that very sophisticated modern
techniques are the result of a long evolution and have been built according to bases which
may appear old fashioned today, but it is thanks to them that science has been able to
progress.
Studying HST at school contributes to train free and responsible citizens, with an ability for
criticism and curiosity who may decide to play their part in the world which is surrounding
them.
Daniel BENSIMHON
Professeur des Ecoles MaîtreFormateur à Paris
mai 2000
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History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teacher Education – The HST Project
Portugal
O trabalho desenvolvido por Portugal no âmbito do projecto HST refere-se ao 1º Ciclo do
Ensino Básico (6-9 anos), na área do “Estudo do Meio”.
Esta matéria faz parte do curriculum oficial juntamente com: Língua Portuguesa, Matemática,
Expressões (Expressão e Educação Físico-Motora, Expressão e Educação Musical, Expressão
e Educação Dramática e Expressão e Educação Plástica) e Educação Moral e religiosa
Católica.
O tema referido no Programa oficial é explorado no 3º ano, no âmbito da unidade geral: “Eu
e a natureza”.
Esta é a terceira unidade temática, explorada depois das anteriores unidades: “Eu e a minha
família” e “Eu e a minha terra”.
A unidade temática: “Eu e a natureza”, compreende os seguintes blocos:
1º período: “À descoberta de mim mesmo” e “À descoberta dos outros e das instituições”;
2º período: “À descoberta dos outros e das instituições” (cont.); “À descoberta do ambiente
natural”; “À descoberta das inter-relações entre espaços” e “À descoberta das inter-relações
entre a natureza e a sociedade”;
3º período: “À descoberta do ambiente natural” (cont.); À descoberta das inter-relações entre
espaços” (cont.) e “À descoberta dos materiais e objectos”.
Os conteúdos da matéria relacionada com o projecto HST são aprofundados no âmbito do
tema: “Meios de comunicação”, que constitui a essência do bloco: “À descoberta das interrelações entre espaços”.
Os trabalhos referentes a este tema estão incluídos na “Programação mensal de Junho”.
Descrevem-se os objectivos específicos do tema: “Meios de comunicação”:
1. Investigar sobre a evolução dos transportes;
2. Realizar experiências de mecânica;
3. Investigar sobre a evolução das comunicações.
6. A exploração destes temas é feita através de diversas actividades e da utilização de material
diverso.
Descrevem-se essas actividades:
I. Vias de comunicação
1. Diálogo sobre as férias que se aproximam e os projectos de férias: viagens,
deslocações e visitas a familiares.
2. Localização, no mapa de Portugal, de alguns locais de férias.
3. Verificação das vias que poderão ser utilizadas para possíveis viagens de férias;
4. Registos, no mapa da localidade, das vias (terrestres, fluviais, marítimas e aéreas) que
as servem;
5. Associação dos meios de transporte, usados na localidade, às vias respectivas.
II. Transportes
1. Investigação acerca da evolução dos meios de transporte (através de entrevistas a
familiares idosos e através de pesquisa em manuais, enciclopédias infantis e outros);
2. Composição de um painel ou album com gravuras, desenhos e textos sobre a evolução
dos transportes
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History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teacher Education – The HST Project
3. Construção dos meios de transporte do passado e do futuro (imaginado) (trabalho feito
através da observação de gravuras representando o homem primitivo transportando
grandes pesos; das experiência com alavancas, elevando pesos e da experiência com
roldanas e rodas, movimentando os pesos).
III. Meios de comunicação
1. Diálogo sobre os meios de comunicação usados ao longo do ano em trabalhos
escolares: cartas, jornais, cartazes;
2. Narração de uma história em banda desenhada ou “slides”, representando uma família
primitiva;
3. Pesquisa acerca da evolução dos vários meios de comunicação;
4. Visita de estudo a um meio de comunicação actual (o jornal a rádio, o estúdio de
televisão);
5. Organização do roteiro da visita (repartindo os alunos por diversos grupos que
atendam: 1º identificação e localização do meio de comunicação a visitar; descrição do
local; realização de entrevistas; realização de fotos e/ou desenhos);
Registo e apresentação dos trabalhos realizados sobre os meios de comunicação (através de
um album; de um jornal escolar, de um jornal de parede, de um programa a difundir pela rádio
ou através de textos e gravuras colados num rolo de papel de cenário e passados, com o
auxílio de uma roldana, numa caixa a fingir de TV).
Jorge Carvalho Arroteia
(Aveiro)
July 2000
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History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teacher Education – The HST Project
Norway
In Norway the curriculum in all schools is decided by the state. The latest version of the
curriculum for primary schools (age 6-16) is from 1996. History of science and technology
(HST) is far from being a central subject in this curriculum, but one can find themes within
HST scattered through it.
General part
It is an important part of general education to know our technological heritage – Its
contribution in easing living conditions, but also the dangers imbedded in technological
development.
Grade 4
Social science
Pupils shall get to know how mankind learned to farm, use farm animals as well as the
plough, saddle, water wheels and windmills.
Grade 6
Natural science
Pupils shall work with examples of the ways in which different forms of energy dominated at
different times, and how technology has been involved in using energy. Study should
include examples of how this has influenced the environment.
Grade 7
Natural science
Pupils shall learn simple principles of transport and cleaning of drinking water. This includes
making timers which were important in historical times. .
Plan and make simple models for transforming the energy in running water to mechanical
work and to get to know how man have used this technologically in earlier times and now.
Grade 8
Natural science
Pupils shall learn different theories about the development of the universe and how
technological developments have contributed to our knowledge of the universe.
Grade 9
Natural science
Pupils shall get to know central discoveries and inventions connected to electricity.
Working methods
Grade 1-4
80% of the time shall be used doing theme work.
Grade 5-7
30% of the time shall be used doing theme or project work
Grade 8-10
20% of the time shall be used doing theme or project work.
The difference between theme work and project work is that in theme work the subject is
chosen by the teacher, and the pupils work in groups getting information about the subject,
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History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teacher Education – The HST Project
whereas in project work the subject often is chosen by the pupils working in groups and the
work is more problem orientated. As there is room for much theme/project work in
Norwegian schools there is some freedom in using a historical approach to the study of
science and technology as this subject well suited to that type of work.
Svein HOFF
(Bergen)
August 2000
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History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teacher Education – The HST Project
Republic of Ireland
The following comments relate to the Physics and Chemistry syllabi at Senior Cycle in
Second Level Schools. Each is a two-year programme offered at Ordinary and Higher level
with a terminal examination – The Leaving Certificate.
From the perspective of history of science and technology students are expected to be aware
of the contribution of various scientists in the fields of physics and chemistry and of the time
frame of significant discoveries and inventions. When the syllabi were introduced in 2000
teachers were supplied with a Reference Handbook of background information on all aspects
of the subjects.
The handbook is especially good in supplying historical information and has sections
dedicated to Irelands scientific heritage in both the physics and chemistry.
“Irish contributions to Physics, Mathematics and Technology” by Charles Mollan
“Irish contributions to Chemistry” by Charles Mollan
The extent to which historical information is emphasised in the overall delivery of the
syllabus is at the discretion of the teacher. There are time constraints in including HST
because of the concentration on teaching factual knowledge for examination purposes.
Physics
The syllabus objectives are “Knowledge, Understanding, Skills, Competence and Attitudes”
Objectives specifically related to HST:
“1. Knowledge
Students should know
• how physics contributes to the social, historical, environmental, technological and economic
life of society
5. Attitudes
Students should appreciate
• the contribution of physics to the social and economic development of society;
• the relationship between physics and technology”
In the syllabus each topic is set out under the headings:
“ Content, Depth of treatment, Activities and STS” (Science Technology and Society)
The following topics are cited with specific historical reference under the heading of Science
Technology and Society.
Modern Physics
“1. The electron
Electron named by G. J. Stoney. Quantity of charge measured by Millikan.
2. Acceleration of protons
First artificial splitting of nucleus.
First transmutation using artificially accelerated particles.
Irish Nobel laureate for physics, Professor E. T. S. Walton (1951).
Cockcroft and Walton – proton energy approximately 1 MeV: outline of experiment.
4. Converting other forms of energy into mass
History of search for basic building blocks of nature:
• Greeks: earth, fire, air, water
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History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teacher Education – The HST Project
• 1936: p, n, e. Particle accelerators, e.g. CERN.
6. Families of particles
Pioneering work to investigate the structure of matter and origin of universe.
International collaboration, e.g. CERN.
7. Anti-matter
Paul Dirac predicted anti-matter mathematically.
Option 2 Applied Electricity
3. Electromagnetic induction
Callan Induction coil.
7. Logic gates
Boole.
Chemistry
The objectives specifically related to HST
“1. Knowledge
Students should have knowledge of
• social, historical, environmental, technological and economic aspects of chemistry.
5. Attitudes
Students should appreciate
• advances in chemistry and their influence on our lives
• that the understanding of chemistry contributes to the social and economic development of
society”
The following topics include specific historical reference under the heading of Social and
Applied aspects.
Periodic Table and Atomic Structure
“1.1 Periodic Table
History of the idea of elements, including the contributions of the Greeks, Boyle, Davy and
Moseley. History of the periodic table, including the contributions of Dobereiner, Newlands,
Mendeleev and Moseley. Comparison of Mendeleev’s table with the modern periodic table.
1.2 Atomic Structure
Very brief outline of the historical development of atomic theory (outline principles only;
mathematical treatment not required): Dalton: atomic theory; Crookes: vacuum tubes, cathode
rays; Stoney: naming of the electron; Thomson: negative charge of the electron; e/m for
electrons (experimental details not required); Millikan: magnitude of charge of electrons as
shown by oil drop experiment (experimental details not required); Rutherford: discovery of
the nucleus as shown by the alpha particle scattering experiment; discovery of protons in
nuclei of various atoms; Bohr: model of the atom; Chadwick: discovery of the neutron.
1.3 Radioactivity
Historical outline of radioactivity: work of Becquerel (discovery of radiation from uranium
salts); Marie and Pierre Curie (discovery of polonium and radium).
2A.1 Crystals
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History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teacher Education – The HST Project
Contributions of
(i) Bragg's: development of the X-ray technique for determining crystal structure;
(ii) Dorothy Hodgkin: determination of the crystal structure of complex organic molecules,
e.g. vitamin B12, penicillin (structures not required).
The discovery of buckminsterfullerene (structure not required).
Option 2A: Materials.
2 Addition Polymers
Brief history of the discovery of low-density poly(ethene) and of high-density poly(ethene).
Brief history of the discovery of poly(tetrafluoroethene).
Option 2B Additional Electrochemistry and the Extraction of Metals
1. The Electrochemical Series
Contributions of Galvani, Volta, Davy and Faraday.”
Mary O’Brien
Dungarvan
Ireland
June 2002
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History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teacher Education – The HST Project
HST in Education in Romania
This section contains the names of European great scientists, mathematicians and engineers
whose contribution to the history of science and technology are presented in manuals of
mathematics, physics and chemistry for Romanian high school and higher education.
Mathematics and Physics
Platon (mathematics)
Pitagora (mathematics)
Tartaglia (mathematics);
Cardano (mathematics);
N. Abel (mathematics);
Arhimede (maths, physics);
C.W. Leibniz (mathematics);
B. Riemman (mathematics)
H. Lebesgue (mathematics)
E. Goursat (mathematics)
Mac-Laurin (mathematics);
Cramer (mathematics);
L. Euler (mathematics);
G. Neper (mathematics);
P. Fermat (mathematics);
B. Russell (mathematics);
J. B. Biot (mathematics, physics);
K. Waierstrass (mathematics);
Euclid (mathematics);
N. Oresme (mathematics);
B. Pascal (mathematics);
J.B. Fourier (mathematics);
B. Bolzano (mathematics);
K.F. Gauss (mathematics)
P.S. Laplace (mathematics, physics)
T. Lalescu (mathematics)
Cr. Huygens (mathematics, physics)
R. Dedekind (mathematics);
G. Cantor (mathematics);
L. Fibonacci (mathematics)
G. Galilei (mathematics, physics)
I. Newton (mathematics, physics)
R. Descartes (mathematics);
Physics and Chemistry
M. Faraday (physics, chemistry)
M. Cristian Orsted (physics)
Bohr Niels (physics)
A. Ampere (physics)
Ohm (physics)
E. Rutherford (physics)
Ştefan Procopiu (physics)
J.C. Maxwell (physics)
H. Hertz (physics)
Weber (physics)
W. Pauli (physics, chemistry)
H. Hulubei (physics)
A. Einstein (physics)
E. Fermi (physics)
M. Planck (physics)
Aristotel (physics)
Mendeleev (chemistry)
Van der Waals (physics, chemistry)
A. Avogadro (chemistry)
Kelvin (physics, chemistry)
W. Cosel (chemistry)
F. Kekule (chemistry)
J. Crafts (chemistry)
L. Pasteur (chemistry)
C.A. Bosch (chemistry)
A. Volta (physics, chemistry)
S. Arhennius (chemistry)
J. Berzelius (chemistry)
F. Voehler (chemistry)
C.D. Neniţescu (chemistry)
A.L. Lavoisier (chemistry)
J.L. Proust (chemistry)
J. Dalton (chemistry)
J. Joule (physics, chemistry)
H. Chatelier (chemistry)
F. Habel (chemistry)
C.A. Coulomb (physics, chemistry)
59
Named laws
Faraday’s law (physics)
Brewster’s law (physics)
Avogadro’s law (chemistry)
Hess’s law (chemistry)
Named rules
Cramer’s rule (mathematics)
Hospital’s rule (mathematics)
Lenz’s rule (physics)
Named equations
Newton’s equations
Maxwell’s equations
Lorentz’s equations
Named inequalities
Young’s inequality
(mathematics)
Chauchy - Buniacovschi
inequality (mathematics)
Bernoulli’s inequality
(mathematics)
Cebâşev’s inequality
(mathematics)
Mincowschi’s inequality
(mathematics)
Hermite’s inequality
(mathematics)
Maxwell’s inequality (physics)
Named experiments
Fiseau’s ezperiment (physics)
Michelson’s experiment
(physics)
Rutherford’s experiment
(physics)
Franck’s experiment (physics)
Named postulates
Einstein’s postulats (physics)
Bhor’s postulats (physics)
Named principles
Newton’s principles (physics)
Huygens’s principles (physics)
Pauli’s principles (physics)
Named devices
Van der Graaf’s generator
(physics)
Wheastone’s bridge (physics)
Helmholtz’s quails (physics)
Galilei’s telescope (physics)
Young’s device (physics)
Jolly’s balance (physics)
Atvowd device (physics)
Named models
Rutherford’s model (physics)
Thomson’s model (physics)
Bohr’s model (physics)
Named constants
Planck’s constant (physics)
Avogadro’s number
(chemistry)
Named effects
Hall’s effect (physics)
Compton’s effect (physics)
Emanuel Vasiliu;
Mihail Vasiliu
Mihai Nechifor;
Lacramioara Stoenescu;
Maria Gansari.
Bucharest
July 2002
History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teachers.
The HST Project
History of Science and Technology in Romania
In the next section, Romanian colleagues present details of some of some important
science and technology developments from the history of Romania, as well as more
information of the contributions of some notable Romanian scientists, technologists
and mathematicians. They are included for two reasons.
 They present additional information for teachers and lecturers about HST
developments which have affected the growth of science and technology in
Europe.
 They can be used for comparative study purposes during future in-service courses
in HST. These developments from a Romanian perspective will be used for
comparing and contrasting with the science, mathematics and technology
developments in other European countries.
1. Introduction
For a better understanding of the history of science and technology of Romania it is
useful to present some general data about Romania.
Location:
Southeastern, Central Europe,, on the northern side of the Balkan Peninsula including
the lower Danube Basin.
Area:
238,391 Km(12th largest country in Europe)
Borders:
The Moldavian Republic, Ukraine, Hungary, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria and the Black Sea.
The length of the borders is 3,190 km.
Population:
22,897,993 people (January 2001)
54,9 percent live in urban areas
45,1 percent live in rural areas
More than 10 million Romanians live beyond the frontiers, ranging from the Republic
of Moldavia in the east, Hungary in the west, other European countries, North and
South America and even in Australia.The majority of the population, more than 20
milion, are ethnic ethnic Romanians, the rest of the population includes 1,6 milion
Magyars, 400.000 Gypsies, 100.000 Germans, 66.000 Ukranians and smaller numbers
of Turks, Serbians, Bulgarians and Greeks.
Life expectancy: men 66.5 years, women 73.2 years.
The Capital City: Bucharest
Population: 2,136,723 people(January 2001). Total metropolitan area: 1,521 sq. km,
of which the urban area covers about 228 sq. km.
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History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teachers.
The HST Project
Administrative Divisions:
Romania is divided into 41 counties and the municipality of Bucharest, which has a
country status; 260 towns (of which 57 are considered municipalities); and 2,688
communes (which about 13,000 villages).
Ports:
On the Black Sea – Constanţa can accommodate ship of over 150,000 dwt. Mangalia
and Sulina are free ports.
On the Danube – Turnu Severin, Turnu Măgurele, Giurgiu, Olteniţa, Cernavodă,
Brăila, Galaţi, Tulcea (the last three are both river and sea ports). The Danube-Black
Sea Canal (64,2 km long) between Cernavodă and Agigea and Constanţa was opened
to traffic in 1984. Following the inauguratio of the Rhine Main Danube Canal in
1992, a direct connection with the North Sea was moda possible. The waterway
system is navigable both for river and sea-going ships of up to 5.000 dwt.
Airports:
International: Bucharest-Otopeni, Constanta-Mihail Kogalniceanu, Suceava, Arad and
Timişoara.
Domestic: Bacau, Baia Mare, Bucharest-Baneasa, Caransebeş, Cluj, Craoiva, Deva,
Iaşi, Oradea, Satu-Mare, Târgu Mureş and Tulcea.
The National Flag:
Three equal vertical stripes of blue, yellow and red(from left to right)
National Coat-of-Arms:
(Since 1992) An eagle, holding a cross in its beak and a sword and a scepter in its
claws, with the symbols of the five historical provinces Wallahia, Moldavia,
Transylvania, Banat and Dobrogea.
National Day:
December 1, the anniversary of 1918 June of all Romanians into one single country.
National Anthem:(since 1990)
“Awake, Ye, Romanian!”
Awake, Ye, Romanian from your lethargic sleep/Into which your barbarous tyrants
have sunken you so deeply.
Written by: Andrei Mureşianu; Score by: Anton Pann. Performed for the first time on
June 28, 1848.
Geography:
Physical features.
31 percent mountains, 33 percent hills and plateaus and 36 percent plains.
Mountains.
The Romanian Carpathians include: the Eastern Carpathians with Pietrosu Peak, the
highest, at 2.303 m in the Rodna Mts.; the Southeastern Carpathians, with
Moldoveanu Peak, the highest, at 2.543 m in the Fagaraş Mts.; and the Western
Carpathians, with Curcubăta Mare peak, the highest, at 1.849 m in Apuseni Mts.
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History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teachers.
The HST Project
Hills and Plateaus.
Within the Carpathians arch, the Transylvania plateau reaches between 400-700 m
altitude.Other important plateaus are the Someş Plateau (northwest), the Moldavian
Plateau (east and the Dobrujan Plateau (southeast).
Plains.
The most important is the Plain of the lower Danube (the Romanian plain). It is the
country’s most important agricultural area.
The Danube Delta
. Situated to the north of the Dobrujan Plateau, it is the youngest geophysical feature
in Romania. Even though the land dates back to prehistoric times, it is transforming
continually, even now. Every year the alluvial deposits brought by the river increase
the height of the land by a few centimeters. On Romanian territory it extends over
4.340 sq. km, which 78 percent is swampland and frequently flooded. The Danube
divides into three branches approaching the Black Sea: Chilia, Sulina and Sf.
Gheorghe.
Hydrography:
Rivers.
The Danube River in the south of the country is the largest river, with 1.075 km of its
total 2.850 km length in Romania. Other major rivers include: Mureş, Olt, Prut, Siret,
Ialomiţa, Someş, Argeş, Jiu, Buzau and Bistriţa.
Lakes.
About 2.300 lakes and over 1.150 ponds (covering an area of 2.650 sq. km). The best
known are: Razelm (415 sq. km), Sinoe (171 sq. km), Brateş (21 sq. km), Taşaul (20
sq. km), Techirghiol (12 sq. km) and Snagov (5.8 sq. km).
Climate:
Described as temperate continental, the climate is influenced by the ocean from the
west, the Mediterranean from the southwest, and extensive continental weather from
the northeast. The mean annual temperature ranges from 8 C in the north to 11 C in
the south.
History:
The history of Romania is a major part of the history of Europe. Rooted in the Roman
Empire of the 1st millenium AD, Romanians have continuously inhabited the same
geographical area. Their forefathers, a people of Indo-European origin, who were
members of the Thracian tribes, had arrived as early as the 2nd millenium BC. One of
the branches, the Geto-Dacian tribes, originally settled in Dacia. King Burebista (8844 BC), ruler of one of the most populous Dacian tribes, succeeded in uniting these
scattered groups into a powerful empire whose capital, Sarmizegetusa, was located in
today’s Transylvania.
In 105-106 AD, the Roman Emperor Traian conquered Dacia. The Roman ruled over
Dacia until 276 AD, but the conquerors coexisted on peaceful terms with the GetoDacians. The assimilation of the Dacian and Romans produced the early Romanian.
Language:
The Romanian language is spoken by more than 35 million people worldwide. Just
like Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Sardinian, Catalan, Provencal or RhaetoRomanic, it is rooted in Latin, brought by the Romans to their conquered provinces.
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Romanian is a neo-Latin language, an example of Oriental Latinity, the only one to
survive in an isolated enclave, surrounded by Slavic languages and cultures.
The Romanian language we speak today was born and developed both in the territory
to the north of the Danube, in Dacia, as well as in the vast area which includes a major
part of the Balkan Peninsula, from the ancient Dacia to the Pindus Mountains. This
extensive territory was conquered and colonized by the Romans, during the first
decades of the third century, when they arrived on the shores of the Adriatic Sea.
They began their conquest with Greece, Macedonia, Ilyria, Moesia, Pannonia, Thracia
and Dacia turning the latter two into roman provinces in 105-106 AD.
When the Romans came to Dacia after 106 AD, they brought with them a more
advanced culture, different customs and their language, Vulgar Latin. This was the
spoken Latin of those days rather than the literary language. Quickly, the Vulgar Latin
replaced the local language. After the withdrawal of the Romans, Romania retained a
linguistic structure similar to Latin. But, the invasion of Slavs from south of the
Danube resulted in the breakup of the initial unity of Romania. Part of the population
displaced from the south of the Danube was pushed to Istria, where the IstroRomanian dialect was shaped. Others lived in north of Salonik, where the MeglenoRomanian dialect was born, and in Macedonia, where the dialect is called Aromanian.
All of these dialects, together with the Daco-Romanian, spoken by the population
north of the Danube, developed in relation to the historical and social conditions in
the respective geographical areas, but with the general rules and characteristics of the
Romanian language and its Latin roots.
Romanians living south of the Danube speak with the Macedo-Romanian, IstroRomanian and Megleno-Romanian dialects to this day, while those living in the east,
west and north of the country speak a more literary Romanian, a language which
subsumes the Transylvanian and Moldavian versions. The people in today’s Republic
of Moldavia have a difficult history as well. Nonetheless, they too have preserved
their national identity and language to this day. If you know Italian or Portuguese, you
will probably find that Romanian sounds like a combination of these two languages.
International Memberships:
Romania has diplomatic relations with 177 nations, has diplomatic missions in 99
countries and is a member of UNO, IAEA, IBRD, FAO, IFAD, GATT, ICAO, ILO,
IMO, WMO, WIPO, WHO, UNIDO, ITU, UNESCO and UPU. In 1993, Romanian
became an EEC and EFTA associate member, and the 23rd Council of Europe
member. On January 26, 1994, Romanian was the first Eastern European country to
sign NATO’s “Partnership for Peace” accord in Brussels, and in 1997 became a fullfledged EFTA member.
Religion:
According to the January 7, 1992, census, the population of Romania belongs to the
following religions: Orthodox 19.802.389 (86.8%); Roman Catholic 1.161.942(5%);
Reformed 802.454 (3.5%); Greek Catholic 223.327 (1.0%); Pentecostal 220.824
(1.0%); Baptist 109.462 (0.2%); Adventist 77.456 (0.3%); Unitarian 76.708 (0.3%);
Muslim 55.928 (0.2%); Church of Christ 49.963 (0.2%); Evangelical of the Augustan
Confession 39.119 (0.2%); Old Rite Church 28.141 (0.1%); Synod-Presbyterian
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Evangelical 21.221 9 (0.1%); Other denominations 56.329 (0.2%); and non believers
34.645 (0.15%).
Weights and Measures:
The metric system has been in use since 1866.
Standard Time:
Romania is on Eastern European Time(GMT+2 hours).As of 1979, from the last
Sunday in March to the last Sunday in October, Romania changes to Daylight Saving
Time (GMT+3hours). Romania lies in the same time zone as the Republic of
Moldavia, Finland, Bulgaria, Greece, Israel, Syria, Egypt and the Republic of South
Africa.
Transportation Network:
Highways.
Total length: 72.816 km, of which 14.863 km are trunk motorways (4.508 km are
European motorways) and 53.133 km are county and commune roads.
Railway network.
Total length: 22.367 km of which 16.542 km are single track and 5.825 km are
double track. 8.643 km are electrified.
Inland waterways.
Total length: 1.690 km, of which 1.075 km are on the internationally navigable
Danube river, 524 km are on the navigable branches of the Danube, and 91 km are on
man-made navigable canals (the Bega, Danube-Black Sea canals).
Air Transportation.
Seventeen airports, six of which serve domestic and international flights, and 11
serve domestic flights only. The domestic air company is Tarom. For domestic flights
you can buy tickets in advance (10 days before) from Bucureşti Tarom agencies. You
can buy one-way ticket, or a round trip ticket (the price is double, no reduction), an
adult or a child ticket (40 percent of the usual price). The highest cost of a ticket, for
the longest route, Bucureşti-Baia Mare, is about US $60 (lei equivalent).
Underground Transportation (Metro) in Bucharest.
Total length: 63.2 km. Four main lines with 43 stations.
The Economic Potential:
The economic potential of Romania is able to meet the requirements of its people,
while creating a solid basis of international trade and helping to integrate Romania
into the continental social-economic structure. This potential includes a skilled
workforce of 5.900.000, qualified on par with European standards; an industrial
structure that is being restructured; and programs designed for more efficient use of
the country’s natural resources and for boosting of foreign trade. The actual
unemployment rate is about 10 percent.
Industry:
Romanian industry has a high degree of concentration: 600-700 companies control
almost 80 percent of the industrial production. Industry accounts for approximately 50
percent of annual revenue. The private sector contributes more than 40 percent of the
industrial production.
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Agriculture:
Romania has 9.5 million hectares (23.475.450 acres) of farmland, about 62 percent of
the total area of the country. Of these, over one million hectares are irrigated
farmlands. Approximately 4.6 million hectares are pasture, and 600.000 hectares are
vineyards (Romania produces a number of famous wine labels), orchards, vine
nurseries and fruit tree nurseries.
Commerce:
In January 2001, the National Commercial Register had registered about 600.000
companies (joint-stock, limited, incorporated, state owned, co-operatives and private
individuals). Some 85-90 percent of companies in Romania handles merchandise
distribution. Total amount of foreign investments is US$7.12 billion (National Board
For Statistics, February 2001). The main investors are France ($818million), Germany
($749 million), Netherlands ($707 million) and USA ($663 million).
Transportation:
Located in the center of Europe, Romania contributes to international trade between
all parts of the continent, as well as between Europe and the Middle East. The
government has prepared a draft regarding the modernization of land, air and sea
transportation facilities in Romania. Thirteen new highways are to be built, with a
total length of 3.000 km. An additional 1.200 km of railway tracks, bridges over the
Danube and the Prut rivers, and four new airports, in Braşov, Galati, Alba Iulia and
Bistriţa also are being planned.
Air Transportation.
Domestic flights link the Capital to Craiova, Timişoara, Arad, Oradea, Sibiu, ClujNapoca, Satu-Mare, Baia Mare, Târgu Mureş, Bacău, Iaşi, Suceava, Tulcea,
Caransebeş and Constanţa. A number of international airlines link Bucharest to all
European capitals as well as to other continents.
Highways.
The main highway junction is Bucharest. The roads originating here cross the country
in all directions, some of them part of the main European routes. One of these is E60,
which originates in Hamburg and passes through Oradea and Bucharest before
terminating in Constanţa.
Railway network.
Ten railway lines cross the Carpathian mountains. The general orientation of the lines
is influenced by Bucharest’s location in the southeastern part of the country, toward
which the main routes converge. Bucharest is the largest railway center in the country;
eight trunk lines start here, most of them linked to international traffic ways. Romania
manufacturers railway carriages of all categories, as well as, electrical and dieselelectrical engines.
The domestic Rail Company is SNCFR. For international travels you can buy tickets
in advance (up to one month before) from the international agency. For domestic
travels you can buy your ticket in advance (up to 10 days before) from the SNCFR
agencies or one hour before the departure of the train, from Gara de Nord train
station. You can buy an adult ticket, a children’s ticket (50 percent of the usual price
for 10-18 year-olds), a one-way, round trip or circuit ticket. The highest cost of a
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ticket for a domestic express train on the largest route, Bucureşti-Satu Mare, is about
US 20$.
Inland waterways.
The main waterway is the Danube River. Ships with a draught of over 7 m (23ft.) can
navigate down the river from Brăila, on the section of the river called “maritime
Danube”. Ships with a draught of up to 2.5 m (8.25ft.) can navigate the rest of its
length all the way to Germany, passing through Yugoslavia, Hungary, Slovakia and
Austria. The construction of the Danube-Black Sea Canal and of the Rhine-MainDanube Canal created an extremely important waterway that connects the North Sea
to the Black Sea. The construction of the Portile de Fier I and II Hydro-Electric
Complex and navigation facilities, which include double waterlocks, made major
increase of traffic possible. Maritime transportation can handle ships with great
capacity. The Romanian fleet is equipped with ships of all sizes, up to 170.000 dwt.
The port of Constanţa handles 60 percent of Romania’s imports and exports.
Romanian Postal System:
The mail system was first developed in the 13th century, but the year 1858 marked a
significant step in the development of Poşta Română. The first Romanian stamps were
put into circulation that year and now are considered some of the earliest in the world.
The famous “Aurochs Head” series, some of which are of inestimable value in the
philatelist’s world, were issued then. At present, the Romanian Post is a state service,
and considered part of the national communication system. The Romanian Post has
accepted the standards of the European Commission regarding the new unified market
of mail services defined in the “Green Book”. Under these regulations, the same
tariffs are charged and the same categories of services are offered throughout the
country. Romanian post offices sell postcards and stamps.
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2. The beginning of technical civilization in Romania
To know the history of a people’s science and technology enables one to appreciate
their contribution to the formation of the scientific and cultural horizon of man, of the
’riches’ a nation adds to the world cultural ’thesaurus’. This chapter presents a series
of significant contributions of the two-millenium old Romanian people, which has
always manifested a special liking for knowledge and innovation, as well as
sensitivity to novelties.
Romania has an old culture and civilization and technical creation significantly
contributed to its progress, jointly with other domains of the spiritual work.
Prehistoric traces that were found on the Romanian territory at Cuciulat, Porţile de
Fier, Cucuteni, Hârşova and other areas show that the inhabitants of these areas had
skillfully created and handled tools already before Christ. They showed a propensity
for technics, for the study of natural phenomena and the tendency to appropriate them.
A
The ’Hamandjia’ culture that was discovered in Dobrudja was dated the 4th
millenium B.C. Excavations digged out tools of hard polished stone and of silex,
trapezoidal hatchets with bi- and plan-convex sections. Through its expressive design,
a statue of that era reflects the propensity of Romanians for thinking. It was named
‘The Thinker of Hamandgia’ and it may be looked upon as an anticipation of Rodin’s
‘Le penseur’, representing at different moments in time the same universal craving of
man to know and to render the essence of discovery, which is to reason and to think.
Archaeologists and historians estimate than one can identify an ’iron age’ on the
The ‘Thinker’ of
Hamandjia
The ‘Thinker’ by Rodin
territory of Romania about the year 1200 until 450-300 B.C. Traces of bronze
metallurgy were also dated to the same epoch. The discovery of iron ore entitled
specialists to speak about our forefathers’ skills in iron reduction and working.
Hatchets, household appliances and weapons were found in Babadag (Tulcea),
Cernetu (Covasna), Basarab (Dolj), attesting that remarkable attention was paid to this
domain of human activities.
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The foundation of several Greek cities on the Black Sea shore, such as Histria (657
B.C., according to the Chronicle of Eusebius of Caesareea), Tomis (the second half of
the 6th century B.C., according to the reports of Greek colonists of Millet) and Calatis
had brought about an intense commercial trade along with knowledge exchanges in
the domain of technics and tools, the construction of buildings and bridges for ships.
Once the first centralized Getic and Dacian state (under King Burebista, 82-44 B.C.)
was set up and developed by Decebal (87-107 A.C.), trades flourished. There were
sustained activities in the domain of civil and military constructions, installations for
catching and gathering drinking water. Chiseled stone was utilized in the
constructions of cities (murus Dacicus, a wall without mortar, very strong, thick of
approx. 3 m, with the faces of the walls made of stone blocks connected through
wood beams and earth padding, with unchiseled stone between the faces of walls).
Evidence of Dacian technical creation can still be found today especially in the cities
of the Orăştie Mountains. A significant fact should be mentioned here, namely that
during the Dacian and Roman wars, the Dacian state was in full swing and it was the
only state, which had to counterbalance the force of the Roman Empire.
When Dacia had been conquered by Romans, a new technical culture was created
through the work of slaves and captive Dacians. The technical genius of Roman
conquerors, which intermingled with that of the captive Dacians, resulted in special
constructions, such as: the monument of Adamclisi, the bridge over the Danube and
Drobeta-Turnu Severin that was built by the architect Apolodor of Damascus by order
of the Roman King Traian (102-105 B.C.). Several gold and silver mines were opened
in the zone Brad-Baza, where there has been attested 2000 years of mining
exploitation, in 1979). The contemporary exchange of knowledge between the Roman
Empire and the colony of Dacia was very active. New dwellings and techniques
emerged (aqueducts, ore exploitation, wood working).Archaeological discoveries
mentioned even a short inscription from ‘Ulpia Traiana’ that speaks of the existence
of a ‘Collegium fabrum’ (a smiths’ corporation) in the 3rd century A.C. As roads
represented the means of connecting the newly built dwellings, a wide network of
roads was built. Conrad Peutinger (1465-1547), who was the empire advisor of
Augsburg, mentioned it, drawing up the Peutingerian ‘Tabula’ that was a map of the
main roads of Dacia and their connection to other regions of the Roman Empire.
The migration of peoples on the territory of the former Dacia that had been deserted
by Romans and whose population was over 1 million at that time (according to the
historian Pârvan) left deep traces as regards unitary state organization, in the sense
that a delay in the state organization was registered as compared to the Western
Europe countries. In spite of its slow development, mention should be made that there
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is archaeological evidence in support of the continuity of old trades and the surge of
new handicrafts, as a result of a commercial exchanges (ceramics, household
appliances, weapons) on the territory of present day Romania. The discovery of prefeudal dwellings of Garvan, Capidava in the region of the Low Danube point to the
original Romanian folk creativity in the conception of tools. There were discovered
several ovens for iron reduction that were built in the earth, adornment objects of
silver, glass, ceramics, brass and bronze objects. Several proofs testify to the
utilization since the 10th to the 12th centuries of the horizontal weaving mill (thanks
to the influence of Byzantine culture) that was utilized in the Western countries only
in the 13th century!
Great Romanian technical and scientific achievements
We are entitled to state that the feudal civilizations of Romania appeared and
developed in the context of the European civilization, with obvious interrelations and
influences in the domain of mining, metallurgy, constructions, military technique,
wood working.
Receptive to novelties, our people were able not only to utilize them, but also to offer
in turn original solutions that were adopted in other regions of the world. Several such
creations should be mentioned here, whose authors remain anonymous. They opened
up a way to future progress. We shall refer first to mining, as a segment of activity
with long tradition on the Romanian territory. The existence of ore deposits attracted
German and Austrian mine workers to those areas. The presence of the first of them
was traced back to 1238 at the gold and silver mining works of Zlatna and Câlnic,
while others worked at their iron one mine of Remetea (in 1291).
The wooden trolley with wooden wheels was a remarkable achievement at that time.
It had been devised in the 14th - 15th centuries and was endowed with rail points
(switch and switch blade). It was the first item of his type to be mentioned among the
ancient technical achievements in the world and it was discovered in a gold mine at
Brad-Barza. It maybe considered to be the oldest driven vehicle or wooden rails,
when taking into account the fact that it was hardly around the year 1550 that the
wooden rail were attested by archaeologists to have been utilized in the mining
galleries in the Harz Mountains. Since 1930, the model of this trolley can be found at
the Museum of Communications in Berlin. The utilization of powder in mining as
early as the 14th century is also attested. Georgius Agricola mentioned in his work
‘De vera Metalica’ the fact that the powder was used in the mines of Germany only in
the 16th century.Ore reduction ovens had a special design. The one found at GherlaTopliţa and exhibited at the Science Museum of London is estimate to be the oldest in
Europe.
Instances of ingenuity can be found in the domain of harnessing wind and hydraulic
power, as well as in utilizing the afferent equipment. In Europe, the windmill
(originating from Persia) was mentioned to be used first in Normandy in 1180. On the
territory of Romania, this kind of mill was mentioned to have been used in the 12th
and 13th centuries, especially for cereal grinding. Such windmills with 4 or 6 sheets
will be utilized in Romania until the 20th century, according to the travelling
impression notes of the French traveler Fracois de Pavie.
When new trades appeared, hydraulic energy was employed for the new equipment:
oil manufacturing, cereal grinding, felting mills for cloth, ore crushing. The first
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hydraulic-drive stampheads for ore crushing are mentioned under the denomination of
'stupa' in Transylvania in the 14th century and in the Romanian and Moldavian
Principalities since the 15th centuries.
The spinning and winding wheel had been conceived and utilised in all the regions of
our country. That device was based on the connecting rod and crank principle, that
was an invention of the 14th century and on the principle of the conveyance belts.
Romanian water mills, namely the so-called cup-mills or bucket-mills may be
considered to be the precursors of the hydraulic turbine, which was invented by Pelton
in 1884. Original items of this Romanian device are displayed at the Museum of
Science and Technics in Munich and at the Technical Museum 'Prof. D. Leonida' of
Bucharest. This construction, which was a specific work of popular artisans, has been
conceived in the early ages of mankind, as the Romanian historian C. Giurăscu said,
being utilized in Bulgaria, Yugoslavia and Albania.
A whole range of specialized equipment for various trades is attested by
archaeological documents, such as: weaving device for tissues (dated 1473), fulling
mills for cloth (1441), which had been located on the mountain rivers.
The development of trades in the domain of woodworking and the flourishing of
trading stimulated the wood shipbuilding. A 'firman' of Sultan Mohammed II (1445)
mentioned about the ships trading authorization of the dwellers of Moldavia to sell the
ships they used to build in Chilia and Cetatea Albă (the White Fortress, in Ukraine).
As the time passed, constructions were performed in a wider range. Shipyards were
set up, where Romanians built various types of boats at Brăila (1620), Giurgiu (1700),
Galaţi (1783). The voivode Alexandru Moruzi obtained from the Ottoman Porte the
permission that Valachia ‘should detain various types of vessels, boats, kayaks and all
kinds of ships on the Danube within the borders of the country’. Since 1836, the
Danube harbors of Galaţi and Brăila already received the ‘porto-franco’ regime, a fact
that testified to the vivid activity that was being deployed there. The ships of
Moldavia and Valachia sailed under the Ottoman flag first. Then, since 1834, they
sailed under the Romanian flag. These signs of independence also reflected in the
diversifying of shipbuilding: the brig schooner ‘Emma’ for the Danube river police
and the military schooners ‘Stephen the Great’ and ‘Galaţi’.
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In guise of a conclusion, one can say that the shipbuilding industry had an old
tradition in Romania, as a result of a strong sector of conception and manufacturing,
which has been developing since times immemorial. Cargoes, bulk-goods vessels, ore
ships and oil tanks are manufactured in Romania, according to the concept of
Romanian researchers, who have brought significant contributions to the study of
hydrodynamic regimes, to the optimization of ship building and the modeling of
operation regimes. The range of performances includes such achievements as: ore
ships of 150000 dtw, oil tanks of 200000 dtw and 7 offshore drilling platforms in the
Black Sea continental zone for oil drilling, which were built in the shipyards of Galaţi,
according to the projects and studies of Romanian researches.
Romanians had original contributions in the domain of architecture and constructions
also, which were applied in the raising up of public or private buildings, roads and
bridges, silos, railways and hydrotechnical works. One cannot speak of a breach
between the techniques that our forerunners had been familiar with in the past and the
technics, which our contemporaries currently apply today. Churches and cathedrals
that had been built in Romania are but a few examples. The Moldavian arch that was
specifically employed in the architecture of the Northern Moldavia monasteries or the
princely tombs of Curtea de Argeş are real proofs of the Romanians’ innovation
capacity. The stone bridges of Borzeşti and Cotnari, which have been erected at the
end of the 15th century under the reign of Stephen the Great and the wooden bridges
of Transylvania are also such instances of Romanian ingenuity. It is remarkable how
new ideas coming from various geographical areas found a good soil for their
development into a practical synthesis in Romania.
Ion Mincu, the founder of the national architecture school, undertook construction and
decorative elements specific to the Romanian medieval and folk architecture or to that
of other countries, especially in point of technology. He also employed the balconies,
the wooden pillars, the archways, the capitals in his projects. There still can be seen
instances of his creation in Bucharest today: the Lahovary, Monteoru and Vernescu
houses, the Refreshment Bar on the Highway, the Central School for Girls, the
Administrative Palace of Galaţi.
The architects, who were trained by him continued in the line of traditional
architecture, each of them coming up with something specific, as it results form the
buildings that they had designed. Petre Antonescu was the architect, who set up the
Townhall building of Bucharest, the Faculty of Law, the Administrative Palace of
Craiova, the Triumph Arch (that had been temporarily erected in 1922 according to
the projects of architect Petre Antonescu and finished between 1935 and 1936,
through the participation of the most worthy Romanian sculptors: Ion Jalea, Corneliu
Medrea, Dimitrie Paciurea, Oscar Späethe, Frederik Stork, Constantin Baraschi).
Duiliu Marcu conceived the former State Committee of Planning (the Ministry of
Industry and Trade at present), the Library of the Romanian Academy, the Military
Academy, the Palace of the Victory Avenue, the Palace of Railways, the State Opera
and the National Theatre of Timişoara. The Hotel Bulevard of Bucharest was built
according to the plans of architect Alexandru Orascu in 1871.
Mention should be made of monumental buildings, such as the Palace of Parliament,
whose construction started on the 25th of June, 1984 with a partial commissioning
between 1991 and 1992 and a final stage of works still under way today. Specialists in
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various domains contributed to this construction their own ideas in architecture,
constructions, equipment and furniture. This building ranks second among the world
administrative buildings after the Pentagon building (330000 sqm as compared to
604000 sqm). As for the building volume, it stands on the third place with 2.55
millions m3, after the building for rochet assembly of Cape Canaveral (3.666 million
m3) and Quetzalcoatl Pyramid (3.3 million m3). The ground building surface is 66000
sqm, its maximum height 86 m. The building continues below the ground down to
minus 92 m. it has over 440 offices, 1200 conference halls and tens of parlors, being
an ideal place for the organiyation of cultural, scientific, social and political events.
The interior elegance is due to a specific combination of materials, such as: marble,
glass, ceramics, wood, carpets, crystal candelabra.
Speaking of the Romanians’ receptivity to modern solutions and of their capacity to
develop new solutions, mention should be made that the renowned Gustav Eiffel
elaborated the metallic structure of the ‘Traian’ Hotel of Iaşi. Romanians were among
the first who have perfected the design technique for reinforced concrete (the Project
for reinforced concrete of the former old building of the Romanian Parliament was
drawn up by Gogu Constantinescu). Emil Prager perfected the mechanization of
construction works (metallic shuttering, quickly hardening cement etc.). Recently,
there have been achieved a series of constructions, which are relevant for the
conception talent of Romanian architects and builders: the new building of the
‘Politehnica’ University of Bucharest, which covers 50 ha (architect Octav Doicescu),
airports ‘Kogălniceanu’ of Constanţa and Otopeni of Bucharest (architect Ceyar
Lăzărescu), the Romanian TV Headquarters, the National Theatre, the Palace of
Sports of Bucharest, the town planning of the Mamaia sea resort and of the Black Sea
coastline, the Central Pavilion ‘Romexpo’ (made of metal, concrete, glass, with an
original dome construction that had been carried out by the academician Dan
Mateescu).
Bridges represent one of the ‘strong’ domains of the Romanians builders, Angel
Saligny being the founder of a renowned national school. His achievements are wellknown: metallic bridges with brackets and without abutment (1886), the railway
bridge over the Danube, at Feteşti-Cernavodă, that was the longest bridge in the
Continental Europe at that time and his masterpiece. Bracketed beams and a new
material, the soft steel (instead of the puddle iron) that had never been utilized before,
were employed for the bridge superstructure.
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The tradition of Angel Saligny continues. Recently his solutions were applied to the
Danube Bridge at Giurgieni-Vadul Oii, 1456 m in length, with a maximum opening of
160 m. It is metallic with orthotropic plate, with 4 circulation lanes. The Giurgiu
bridge with metallic superstructure, was the largest combined bridge in Europe at his
time (1953): it had a railway a the lower deck and a road at the upper deck). The 28
bridges of the Transfăgăraşan road are one more instance of continuity in the tradition
of Anghel Saligny. The road, which is 91.5 km long crosses the alpine zone of the
Făgăraş Mountains reaching up to 2045 m, getting through the mountains below the
Bâlea pick, between Capra and Bâlea. Another origial bridge is the ‘bracing wire’
bridge of Agigea, along the Danube-Black Sea channel that round up the water main
to the North Sea. Its central sector is 162 m, representing the largest opening that was
ever achieved in Romania and one of the world top performances.
Anghel Saligny was the initiator of the dock warehouses construction, namely the
silos of Brăila (1888) and Galaţi (1889). For the first time in the world, reinforced
concrete was used for those constructions, only twenty years after the French Monier
had obtained the first Patent for construction elements of this material, in 1867. The
prefabrication of plates on the ground, the welding of metallic bars, elements of
rigidity, mechanization of assembly represented Romanian novelties.
Hydropower constructions and the Danube-Black Sea channel are among the hydroelectrical achievements in the domain of constructions.
Dams and hydro-electrical constructions of Romania are a proof of a special
conception force, which is embodied in the chain of hydropower stations along the
valley of several rivers: Bistriţa, Argeş, Olt, Lotru, Somş and the Danube.
The projects of Dimitrie Leonida and Dorin Pavel for the accommodation of hydraulic
basins, which had been conceived around the year 1908, were found to be as good at
the time when hydro-electrical arrangements were done in Romania.
The ‘Iron Gates’ Dam that was started in 1964 and commissioned in 1972 represents a
hydro-energetic and navigation system at the same time. The dam has 868 m in
length, spillways of 25 m and two locks of 300 x 34 m. It contains two built-in hydropower stations of the river type, each of them including 6 groups. The installed power
is 2100 MV, which is under way to be increased.
The Danube-Black Sea Channel was a success, both in point of technical solutions,
and the economic effects it will generate when the conditions to connect the Black
Sea to the North Sea through the Danube-Rine Channel are met. All the Danube riverside countries will benefit from this opportunity. The channel has 64.38 km in length,
a shipping canal of 70-90 m in width and it is over 7 m deep. It represents a
remarkable achievement of the Romanian conception and industry.
The connections that Romanian principalities established, both with the European and
the eastern countries enabled the development of trade, as well as of the scientific
transfer and interrelations. The Prince Despot founded the Academy of Cotnari in
1562, according to the model of European academies. Mathematics was taught there
among other subjects of study. Nicolae Milescu, G. Şincai, Gh. Asachi are the authors
of mathematics publications, which were intended to be taught in schools.
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Originality becomes manifest with even more remarkable results in the 19th and 20th
centuries. In 1826, I. Bolyai created the non-Euclidean geometry independently and
simultaneously with N. I. Lobacevski and F. Gauss, discovering an altogether new
world. Gh. Ţiţeica, one of the creators of the centroaffine geometry, discovered new
categories of curves, surfaces and networks, which were called by his name. Dimitrie
Pompei introduced the notion of ‘areolar derivative’ in mathematics and is the creator
of the ‘Pompei functions’. David Emmanuel brings important contributions to the
study of ‘abelian’ integrals, which represents an intensely discussed problem by the
mathematicians of the 19th century. Traian Lalescu developed the theory of integral
equations, being one of its creators and upholds the existence of the ‘periodical
polygonal functions’. In his mathematical studies, Nicolae Botez developed a formula
that was undertaken and further developed by Cebaşev.
The Romanian school of mathematics has proved that it had good innovating human
brains. Romanian mathematicians have a remarkable capacity to develop five
solutions to high-complexity problems. Simion Stoilov, for instance, found a class of
equations for which there are always uniform integrals in the neighborhood of a
singularity. A. Miller and Octav Mayer developed the geometry of projective and
related subgroups. Alexandru Pantazi brought his contribution in the ‘differential
geometry’ through the definition of the ‘Pantazi quadruples’, which are called the
‘Terracini-Pantazi networks’ in the specialized literature. Gh. Mihoc originally dealt
with the ‘Marcov chains’ and introduced the notion of the ‘complete connections
chain’ together with Octav Onicescu.
Octav Onicescu (the creator of the Romanian school of the theory of probabilities and
mathematical statistics) brought valuable contributions to the development of
invariable mechanics and introduced the notion of ‘sum-function’ and ‘holothrope
function’. Grigore Moisil reported original achievements in functional analysis,
Riemannian spaces, mathematical logic applied in the automation technique. Miron
Nicolescu worked with outstanding results in the theory of the harmonic and real
variable functions. Solomon Marcus is known for his original interpretations in
mathematics.
In the last 10 years, a series of Romanian mathematicians have obtained top results in
domains of public interest: Dan Voiculescu reached profound theorems in the study of
C* algebra and non-cumulative probabilities, with their implications in modern
physics. Ciprian Foiaş had far-reaching results in the optimum control in infinite
dimensional spaces and in the study of the Navier-Strokes equation. Viorel Barbu had
brought his contribution to the domain of the multidimensional optimum control and
the theory of integral equations.
In the history of science, a special importance is attached to the contribution of the
physician Ştefan Odobleja, who published ‘La Psychologie consonantiste’ in Paris in
1938. His work contained fundamental concepts regarding the operation of complex
systems (biological, social) with a smaller or higher degree of automatism. He is
considered to be the creator of psycho-cybernetics. Ten years later, in 1948, the
American mathematician Norbert Wiener founded cybernetics.
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One can also speak of a remarkable Romanian physics school and its tradition. Its
representatives had been trained in the greatest foreign scientific centres, undertaking
the latest concepts, which they ‘distilled’, yielding in return a luxurious treasury of
knowledge.
As for the domain of physics, the 19th and 20th centuries are the most relevant period
in the history of sciences. Nevertheless, forerunners should never be forgotten.
Mention should be made here of the Romanian scholar Dimitrie Cantemir, who
published ‘Hieroglyphic history’ in Istanbul (1705), which deals with the relation
between matter and motion. In 1710 he studied the doctrine of I. V. Van Helmont,
focusing on several elements of the mechanics of motion. A century later, Gheorghe
Şincai presented in his work ‘Natural teaching for abolishing ordinary people’s
superstitions’ the principles of Newtonian mechanics.
3. Great Romanian scientists and engineers
This section is dedicated to some remarkable Romanian scientist and engineers whose
achievements are at the highest level.
BOLYAI János
János Bolyai was born in Transylvania, at that time part of Hungary and of the
Austrian Empire (although the town Kolozsvár is now officially named Cluj and is in
Romania). By the time Bolyai was 13, he had mastered the calculus and other forms
of analytical mechanics, his father Farkas Bolyai giving him instruction. Bolyai also
became an accomplished violinist and he performed in Vienna. He studied at the
Royal Engineering College in Vienna from 1818 to 1822. Immediately after this he
joined the army engineering corps in which he spent 11 years. He was the best
swordsman and dancer in the Austrian Imperial Army.
He neither smoked nor drank, not even coffee, and at the age of 23 he was reported to
still retain the modesty of innocence. He was an accomplished linguist speaking nine
foreign languages including Chinese and Tibetan.
Between 1820 and 1823 he prepared a treatise on a complete system of non-Euclidean
geometry. Before the work was published, however, Bolyai discovered that Gauss had
anticipated much of his work. Although Gauss had never published his work in this
area, probably because he did not feel confident to publish, this was a severe blow to
Bolyai. However Bolyai's work was published in 1832 as an Appendix to an essay by
his father.
Gauss, on reading the Appendix, wrote to a friend saying:
"I regard this young geometer Bolyai as a genius of the first order".
To Bolyai's father he wrote:
"To praise it would amount to praising myself. For the entire content of the
work ... coincides almost exactly with my own meditations which have
occupied my mind for the past thirty or thirty-five years".
In 1848 Bolyai discovered that Lobachevsky had published a similar piece of work in
1829.
In addition to his work in geometry, Bolyai developed a rigorous geometric concept
of complex numbers as ordered pairs of real numbers.
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Bolyai was plagued with a fever, which frequently disabled him, and in 1833 he was
pensioned off from his army career. Although he never published more than the 24
pages of the Appendix he left more than 20000 pages of manuscript of mathematical
work when he died. These are now in the Bolyai-Teleki library in Tirgu- Mures.
In 1945 a university in Cluj was named after him, and this is now part of the BabesBolyai University.
COANDA Henry
In October 1910 Grand Palais on Champs-Elysees in Paris was hosting the second
International Aeronautical Exhibition. The most recent products of aviation were
exposed. Many people were visiting the exhibition, some because of pure curiosity,
attracted by the mirage of flight, others because they were particularly interested in
some specific machines.
The most interesting machine, which attracted lots of people, and caused the visitors
to gather in a crowd around it, was a red airplane which was missing the propeller;
beside it, on a metallic shell, was written: COANDA-1910. This airplane caused the
people to be so curious not only because it was missing the propeller, but also because
of the fact that it was completely different from what people knew by that time an
airplane looked like. It was a double-wing, one-seat plane equipped with a reactive
engine. His main characteristics were span: 10.30 m, length: 12.50 m, lifting surface:
32.70 mxm, weight: 420 kg, propulsion force at sea level: 220 kgf.
The news concerning the airplane's construction were mainly the following:For the
first time the main stubs of wings were made of steel instead of wood. The wings
were for the first time equipped with mobile surfaces placed ahead of wing to increase
lift (*these are mobile surfaces attached to the wing, which have the role to delay the
separation of the boundary layer, thus increasing the critical flight incidence and the
maximum lifting coefficient; in Romanian it is called volet - e.g volet Fowler, Taghi,
Kruger etc.*).
The wings profile had a strong curvature; their shape was rectangular except for the
fact that they were, of course, circular at the corners. The gasoline and lubricants were
stored inside the upper wings (!) such as the drag was considerably reduced.The two
wings had different lengths and the superior (upper) wing was set ahead of the inferior
one, which was shorter, such as the aerodynamic interference between these two
surfaces were reduced. This construction, applied for the first time by Henri Coanda,
was later called 'Sesquiplan'; it was re-invented 10 years later, being used for
Fokker's, Brequet's, Potez's airplanes.
Paul Painleve - 1863-1933, Prof. at Sorbone, one of the pioneers of Flight Mechanics,
who also flew with Wilbur Wright and Henri Farman even in 1908 - Sextrieux and
Gustave Eiffel - 1832-1923, a pioneer of experimental aerodynamics, his first
experiences being carried out from the tower which bears his name - were particularly
interested in Coanda's machine. However they realized that the hour of the reactive
airplane had not come yet (Eiffel: 'This boy should have been born 30 years later.').
The most interesting part of Coanda's plane was the propulsion system, a real
revolution in the construction of airplane engines that would have to constitute the
solution in the future. The "air-reactive engine", invented and built for the first time
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by Henri Coanda, composed of a piston-engine with four cylinders, cooled with
water; it developed 50 HP (Horse-Power) at 1000 rotations/minute. This pistonengine was connected to a rod which rotated the rotation multiplier; the movement
was transmitted to the compressor which gained a rotation speed of 4000 rot./min.. In
front of the compressor was placed the obturator - a device very similar to that of a
photo-camera; this device could be controlled by the pilot such that the quantity of air
that entered the compressor could be regulated. The air entered the burning rooms,
(that had a ring-like section and were placed on both sides of the fuselage), from
which, through some tubes, burned gases of the engine were evacuated and the
propulsion force was generated.The propulsion force at sea level obtained with this
engine was 220 kgf, much larger than that obtained if the piston-engine would have
been acted by a propeller.
Many visitors were suspicious about the possibility that this machine could take off
since it was missing the propeller. They had never seen such a strange flying machine
and never heard about an airplane without a propeller.
After the exhibition closed its doors, on December 16, 1910, Henri Coanda
transported his airplane at Issy-les-Moulineaux. Here he only intended to verify the
engine, not to fly. So Coanda got into his machine, and after several minutes of
warming up, pushed the buttons that commanded the obturator and the rotation speed
of the engine. The airplane began to move faster and faster, and flames and fume
could be seen along the fuselage getting out from the engine. After a very short time,
before Coanda could realize what was going on, the airplane was in the air. Impressed
by the flames and worried about the fact that he had never piloted an airplane by then
(only planors), Coanda lost the control of his machine, which began to loose speed
and height. In a short time it stroked the ground and began to burn.
Coanda described this first flight in 1964 as follows:
"The machine gained height much faster than I thought; it was not my fault, but
after a while it entered a glissade, stroke the ground and burned completely. I
was very lucky I was not tied on the chair, such that I was pushed out when the
airplane stroke the ground; otherwise I would have burned with it".
This attempt constitutes the first flight of an airplane equipped with an air-reactive
engine, the first reactive flight of an airplane in the world. But lacking the financial
support Coanda could not improve his invention such that a second reactive airplane
made by Coanda could not be seen flying again.
So 30 years before Heinkel, Campini and Whittle, Coanda built and flew the first
reactive airplane.
OBERTH Hermann
Hermann Julius Oberth, born June 25, 1894 in the Transylvanian town of
Hermannstadt, is, along with the Russian Konstantin Tsiolkovsky and the American
Robert Goddard, one of the three founding fathers of rocketry and modern
astronautics. Interestingly, although these three pioneers arrived at many of the same
conclusions about the possibility of a rocket escaping the earth’s gravitational pull,
they seem to have done so without any knowledge of each other’s work.
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Oberth’s interest in rocketry was sparked at the age of 11. His mother gave him a
copy of Jules Verne's From The Earth To The Moon, a book which he later recalled
he read "at least five or six times and, finally, knew by heart.” It was a young Oberth,
then, that discovered that many of Verne’s calculations were not simply fiction, and
that the very notion of interplanetary travel was not as fantastic as had been assumed
by the scientific community. By the age of 14 Oberth had already envisioned a “recoil
rocket” that could propel itself through space by expelling exhaust gases (from a
liquid fuel) from its base. He had no resources with which to test his model, but
continued to develop his theories, all the while teaching himself, from various books,
the mathematics that he knew he’d need if he was to ever challenge gravity’s
dominion. Oberth realized that the higher the ratio between propellant and rocket
mass the faster his rocket would be able to travel. Problem: as the rocket expends fuel,
its mass (not including fuel) remains the same, in essence becoming heavier and
heavier in relation to the engine’s ability to provide thrust. Solution: stages. Hermann
Oberth reasoned that as one section of the rocket cylinder becomes expended, and
therefore also becomes dead weight, why not just get rid of it? This idea is especially
important, in light of the fact that in space, velocity is additive. Oberth wrote,
“the requirements for stages developed out of these formulas. If there is a
small rocket on top of a big one, and if the big one is jettisoned and the small
one is ignited, then their speeds are added.”
In 1912 Hermann Oberth enrolled in the University of Munich to study medicine. His
scholarly pursuits, however, were interrupted by the First World War. In an indirect
way, Hermann Oberth’s participation in the war, mostly with the medical unit, was, in
some ways, fortunate for the future of rocketry. Hermann Oberth stated it best when
he wrote that one of the most important things he learned in his years as an enlisted
medic, was that he "did not want to be a doctor”. When the war was over, Professor
Oberth returned to the University of Munich, but this time to study Physics with
several of the most notable scientists of the time. In 1922 Oberth’s doctoral thesis on
rocketry was rejected. He later described his reaction: “I refrained from writing
another one, thinking to myself: Never mind, I will prove that I am able to become a
greater scientist than some of you, even without the title of doctor.” He continued: “In
the United States, I am often addressed as a doctor. I should like to point out,
however, that I am not such and shall never think of becoming one.” And on
education he had this to say: “Our educational system is like an automobile which has
strong rear lights, brightly illuminating the past. But looking forward things are barely
discernible”.
In 1923, the year after the rejection of his dissertation, he published the 92 page Die
Rakete zu den Planetenraumen (The Rocket into Planetary Space). This was followed
by a longer version (429 pages) in 1929, which was internationally celebrated as a
work of tremendous scientific importance. That same year, he lost the sight in his left
eye in an experiment while working as a technical advisor to German director Fritz
Lang on his film, “Girl in the Moon.”
In the thirties Oberth took on a young assistant who would later become one of the
leading scientists in rocketry research for the German and then the United States
governments; his name was Werhner von Braun. They worked together again during
the Second World War, developing the V2 rocket, the “vengeance weapon” for the
German Army, and again after the war, in the United States at the U.S. Army’s
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Ballistic Missile Agency in Huntsville, Alabama. However, three years later Professor
Oberth retired and returned to Germany.
That Hermann Oberth is one of the three founding fathers of rocketry and modern
astronautics is, I think, indisputable. That all three have advanced the science of
rocketry is also indisputable - Professor Oberth, though, possessed a vision that set
him apart, even from these great men. In 1923 he wrote in the final chapter of Die
Rakete zu den Planetenraumen (The Rocket into Planetary Space), “The rockets... can
be built so powerfully that they could be capable of carrying a man aloft.” In 1923,
then, he became the first to prove that rockets could put a man into space. By all
accounts Hermann Oberth was a humble man (especially considering his
achievements) who had, in his own words, simple goals. He outlined them in the last
paragraph of his 1957 book Man into Space: “To make available for life every place
where life is possible. To make inhabitable all worlds as yet uninhabitable, and all life
purposeful.” Hermann Julius Oberth died in a Nuremberg hospital in West Germany
on December 29, 1989 at the age of 95.
PALADE George
He was born in November 1912 in Jassy (Iasi), the old capital of Moldavia, the
eastern province of Romania. My education was started in that city and was continued
through a baccalaureate (continental style) at the "Al Hasdeu" Lyceum in Buzau. His
father, Emil Palade, was professor of philosophy and my mother, Constanta CantemirPalade, was a teacher. The family environment explains why he acquired early in life
great respect for books, scholars and education. His father has hoped he was going to
study philosophy at the University, like himself, but he preferred to deal with
tangibles and specifics, and - influenced by relatives much closer to my age than he
was - he entered the School of Medicine of the University of Bucharest (Romania) in
1930.
Early in his student years he developed a strong interest in basic biomedical sciences
by listening to, and speaking with, Francisc Rainer and André Boivin, professors of
Anatomy and Biochemistry, respectively. As a result, he started working in the
Anatomy laboratory while still in medical school. He went, nonetheless, through six
years of hospital training, mostly in internal medicine, but he did the work for my
doctorate thesis in microscopic anatomy on a rather unusual topic (for an M.D.): the
nephron of the cetacean Delphinus delphi. It was an attempt to understand its structure
in terms of the functional adaptation of a mammal to marine life.
He graduated in 1940 and, after a short period as an assistant in internal medicine, he
went back to Anatomy, since the discrepancy between knowledge possessed by, and
expected from, the medical practitioners of that time made me rather uneasy.During
the second world war, he served in the medical corps of the Romanian Army, and
after the war - encouraged by Grigore Popa, Rainer's successor - he came to the
United States in 1946 for further studies. He worked for a few months in the Biology
Laboratory of Robert Chambers at New York University and, while there, he met
Albert Claude who had come to give a seminar on his work in electron microscopy.
He was fascinated by the perspectives opened by his findings and extremely happy
when, after a short discussion following his seminar, he asked me to come to work
with him at The Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research in the fall of the same
year. This was truly a timely development, since Chambers was retiring that summer.
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At The Rockefeller Institute, Claude was working in the department of Pathology of
James Murphy with George Hogeboom and Walter Schneider as direct collaborators;
Keith Porter was in the same department but had developed his own line of research
on the electron microscopy of cultured animal cells. At the beginning, he worked
primarily on cell fractionation procedures, and he developed with Hogeboom and
Schneider the "sucrose method" for the homogenization and fractionation of liver
tissue. This first "Rockefeller group" had a rather short existence: Schneider returned
to the University of Wisconsin, Hogeboom moved to the National Cancer Institute,
and Claude went back to Belgium in 1949 to assume the directorship of the Jules
Bordet Institute. Only Porter and he remained at The Rockefeller Institute.
Two years later, upon Murphy's retirement, they became "orphans" and were adopted
by Herbert Gasser then the director of the Institute, since none of them had the rank
required to head a laboratory.
Around that time, Palade started working in electron microscopy with the general aim
of developing preparation procedures applicable to organized tissue. This line of
research had been tackled before by a few investigators, Claude included, but there
was still ample room for improvement. Taking advantage of whatever techniques
were already available, Porter and Palade worked out enough improvements in
microtomy and tissue fixation to obtain preparations, which, at least for a while,
appeared satisfactory and gratifying. A period of intense activity and great excitement
followed since the new layer of biological structure revealed by electron microscopy
proved to be unexpectedly rich and surprisingly uniform for practically all eukaryotic
cells. Singly, or in collaboration with others, he did his share in exploring the newly
open territory and, in the process, he defined the fine structure of mitochondria, and
described the small particulate component of the cytoplasm (later called ribosomes);
with Porter, Palade investigated the local differentiations of the endoplasmic
reticulum and with Sanford Palay he worked out the fine structure of chemical
synapses. With all this activity, their laboratory became reasonably well known and
started functioning as a training center for biological electron microscopy. The
circumstances that permitted this development were unusually favorable: they didn't
have to worry about research funds (since we were well supported by Herbert Gasser),
they had practically complete freedom in selecting their targets, strong competitors
who kept them alert, and excellent collaborators who helped them in maintaining their
advance.
In the middle 1950's, Palade felt that the time was ripe for going back to cell
fractionation as a means of defining the chemical composition he and the functional
role of the newly discovered subcellular components. The intent was to use electron
microscopy for monitoring cell fractionation. He was starting from structural findings
and morphological criteria seemed appropriate for assessing the degree of
homogeneity (or heterogeneity) of the cell fractions. Philip Siekevitz joined their
laboratory in 1955 and together they showed that Claude's microsomes were
fragments of the endoplasmic reticulum (as postulated by Claude in 1948) and that the
ribosomes were ribonucleoprotein particles. To find out more about the function of
the endoplasmic reticulum and of the attached ribosomes, they started an integrated
morphological and biochemical analysis of the secretory process in the guinea pig
pancreas.
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In 1961, Keith Porter who had been the head of our group since 1953 joined the
Biological Laboratories of Harvard University and, with his departure, the history of
the second "Rockefeller group" came to an end. It was during this period that cell
biology became a recognized field of research in biological sciences and that the
Journal of Cell Biology and the American Society for Cell Biology were founded.
Their group participated actively in each of these developments.
In the 1960's, Palade continued the work on the secretory process using in parallel or
in succession two different approaches. The first relied exclusively on cell
fractionation, and was developed in collaboration with Philip Siekevitz, Lewis
Greene, Colvin Redman, David Sabatini and Yutaka Tashiro; it led to the
characterization of the zymogen granules and to the discovery of the segregation of
secretory products in the cisternal space of the endoplasmic reticulum. The second
approach relied primarly on radioautography, and involved experiments on intact
animals or pancreatic slices which were carried out in collaboration with Lucien Caro
and especially James Jamieson. This series of investigations produced a good part of
their current ideas on the synthesis and intracellular processing of proteins for export.
A critical review of this line of research is presented in the Nobel Lecture.
In parallel with the work on the secretory process in the pancreatic exocrine cell,
Palade maintained an interest in the structural aspects of capillary permeability, that
goes back to the early 1950's when he found a large population of plasmalemmal
vesicles in the endothelial cells of blood capillaries. Along this line of research,
Marilyn Farquhar and Palade investigated the capillaries of the renal glomeruli and
recognized that, in their case, the basement membrane is the filtration barrier for
molecules of 100A diameter or larger; a byproduct of this work was the definition of
junctional complexes in a variety of epithelia. Visceral (fenestrated) capillaries were
investigated with Francesco Clementi, and muscular capillaries with Romaine Bruns
and Nicolae and Maia Simionescu.
The capillary work relied primarily on the use of "probe" molecules of known
dimensions detected individually or in mass (after cytochemical reactions) by electron
microscopy. It led to the identification of the passageways followed by large watersoluble molecules in both types of capillaries and by small molecules in visceral
capillaries. The pathway followed by small, water-soluble molecules in muscular
capillaries was still under investigation.
In the middle of the 1960's their laboratory began a series of investigations on
membrane biogenesis in eukaryotic cells using as model objects either the
endoplasmic reticulum of mammalian hepatocytes (with P. Siekevitz, Gustav Dallner
and Andrea Leskes), or the thylakoid membranes of a green alga (Chlamydomonas
reinhardtii) (With P. Siekevitz, Kenneth Hoober and Itzhak Ohad). These studies
showed that "new" membrane is produced by expansion of "old" preexisting
membrane (there is no de novo membrane assembly), and that new molecules are
asynchronously inserted, and randomly distributed throughout the expanding
membrane. Asynchrony also applies to the turnover of membrane proteins in the
endoplasmic reticulum as shown by work done with P. Siekevitz, Tsuneo Omura and
Walter Bock.
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In 1973, Palade left the Rockefeller University to join the Yale University Medical
School. The main reason for the move was his belief that the time had come for
fruitful interactions between the new discipline of Cell Biology and the traditional
fields of interest of medical schools, namely Pathology and Clinical Medicine.
Besides, he thought that his work at the Rockefeller University was done: when he
left there were at least five other laboratories working in different sectors of cell
biology.
He investigated, together with his collaborators, the interactions which occur among
the membranes of the various compartments of the secertory pathway, namely the
endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi complex, the secretion granules, and the
plasmalemma.
Palade was a member of the National Academy of Sciences (U.S.A.) since 1961, and
he has received a number of awards and prizes for his scientific work, among them:
the Lasker Award (1966), the Gairdner Special Award (1967), and the Hurwitz Prize shared with Albert Claude and Keith Porter (1970).
Since his high school years he has been interested in history, especially in Roman
history, a topic on which he has read rather extensively. The Latin that goes with this
kind of interest proved useful when he had to generate a few terms and names for cell
biology.
He has a daughter, Georgia Palade Van Duzen, and a son Philip Palade from a first
marriage with Irina Malaxa, now deceased. In 1970 he married Marilyn Gist Farquhar
who is a cell biologist like himself.
RACOVIŢĂ Emil
Emil Racovita was born in Iasi (Romania) on November 15, 1868. He spent his
childhood at Soranesti, Vaslui County, in the family estate. He was educated in Iasi
under the guidance of professor and writer Ion Creanga and afterwards he continued
high school at "Institutele Unite", where he learned the basics of natural sciences from
Grigore Cobalcescu, who knew how to implant passion for the knowledge of
nature.Following his father's wish he attended Law School in Paris, but following his
own vocation he graduated from the Faculty of Science in Sorbonne where he learned
zoology with an excellent professor, Henri de Lacaze-Duthiers. After his graduation
in 1891, he obtained in 1896 a remarkable doctor degree, which made him wellknown among European scientists.
As a recognition of his scientific merits, he was selected to participate as a biologist in
the Belgium Antarctic Expedition (1897-1899) on board the"Belgica", headed by
Adrien de Gerlache. He accomplished his mission brilliantly, coming back with a
collection of 1,600 botanical and zoological specimens. Soon after he returned he
published a consistent work about Cetacea. He is known to be one of the initiators of
ethological researchers.
On November 1st, 1900, as Henri de Lacaze-Duthiers decided to find someone to
succed him, Emil Racovita was appointed assistant-director of the oceanological
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laboratory "Arago" from Banyuls-sur-Mer, which was founded twenty years earlier
by his professor. In 1901 he became joint menager of the review "Archieves de
Zoologie experimentale et generale" also a creation of that erudite scientist.
Following the discovery of a new species of cave crustaceans in the famous Cueva del
Drach on the island of Majorca, which he had visited in August 1904, Racovita gave
up his oceanological researchers and fully devoted himself to the biological study of
the subterranean realm. In 1907 he published "Essai sur les problemes
biospeologiques" which is considered to be the birth certificate of biospeleology (cave
biology) as an independent science. At the same time he initiated an extensive
international research program called "Biospeologica" (primarily intending to
document and collect cave fauna). This, initially private activity, got an official frame
in 1920 when Racovita, volunteered to get involved himself in the organization of the
Romanian University of Cluj, returned to his native country and founded in the capital
of Transylvania the world's first Speleological Institute.
The results of his biospeleological program are altogether exceptional: 1,200 caves
explored in Europe and Africa, a collection including 50,000 cave animals, 66
published papers on subterranean fauna totaling almost 6,000 pages. Biology has
never known such a remarkable concentration of forces, as that initiated by Racovita
to approach his goal: the understanding of the natural history of the subterranean
domain.
The two decades spent by Racovita in Cluj until the beginning of the war were
characterized by an extraordinary diversification of his offices. He was a senator
(representing the University of Cluj) in 1922-1926, Rector of the University of Cluj
(1929-1930), president of the Romanian Academy of Sciences (1926-1929), Director
of the Speleological Institute (1920-1947), and member of various scientific
associations. His contributions to the study of isopode crustaceans and his advocacy
campaigns for the protection of the environment are remarkable. The climax of his
scientific career was the elaboration of an original theory on evolution.
In August 1940, the Vienna Dictate forced the Faculty of Sciences and, together with
it, the Speleological Institute to take refuge in Timisoara. During four long years, the
scientific activity ceased altogether. Immediately after his return in Cluj, Emil
Racovita strived to reorganize his institute, but it was too late: on November 17th
1947, the great scientist passed away. The man disappeared, but his work lives for
ever, as it is the outcome of a strong spirit, which shall not be forgotten.
SALIGNY Anghel
Born in 19th of April 1854 at Şerbaneşti, today belonging to Lieşti county, Galaţi.He
died in 17th of june 1925 in Bucharest.Scientist and Engineer, brother of the chemist
Alfons S..His father was Alfred S., french at origin. He lived in Moldova around
1845-1848, beeing the leader of a children preparing school. At this mansion Anghel
Saligny has started his studies continuing them at the gimnasyum school in Focşani
and after that in Postdam. Initialy attracted to astronomy he begun studies at Berlin
University where he had the great physician L. Helmholtz as a teacher. Engineering
studies (1870-1874), were performed at the superior technic school in Charlottenburg
which in those days had a lot of great engineering experts like Schwedler or Franzius.
Before his returning into the country he worked under the surveillance of G. Mehrtens
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for the construction of Cottbus-Frankfurt railway. Returned into Romania he works at
the Bridge and Roads Company and under the surveillance of G. Duca he helped at
the Ploieşti-Predeal railway system. In 1891 he is promoted as second executive in the
same company where he receives the job of building the Adjud-Tg. Ocna and BarladVaslui railway system. He designed many bridges and railways to replace the old
ones. At 3 October 1884 he is promoted as chief of the Docks system function that he
preserved until 1 January 1901.In the same period he run The General direction of
railways, solving the problem of substitution of wooden bridges with steel bridges in
Filiaşi-Tg. Jiu line. In the 1884-1889 period he has build the concrete silos at Braila
and Galaţi. At 18 November 1887 he is granted with the permission to lead of the
Feteşti-Cernavoda railway system. He conceives a new method of building bridges
over the Danube and elaborates his projects with Romanians engineers. Being a Chief
Executive of the railway system, beginning from 7th October 1895, he initiates a law
regarding the reorganization of the railway system and has created a direct railway
line between Berlin and Bucharest and Berlin-Constanţa. In 1901-1910 he has run the
General institute of ports and water communication ways. Chairman of the third
International Congress of petroleum in Bucharest in 1909.Minister of Public works in
(1918-1919).Member of the French Legion of Honor, Founding member of the
Politechnic Society. The pedagogic activity of Saligny begins in 1884 when he is
named Chairman of the Bridges cathedrae which he runs it until 1914.Member of the
Romanian Academy in 1892; Chairman of the Romanian Academy (1907-1910).
One of the pioneers of the Romanian engineering science especially with the new
given solutions in building and designing of bridges. In 1881 he designed and
accomplished on Adjud-Tg. Ocna line the first railway-road combined bridges in the
country. In 1886 he designed and runed the first metal bridges with consoles and
without cullees in Filiaşi-Tg. Jiu line. During 1884-1889 period he accomplished the
docks and antreposits from Braila and Galaţi ports, by elaborating original solutions
for the founding of silos and tanks as well as for cereal silos build from prefabricated
armed concrete. The execution of the cell walls was made from prefabricated
elements builded into the ground and mounted into the opera. The arming of the
monoliths and the stiffness corners were glued together into the forge forming in this
way o closed profile, a fact that indicates Salingny as a precursor of usage of melted
cuirasses for stiffness. The assembling plan of prefabricated pieces and the joining of
them contitues in a rational combining system applied for the first time in
constructions by Salingy and reused many years later. The most important accomplish
of Saligny consists in the designing and building the bridge over Danube in
Cernavoda, the greatest in Europe in that time and the third in the world.(the total
length of all bridges over the Danube is 4088 m).The inauguration of the bridge was
made in 14 Sept. 1895 by the passing of a 15 locomotives convoy at almost 80
Km\Hour. This thing has definitely consecrated the superiority of soft steel over the
iron in constructing of metal bridges. Saligny has chosen for the infrastructure the
console system, and the designing of the bridge was made after modern calculation
techincs. Saligny has created with Gh. Duca the Romanian technic body. He has
participated in active way at the organizing of the superior technic studying, being the
chairman of the perfectioning system of the Council and of the comity that has
decided the building of new politechnic schools after the first world war.
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VASILIU Haralambie
Born at 17 Jan. 1880 in Hoisesti, Iasi he has died at 3 Nov. 1953 at Iasi. Scientist,
chemist and agro-chemist. He studied at “Internat” high school in Iasi (1889-1897), at
Science Faculty in Iasi in Chemistry-Fizics section. He has also studied Maths (18981902) at the High agronomic studies academy from Hohenheim (Germany). Doctor
on agricultural chemistry at Breslau University with the degree about “New findings
about the origin substances of Hipuric acids formed in animal body”(1906). Professor
at the Culture university in Iasi (1906-1933), then at the university of Agriculture in
Chisinau (1933-1940) Board leader at the agricultural chemistry from the Agronomic
institute “Ion Ionescu from Brad” in Iasi (1940-1951). Initialiser of the agricultural
sciences of Iasi University (1912). Author of the low project regarding the founding
of the Agricultural sciences Faculty in Iasi. He was the first principal of this faculty.
Since 1911 he has developed chemistry analysis of different types of land, and later
(after 1930) he intensifies his attention on the microorganisms which he has studied
correlated with the vegetal methabolism. He has proven the important role played by
Coper in developing of the plants (1938). Between 1936-1938 his research was based
on ground water and the proportion that different agrotechnical works that make it
dissapeare. He begun studies about azotous fertilizers, o new technique between the
World Wars. His conclusions have determined him to study the relations between
chemical fertilizers and different corn crops(1940-1941).By studying the proteic
content of numerous aliments he draw attention on the selective character, and about
the proteic metabolism in animal body. He emitted the Desagregation Hypothesy, the
predesagregation of the crystalline rafts and eruptive rocks, a process about which he
thinks that is correspondent to the solidification of the ground rock in one step and in
which the crystalline rafts and eruptive rocks would have been suscesible at the
destructive action of water vapors, clorhidric acid, carbonic anhydride, combined with
high pressure and temperature. Actual studies are confirming this theory, making
Vasiliu the precursory of this domain. He is the author of the first agricultural
chemistry treaty and he also is the creator of a valuable agro-chemistry school in Iasi.
VUIA Traian
Traian Vuia was born on August 17, 1872 in a village known as Surducul Mic in the
Timis County of Romania. It was a small village in the western part of Romania, in
the vicinity of the present border between Romania and Hungary. Today this village
bears the inventor's name: Traian Vuia.
Vuia went to primary school in his village, after which he left the village for the town
of Lugoj (also in the Timis County). In 1892 he graduated the high school in this
town, the first among all graduates that year. As a high-school student he was
particularly interested in Mathematics, Physics and Technics. That was why, in the
fall of 1892 he enrolled at the Polytechnic University of Budapest, School of
Mechanics. After one year, because of financial problems, he joined the Faculty of
Law in Budapest. The main reason was the possibility to work and make some money
(as a student at the Polytechnic University of Budapest he could not do that). Despite
this change which came out in his life, he continued to study by himself those
technical problems which he was particularly interested in, the most important one
being the problem of flight.
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In May 1901 the Faculty of Law in Budapest awarded him the Ph.D. degree in Law.
After graduation he returned to Lugoj. Here he accomplished his studies about human
flight and designed his first flying machine, which he called "the airplane-car". He
tried to build this machine in Lugoj, but, because he had no material help, decided to
go to Paris. On the first of July 1902 he arrived in Paris. Vuia was hoping that in Paris
- considered at that time the center of the aeronautical world - he would find
somebody interested in his project. In Paris, Vuia began to look for help among those
interested in aerial navigation using balloons. But these persons did not believe that a
flying machine, which had a density greater than that of the air, could fly, since their
flight principles were based on Archimede's law. In these circumstances Vuia
addressed Prof. Tatin, known as a very good theoretician and experimentator as well.
In 1879 Tatin had succeeded in building an aero-model.
Tatin was interested in Vuia's project, but also tried to persuade him that he would do
nothing, because its flying machine did not have a suitable engine (which was
expected by all constructors of flying machines at that time). Tatin's main argument
against Vuia's engine project, was that it had only one propeller, while all aeromodels which had flown had had two parallel propellers rotating in opposite
directions (from stability considerations). However Vuia continued to sustain his
project and submitted it to the Science Academy of Paris on February 16, 1903. In
this project he demonstrated the possibility of mechanical flight with a machine that
had a density greater than that of the air. He also presented his procedure for taking
off. This project was entitled 'Project of an airplane-car'. The special Commission of
Aeronautics of the Science Academy of Paris considered Vuia's project an utopia.
They rejected it, adding the comments: 'The problem of flight with a machine which
weights more than air can not be solved and it is only a dream.'
Vuia did not give up and applied for a license for his machine from the Office of
Industrial Property in France. On August 17, 1903 he received this license. It was
officially published on October 16, 1903. Decided to give life to his invention, Vuia
had begun to build the flying machine during the winter of 1902-1903. Despite of a
lot of difficulties, the most important being of course the financial ones, he succeeded
in his attempt. During the autumn of 1904, he began to build the appropriate engine,
also an invention of his own. During the same year (1904) Vuia got a license for his
invention from Great Britain.
This flying machine was called by his constructor 'Traian Vuia 1'. It was a singleplane airplane with a high-wing. The second difficult problem solved by Vuia was to
build an engine that could develop a propulsion force to assure the autonomous taking
off. The first airplane engine appeared in 1903, built by Wright brothers. The second
one, built by Charles Manly was used by Prof. Langley for his airplane; he tried to fly
with it two times in 1903 but he failed. (* This engine can be seen in Washington, at
'National Air & Space Museum' *). The third engine was Vuia's. It was the second
engine in the world, which worked on a flying machine. (*Vuia's engine can be seen
in Paris, at 'Air Museum'; a copy of it is in Bucharest, at 'Central Military Museum'*).
The propeller of Vuia's flying machine was built by Tatin, who, seeing that Vuia's
airplane becomes a reality, decided to help him. The propeller was the only part of the
airplane built by Tatin.
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The main characteristics of Vuia's first airplane were: span : 8.70 m; length : 5.65 m;
height : 2.90 m; lifting surface : 20 mxm; engine : 20 horse-power at 450
rotations/minute; lifting surface : 20 mxm; engine : 20 horse-power at 450
rotations/minute; propulsion force at fixed point : 45 kgf; total weight : 195 kg (+
Vuia's 56 kg = 251 kg);
While he was building his airplane Vuia received some visitors like George
Besancon, Santos-Dumont etc., well known as personalities in aviation. Most of them
were shocked by the fact that Vuia adopted a mono-plane solution for his airplane,
because all planors which had flown by then were built after Lilienthal-Chanute
double-plane idea. Vuia's argument was that he was inspired by nature (he used to say
'I have never seen a bird with more than two wings'). They were also worried because
Vuia's machine had only one propeller so airplane 's stability was difficult to
maintain.
'Vuia 1' airplane was completely built in December 1905. Now Vuia had to choose a
suitable place to test his machine; he found a plain called Montesson, near Paris,
where spectators could not disturb him. His first experiences began in December
1905. In this period he used his machine only as a car; the wings were not mounted on
it. After he became a very good pilot for his 'car' Vuia changed it into what he called
'airplane-car' by adding the wings. In this configuration the machine was still used as
a car only, till it could attain safely a speed of 40 km/hour without using the engine at
its maximum capacity.
By now nobody, except one of the men who had helped him building the machine,
attended these experiences. In February, after they heard of Vuia's successes, more
people - including George Besancon and others -joined him to see the attempts.
During February many papers in France began to devote large spaces to Vuia's
machine. Considering the weather warm enough, Vuia decided to make his first flying
attempt on March 18, 1906. He had established to make the attempt in the afternoon,
so at three o'clock p.m. he set out the engine. After five minutes his machine began to
move. After an accelerated motion (about 50 meters long) 'Vuia 1' left the soil and
flew at a height of about 1 m. After about 12 m in flight, some problems occurred at
the engine so the propeller stopped and 'Vuia 1' landed.
Vuia was very happy he could fly with his machine. At that time that flight
constituted a notable performance. It was the first flight with a machine, which
weighted more than the air and was entirely driven only by it’s on board installations
during all its evolution (unlike Wright's brothers machines). Of course such an event
was exploited by the mass media; a lot of papers in France, USA, Great Britain, etc.
noted that at Montesson an autonomous flight had taken place. Six moths later SantosDumont succeeded in a similar attempt; he is sometimes quoted as the first who flew
using only his on board installations, because his flight was officially controlled. But
Vuia had flown many times before: March 18, June 24 at Issy-les-Moulineaux (also in
France), July 1, July 5, July 14, August 12, August 19, etc.
In 1907 Vuia flew many times. A notable event took place on March 27 when Vuia,
Santos-Dumont and Bleriot attended an aviation meeting at Bagatelle. Only Vuia
succeeded in his attempt, while Santos-Dumont and Bleriot could not even take off.
Santos Dumont made only three flights during this period: the first on September 13,
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1906, then October 23, November 12, 1906 when the first flight was officially
controlled. After these Santos-Dumont gave-up his first airplane and built a new one,
completely different. In 1907 the number of autonomous flying machines increased
rapidly; Charles Voisin on March 16 and 30, Louis Bleriot on July 11, 25 etc., Henri
Farman on September 30, Esnault-Pelterie in October etc.
The first aerial trip was made by Henri Farman on October 30, 1908, from Bouy to
Reims. The first aerial raid (Toury-Artenay-Toury) by Bleriot on October 31, 1908.
During 1908 Wilbur Wright, came in France and established a lot of records with his
machine. Notice that all these pioneers flew double-plane airplanes. Only Bleriot,
after some unsuccessful attempts, reached the idea of Vuia (the single-plane) in 1907.
After 'Vuia 1', Traian Vuia built 'Vuia 1 bis' which was equipped with the same
engine but was enhanced by his constructor, and 'Vuia 2' which was equipped with a
new engine built by the French engineer Leon Levavasseur. Vuia also built two
helicopters in 1918 and 1922.
Some historians of aviation pretended that Vuia was inspired by the airplane built by
Clement Ader, which attempted to fly in 1897. But there are big differences between
the two machines. Clement's machine's wings were very different from Vuia's design
and these probably caused his failure. Clement pretended that he flew in 1897, but
historians of aviation demonstrated he could not fly exactly because of these wings.
In 1907 - after so many successful autonomous flights - Vuia considered that the
problem of mechanical flight was completely solved. He later declared: 'the creation
of airplane was completely finished in 1906. After that the constructors industrialized
the aviation, of course a very important mission but it can not be confounded with the
creation of the new machine. On the other hand it is clear that the airplane was created
in France, despite of the fact that it is usually claimed that Wright brothers created the
aviation. Even when they came in France, in 1908, they used the same procedure for
taking off, which implied a non-autonomous flight. Wright brothers adopted the new
style of taking off later. This should be repeated because many forgot it' (T. Vuia's
book 'Memories', 1955)
.
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PART 2
IN-SERVICE TEACHER
TRAINING IN HST
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Unit 4 Ways of teaching HST in your school
This unit is divided into two sections. The first deals with whole school issues and
then section 2 deals with teaching HST in the classroom or laboratory. In part A of
the first section Paul Carlile suggests ways in which long term and medium planning
for HST can be planned for the whole school, and then Sam Ellis presents ideas for
organising a one day school event for HST.
In Section 2 Bert Sorsby follows some of the suggestions in Unit 3 (especially pp 3940) and considers ways of teaching HST in your own classroom. Teachers will study
the whole unit in more detail during the HST Course, but it can of course be used
independently as a basis for developing HST in your own school or college
The purposes of this unit are:
 to provide strategies so that HST can be incorporated into the whole school
curriculum;
 to provide ways of teaching and organising for HST at whole school and at class
level.
Section 1 Whole school issues A. Developing a curriculum plan for HST starting from science and
technology:
Overview
Schools will approach the planning for teaching of History of Science and
Technology from many different starting points, using a variety of curriculum models.
However the common theme transcending the development is that through curriculum
planning teachers will provide opportunities for pupils to acquire knowledge and
understanding of the history of science and technology, and learn to appreciate the
interactions of scientific and technological advancement on the lives of citizens
within their own cultures and within the broader European culture. This model is
shown below.
European Culture
History
Science
Technology
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Task 1
The task for schools, and their teachers, is to develop a curriculum plan which builds
sequentially the knowledge, skills and understanding in a relevant and meaningful
way, whilst enriching the pupils’ learning experiences.





Possible starting points
Developing HST opportunities from within established, separate, curriculum
plans for history, science and technology
Refining current plans for science and technology to include an integrated
historical element
Enriching learning opportunities to include the wider European dimension
Creating opportunities from an emerging plan in response to significant change
Refining plans to ensure continuity in the acquisition of knowledge, understanding
and skills
Planning for the effective use of Information Technology to support learning


Developing a HST Curriculum with a European dimension.
Does the school have an agreed
curriculum plan for teaching
Science or Technology?
Task - To develop a curriculum
plan to provide a framework for
teaching Knowledge,
understanding and skills
NO
NO
NEXT
YES
Does the plan identify links
between Science and
Technology?
Task –To explore the links
between the Science and
Technology and modify the
existing plan
NO
YES
Is the History of Science and
Technology incorporated in to
the curriculum plan?
NEXT
Task – Identify opportunities to
enhance learning using the
Historical impact of scientific
and technological advancement
NO
YES
NEXT
Does the teaching of the History of
Science and Technology extend to
the wider European dimension?
Task – Enrich the learning
experience by incorporating a
European dimension into the HST
curriculum plan
NO
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Starting Point - Developing a school plan for Science and Technology
Most effective learning takes place when schools have in place a curriculum plan
which identifies, in broad terms, knowledge, understanding and skills to be taught as
pupils progress through the school.
Possible starting points to establish such a plan for HST :
 Explore the knowledge and understanding to be taught within Science and
Technology
 Identify the skills to be developed
 Agree the content for each unit of study
 Decide where, within the plan, the study unit should be located
Example : Study Unit Plan
Year
Unit 1
time allocation
Science
Knowledge
Skills
Technology
Knowledge
Skills
Unit 2
Exploring the links between Science and Technology
When the broad plan has been established the next stage in the process is to explore
the links that exist between Science and Technology



Draw together common themes from Science and Technology to make up a study
unit
Decide on an appropriate theme to give the study unit a relevant focus that
explores the common themes already identified
Plan activities to focus on the impact of scientific and technological advancement.
Example
Year
Theme
Science
Knowledge
Skills
Technology
Knowledge
Skills
Developing an Historical Dimension to the learning experience
The school plan identifies the opportunities for the teaching of HST and ensures that
knowledge, skills and understanding are acquired sequentially and are relevant to
pupils’ learning. The integration of historical dimensions to further extend and
develop pupils’ understanding is a vital element of the total learning experience.
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Starting points
 Identify within the curriculum plan study units where learning experiences
would be enhanced by the introduction of relevant historical content.
 Consider the historical skills pupils may need to be taught
 Plan for the use of Information Technology to support historical
investigations
Extending the wider European dimension
This stage extends the schools’ curriculum for HST to provide opportunities for
pupils to explore and understand the impact of Scientific and Technological
developments within the wider European context.
Possible starting points



Start with the individual study units within the curriculum plan and
expand learning opportunities to include a European dimension –
focussing on the impact of the particular scientific and technological
advancement within other European countries
Explore the use of information technology to source additional
information and set up network groups
Outline the IT skills pupils will need to acquire:
a. Using the Internet successfully i.e. web browser, navigating, searching.
b. Saving web pages, extracting information and copying to other
documents where it can be manipulated
c. Using e mail
d. Publishing information on the World Wide Web
Here is a possible matrix to assist in the development of teaching HST within a
wider European dimension
Theme
Science
Technology
History
European
Dimension
Paul Carlile
Hull, UK
June 2000
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B. Organising a whole day school conference for HST - Some ideas
Some primary and secondary schools use whole day events for special activities to
provide extended inputs for particular areas of the curriculum. Examples of this type
of activity include days spent on Drama, a Local Industry Focus, Newspaper
Production and Problem Solving. One useful facet of such days can be the
introduction of external speakers or people from local industry brought in to work
with groups of students. This type of approach can be used to put on a day based
around the History of Science and Technology. The structure of the day will depend
to a large extent on the key purposes. A day with the purpose of supporting the study
of ideas and evidence in science will be quite different to a day with the purpose of
supporting problem solving and construction aspects of the Technology curriculum.
The outline below is intended as a generic set of ideas and suggestions for adaptation
depending upon the purpose of a day based on History of Science and Technology.
A typical day for secondary students might have the following arrangements




The school suspends the timetable for the day for a large group ( 100 or more) of
14 year old students.
Students are arranged into mixed groups of nine and located at tables set out
around the main hall. Each group has a ‘visitor’ attached to it. The ‘visitors’ are
people from local industry, governors, friends of the school, whose time has been
begged from their employers and who are prepared to spend a day working and
learning with a group of students.
The day itself has been planned and organised by three teaching staff but is being
fronted by a visiting ‘facilitator’ who is a charismatic teacher from a nearby
school ‘bought out’ for the day as a 'new face' to lead the event. The ‘facilitator’
has had some involvement in the planning
The day is based around the idea of competition between groups and there are four
basic activities. Each activity has a prize in itself and the points add throughout
the day to give an overall prize at the end. Prizes are also given to other teams
such as the best team workers.
Activity 1 – Icebreaker
The purpose of this activity is to get the groups working as teams and focus their
attention on the history and philosophy of science.
The groups are given a set of cards each of which has a picture or drawing of a key
worker ( Newton, Galileo, Lavoisier etc) They also have a sheet of clues (Newton was
the first person to think of a theory that explained how the solar system worked,
Galileo believed that the earth went round the sun but he couldn’t prove it etc.)
Using the clues provided and their own general knowledge the teams have to produce
a time line of the cards. There is a strict time limit, teams exchange results and score
each other's efforts.
The idea can be extended in many ways, for example by having associated cards
which list key developments that have to be associated with the correct key workers.
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Activity two- The news report.
Teams are given briefing papers on a significant event e.g. Jenner and Vaccination.
They are given some preparation time and then take turns to act out a television news
report presenting the news of this event in the style of a news item on TV. Groups are
encouraged to use interviews with significant characters and to bring in arguments for
and against the development. The presentations are acted out in front of everyone.
Part of the brief is to make the presentation last exactly two minutes. Part of the
scoring of the presentation involves penalty points for being seconds away from the
target time.
Activity three The quiz
This is run on the lines of a ‘pub’ quiz with a series of ten question rounds based on
famous events and people in the History of Science and Technology. Students could
be given background reading papers in the weeks leading up to the day that they can
read to allow them to prepare for the quiz.
Activity four Construction problem
The groups are set a construction task such as building a bridge using spaghetti and
cotton to span a particular gap and hold a particular weight. Pictures of historically
important bridges are given out and may be used to inspire the students'designs.
There is a time limit and groups have to ‘purchase’ raw materials from an initial
points total. Points are awarded for completing the task, quality of the final result and
team work.
The actual task would be dictated by the themes of the day and materials available. A
few weeks spent collecting yoghourt pots, string, cardboard, plastic bottles egg boxes,
cardpoard tubes and other packaging will provide a wealth of free construction
material. In a day based on communication for example groups could be expected to
construct a model lightouse. In a day based on energy a windmill could be attempted.
The bridge problem fits well in a day which brings in forces and engineering.
At the close of the day there are cumulative prizes for a variety of teams based on
their performances through the day. Prizes could be awarded for overall winners,
runners up, team work, most improved team, the team who always came last but kept
going etc.
The ideas outlined above are intended as suggestions and prompts. There are many
variations of activities that can be used depending upon the numbers of students
involved, their ages, abilities and the level of prior knowledge that they have. The
resources and space available to the school are also critical General suggestions
include
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The HST Project
Crosswords
Poster construction
Debates ( e.g. pros and cons of a particular discovery)
Drama (Mock trial of Galileo)
Mime games
A visiting ‘expert ‘ to give an illustrated talk.
Treasure hunts based on following a series of clues
If the day is set up using say a total of about thirty stuents then the possibility of
introducing an ICT based activity such as a treasure hunt based on web sites and
information from the internet may well be possible. Similarly more ‘scientific’
activities may be possible for example work based around the experiments of Galileo.
Some themes such as transport or bridges lend themselves to this type of day.
G.Ellis
Howden
UK
June 2000
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Section 2 Classroom and Laboratory Based Teaching of HST.
Classroom Teaching Strategies for HST
There are two main pedagogical approaches to teaching the history of science and
technology, and both are closely linked. One approach involves developing students'
language skills by developing their speaking and listening skills as well as writing and
reading. This generally is taught in classrooms. The other approach is through
practical science and technology activities, where children work in laboratories,
workshops on practical projects which replicate, sometimes exactly, the work which
earlier scientists and engineers have carried out. Both approaches can be found in the
examples below and we shall study these in more detail during the HST Course.
It can be argued that all practical work carried out in school science can be shown to
have a historical context. For example when children are investigating pendula, or
rolling balls down a slope, they are following in the footsteps of Galileo. When they
group plants together according to their features or use keys for identification, then to
some extent they are following Linneaus. When they explore how different things
burn in candle flames, they are following the work of many eighteenth century
scientists such as Priestly and Lavoisier. The historical connections of their studies
may not always made clear to the pupils however. Almost all practical science in
school re-visits and illustrates historical scientific discoveries and technological
inventions.
Task 1
Historical Contexts for Current Teaching of Science and
Technology
Consider the following list of practical science activities which children carry out in
school. Which scientists were closely involved in pioneering the practical approaches
which the children are using?
PRACTICAL ACTIVITY
WHICH NATURAL
PHILOSOPHER(S) or
SCIENTIST(S)?
Children look through straight tubes at a
lighted candle. They then bend the tubes
and look again.
Children use thermometers to measure the
temperature of a cup of tea as it cools.
Pupils carry out an investigation to find
whether snails prefer to live in dry or
damp places.
Pupils put different metals on their tongue
to see if they can feel a tingle
Pupils watch a demonstration of what
happens to when a model steam engine is
connected to a model electrical generator.
Pupils make a pinhole camera
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Task 2.
Look through any teaching manual of practical science ideas for pupils and students.
For each activity, identify a historical scientist or technologist, who carried out the
same (or similar) investigation.
As I mentioned above, there are pedagogical techniques which do not involve
practical investigations or demonstrations, and these too can provide a range of
opportunities for HST. All of these involve pupils and students in using language,
especially in speaking and listening, and this is a powerful way of encouraging
learning to take place. The main approaches are set out below, and although they are
presented separately in this unit, they can obviously be used together in a combined
way within a teaching programme
Telling a story.
The power of stories from the history of science and technology in arousing and
maintaining the interest of pupils cannot be underestimated. They can give insights
into the private lives of famous scientists.
Task 3
Collecting stories for use in teaching HST
Use the resources from the World Wide Web, links from the Merlin Resource Centre,
or from books etc. to find ONE story relating to HST. Prepare a short presentation to
relate the story to the rest of the group, showing how you would use it to teach a
group of pupils or students.
Drama and Role Play
This can be a particularly challenging approach, especially for teachers of secondary
science, and also possibly for teachers of history. Primary school teachers, who are
used to teaching in all curriculum areas, will be much more familiar with these
approaches, and are likely to be more at ease with drama and role play in their
lessons.
Task 4
What are the opportunities for drama and role-play
Chose one of the stories in presented in Task 3 and consider its potential for acting
out with children or students.
What are the challenges of this particular drama/role play (a) for the children (b) the
teacher?
Discussion and Argumentation
The role of discussion and argumentation in science itself can be easily seen from
historical contexts. It is in this way that an individual's scientific ideas develop, from
practical observations and experiences towards more widely held scientific concepts,
hypotheses and theories. These theories are within the public domain and their claims
for being valid are the result a consensus among scientists, which is reached after a
great deal of discussion and argumentation.
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In his chapter 'Science as Conversation. Come and see my air pump!' Sutton2 gives a
series of examples of how historical approaches using case studies, can give children
greater insights into the way scientists work as well as developing their own
involvement in the important ideas of science.
There are challenges of working in this way, and during the taught part of the HST
Training Course we shall explore some of the issues. The activity is outlined below in
a very brief form in Task 4.
Task 5
The Burning Question
This taught session involves discussion, and argumentation around data, information
and evidence which relate to theories of burning. Historically these debates took place
in the eighteenth century and led to the currently held theory of burning, put forward
in an early form by the great French chemist Antoine Lavoisier. Briefly the main
ideas here are that:
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Burning is the release of light and heat energy, as well as combustion products
when oxygen (usually in the form of gaseous oxygen from the air) reacts
chemically with a fuel.
A small amount of energy is generally needed to start the reaction.
A flame is the region where this reaction takes place.
During the taught session we shall explore the practical evidence and the theoretical
insights which led eventually to the establishment of this consensus view of modern
scientists, and also consider some of the rival theories which were rejected.
Working with historical texts
This is an excellent approach for older pupils and students. It gives them a chance to
develop their powers of analysis and synthesis. A case study is given below for you to
consider in Task 5.
Task 6
Properties of Nitrous Oxide
Here is an account by Sir Humphry Davy3 where he describes his experiences and
researches into the properties of nitrous oxide. These studies took place during the last
years of the eighteenth century. Nitrous oxide is a gas which, from the later part of the
nineteenth century, has been widely used as an anaesthetic for dental surgery.
Read through the account below and then devise a series of questions which you
would ask a group of children aged 11 to 12 years based on the writing.
2
Sutton, C. (1998) 'Science as Conversation. Come and see my air pump! In Practical Work in School
Science. Which way now? Wellington, J. (ed.), London: Routledge.
3
Humphry Davy (1800) 'Researches on Nitrous Oxide' in Collected Works, London 1839, Volume iii
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In the beginning of March, I prepared a large quantity of impure nitrous oxide from the nitrous
solution of zinc. Of this I often breathed the quantities of a quart and two quarts generally
mingled with more than equal parts of oxygen or common air. In the most decisive of those
trials, its effects appeared to be depressing, and I imagined that it produced a tendency to
fainting: the pulse was certainly rendered slower under its operation.
At this time, Mr Southey respired it in an highly diluted state; it occasioned a slight degree of
giddiness, and considerably diminished the quickness of his pulse.
Mr C. Coates likewise respired it highly diluted, with similar effects.
In April, I obtained nitrous oxide in a state of purity, and ascertained many of its chemical
properties. Reflection upon these properties and upon the former trials, made me resolve to
endeavour to inspire it in its pure form, for I saw no other way in which its respirability or
powers could be determined.*
I was aware of the danger of this experiment. It certainly would never have been made if the
hypothesis of Dr Mitchill had in the least influenced my mind. I thought that the effects might
be possibly depressing and painful, but there were many reasons which induced me to
believe that a single inspiration of a gas apparently possessing no immediate action on the
irritable fibre, could neither destroy nor immediately injure the powers of life.
On April 11th, I made the first inspiration of pure nitrous oxide; it passed into the bronchia
without stimulating the glottis, and produced no uneasy feeling in the lungs.
The result of this experiment proved that the gas was respirable, and induced me to believe
that a farther trial of its effects might be made without danger.
On April 16th, Dr Kinglake being accidentally present, I breathed three quarts of nitrous oxide
from and into a silk bag for more than half a minute, without previously closing my nose or
exhausting my lungs.
The first inspirations occasioned a slight degree of giddiness. This was succeeded by and
uncommon sense of fullness of the head, accompanied with loss of distinct sensation and
voluntary power, a feeling analogous to that produced in the first stage of intoxication: but
unattended by pleasurable sensation. Dr Kinglake, who felt my pulse, informed me that it was
rendered quicker and fuller.
This trial did not satisfy me with regard to its powers; comparing it with the former ones I was
unable to determine whether the operation was stimulant or depressing.
I communicated the result to Dr Beddoes; and on April the 17th, he was present, when the
following experiment was made.
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I did not attempt to experiment upon animals, because they die nearly in equal times in nonrespirable gases, and gases incapable of supporting life and possessed of no action on the
venous blood.
Having previously closed my nostrils and exhausted my lungs, I breathed four quarts of
nitrous oxide from and into a silk bag. The first feelings were similar to those produced in the
last experiment; but in less than half a minute, the respiration being continued, they
diminished gradually, and were succeeded by a sensation analogous to gentle pressure on all
the muscles, attended by a highly pleasurable thrilling, particularly in the chest and the
extremities. The objects around me became dazzling and my hearing more acute. Towards
the last inspirations, the thrilling increased, the sense of muscular power became greater, and
at last an irresistible propensity to action was indulged in; I recollect but indistinctly what
followed; I know that my motions were various and violent.

Dr Beddoes has given some account of this experiment, in his "Notice of some Observations made at
the Medical Pneumatic Institution." It was noticed in Mr Nicholson's Phil. Journal for May 1799.
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These effects very soon ceased after respiration. In ten minutes, I had recovered my natural
state of mind. The thrilling in the extremities, continued longer than the other sensations.*
This experiment was made in the morning; no languor or exhaustion was consequent, my
feelings throughout the day were as usual, and I passed the night in undisturbed repose.
The next morning the recollections of the effects of the gas were very indistinct, and had not
remarks written immediately after the experiment recalled them to my mind, I should have
even doubted of their reality. I was willing indeed to attribute some of the strong emotion to
the enthusiasm, which I supposed must have been necessarily connected with the perception
of agreeable feelings, when I was prepared to experience painful sensations. Two
experiments, however, made in the course of this day, with scepticism, convinced me that the
effects were solely owing to the specific operation of the gas.
In each of them I breathed five quarts of nitrous oxide for rather a longer time than before.
The sensations produced were similar, perhaps not quite so pleasurable; the muscular
motions were much less violent.
Having thus ascertained the powers of the gas, I made many experiments to ascertain the
length of time for which it might be breathed with safety, its effects on the pulse, and its
general effects on the health when often respired.
I found that I could breathe nine quarts of nitrous oxide for three minutes, and twelve quarts
for rather more than four. I could never breathe it in any quantity, so long as five minutes.
Whenever its operation was carried to the highest extent, the pleasurable thrilling at its height
about the middle of the experiment, gradually diminished; the sense of pressure on the
muscles was lost; impressions ceased to be perceived; vivid ideas passed rapidly through the
mind, and voluntary power was altogether destroyed, so that the mouth-piece generally
dropped from my unclosed lips.
Whenever the gas was in a high state of purity, it tasted distinctly sweet to the tongue and
palate, and had an agreeable odour. I often thought that it produced a feeling somewhat
analogous to taste, in its application to my lungs. In one or two experiments, I perceived a
distinct sense of warmth in my chest.
I never felt from it any thing like oppressive respiration: My inspirations became deep in
proportion as I breathed it longer; but this phenomenon arose from increased energy of the
muscles of respiration, and from a desire of increasing the pleasurable feelings.
Generally when I breathed from six to seven quarts, muscular motion were produced to a
certain extent; sometimes I manifested my pleasure by stamping or laughing only; at other
times, by dancing round the room and vociferating.
At the end of July, I left off my habitual course of respiration; but I continued occasionally to
breathe the gas, either for the sake of enjoyment, or with a view of ascertaining its operation
under particular circumstances.
In one instance, when I had headache from indigestion, it was immediately removed by the
effects of a large dose of gas; though it afterwards returned, but with much less violence. In a
second instance, a slighter degree of headache was wholly removed by two doses of gas.
The power of the immediate operation of the gas in removing intense physical pain, I had a
very good opportunity of ascertaining.
In cutting one of the unlucky teeth called dentes sapientiae, I experienced an extensive
inflammation of the gum, accompanied with great pain, which equally destroyed the power of
repose, and of consistent action.
On the day when the inflammation was most troublesome, I breathed three large doses of
nitrous oxide. The pain always diminished after the first four or five inspirations; the thrilling
came on as usual, and uneasiness was for a few minutes swallowed up in pleasure. As the
former state of mind however returned, the state of organ returned with it; and I once
imagined that the pain was more severe after the experiment than before.'
Bert Sorsby
Hull
July 2002
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Unit 5 Teaching and Learning on-line
In the HST Project, we use two regions of the world-wide web, but please note that
these two sites are continually being changed and updated, so they may not appear
exactly as described below.
First there are resources and activities at our public website4, which everyone can
access, and you can find this by clicking on http://www.hib.no/shof/hst-int/ These activities
and information details all relate to teaching history of science and technology and
also to the HST Project.
The second part of the world wide web we use is called Merlin, and you will need a
password to enter this site. You can find more details of Merlin at
http://www.hull.ac.uk/merlin/ as well as in section 2 .below.
The purposes of this unit are:
 to develop your ability to use the internet to help your own teaching and learning
of HST
 to develop your familiarity with the HST online learning environment in Merlin.
Section 1. The HST public website
You can use the Internet in mainly two ways 1) to get information, 2) to present
information.
Getting information
To get information from the net you must be connected through your computer to the
net and you must have a net browser, which enables you to read the information on
the net. Netscape and Microsoft Internet Explorer are the browsers most people use
and you can get them for free.
Once you have a browser you can search the net by using a search engine or you can
go to addresses you know and which you have collected as bookmarks (Netscape) or
favourites (Explorer). Since it takes some time so search the net and the search often
can be disappointing it is important that you collect the good addresses as
bookmarks/favourites, and that you organise these sensibly. That means you organise
them in folders if you have many addresses. In Netscape and Explorer it is explained
how you can do so. One good address by the way is hopefully the address for the HST
website where we have collected links, which might be useful if you are working on a
HST project. The address is: http://www.hib.no/shof/hst-int/
When it comes to searching the net there are many different search engines most of
them are free. Most search engines find only about a third of the relevant information
on the net, but often that’s enough. If you will find more you have to try the different
engines and see which gives the best result. That of course takes time. One favourite
of mine is Alta Vista, which gives reasonable results. The address for this service:
http://www.altavista.com/. A recent winner in a test of search engines is Google and
you can find this at http://www.google.com/intl/en/
4
The HST public website has been set up, and is maintained by, Svein Hoff
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Another way to get information is use news groups. News groups are places where on
can get information abut different themes and participate in discussions about the
theme. To minimise traffic on the net the information is mirrored around the world.
That means that you connect to the news groups through your local news server if you
got one. Three are also free news servers but they are few and tend to get closed after
a while. A good browser for the groups is Hotbot at: http://hotbot.lycos.com/usenet/
Presenting information on the net
To present information on the net you must have access to a web server. If you have
file-sharing access to that server you can save a document directly to it and you are
one the net. You can save a file in any format to the net server and anyone on the net
can open it they got the address and have the appropriate software to open it. For
example if you save a document as a Microsoft Word Document, a person who wish
to open it must have Microsoft Word on his/hers machine or a Microsoft Word
Reader.
The most common file format on the net however is the html format. This format can
be read by the web browsers like Netscape and Explorer and makes it possible to set
up links to other documents. To get a file in this format you often have the
opportunity in most programs to save a file in html format. To edit html files you can
use an html editor. Examples are Microsoft Word, Netscape Composer and Microsoft
FrontPage reduced version. If don’t have file sharing access but are allowed access to
a web sever trough the net you must use the publish function of these web editors to
get your files on the net.
Once you get through the starting stage you will find that it is very easy to present
information on the net. It might be useful though to have a more advanced editor than
those already mentioned. I myself find the full version of Microsoft FrontPage quite
easy to use and adequate for most net publishing, but of course there are other good
editors. Publishing pupils work to the net will be motivating factor in their work. If
you publish work done in a HST theme I hope you can give the link to the HST
website so that we can present your work through this site
Svein Hoff
Bergen
Norway
June 2000
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Section 2. The Merlin On-line Learning Environment
Merlin is a web-based learning environment that is used in two ways on the HST
Project. First it supports the development of the in-service teacher courses in history
of science and technology, and documentation, including reports of meetings, can be
found on the site. Secondly it is used as part of the actual course delivery and as a
means of making sure that all teachers on the course have contact with the tutors as
well as with each other. It provides a flexible and friendly interface and has been
designed to encourage both written and oral communication between all members of
the HST Group.
To use Merlin you will need:
 A Windows PC (95 or later), or a PowerPC-based Macintosh.
 An Internet connection
 Microsoft Internet Explorer 5 or later, or Netscape Navigator 6.
It is also useful to have:
 RealPlayer and RealProducer so that you can listen to and record audio
messages.
(This is a free download and you can find out more about this from the Merlin home
page when you register- see below)
 A microphone and speakers so that you can record and listen to messages.
When you have this set up you can access Merlin from anywhere in the world at any
time of day.
Registering and Logging On
Load your web browser (Netscape or Internet Explorer)
Type in the Merlin URL http://merlin.ifl.hull.ac.uk/logon/
Type in your Merlin username in the first box Username
Click on the text box below
Type in your Merlin password in the second text box Password
Click on Log on.
The Noticeboard
The screen you now see should look like this:-
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There are buttons to the left of the screen and also towards the top of the central panel.
Options allows you to change your password and alter your email address.
Who's Who? gives a list of all the people who are part of the HST group. Your name
should appear on the list. You can generally find out more about each member of the
group by clicking on a name. Here is my entry.
Who's online? shows you who has their computer switched on to Merlin. You can
find who is working in other groups as well as HST. It is sometimes a comfort to find
you are not working alone and you might want to send an email to the other person
for an online ‘chat’.
For Information or Help you need to click on FAQ/HELP at the top right of the
screen. As you wander around in Merlin this help button is always available so you
can get particular help when you want it.
NOW click on the dark blue type Introductory Tasks in the top left hand side of the
centre box. In here I have put a number of things for you to do to help you to explore
the various parts of the Merlin environment.
You can always see the buttons to the left of the Merlin screen and because you are
using a web browser you can always see the usual browser buttons at the top of the
screen. You will find the navigation buttons Back and Forward very useful to steer
between screens you have previously visited.
The buttons on the Merlin toolbar and what they do are described below.
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Notice Board
This is where you will find the latest details about the HST Project and the in-service
courses.
Mailbox
You will find your incoming messages in here and you can use this section to send
messages also to people in the HST community. A little red flag appears when you
have messages not yet read. You can write to someone in the group - or to lots of
people simultaneously - if you click on New Message. You can also attach Word
documents or a sound file to your messages.
BUT please remember to save your writing regularly and it is a good idea to put your
message into the Drafts folder, or click Preview before you try to send it.
A picture of my own Merlin Mailbox is printed below.
Exchange
This is really only version of mailbox, but in here you can post a question, a response
or a message which will be read by everyone in the HST group. This is where open
discussions can take place, and you can see some of the current issues if you click on
the button General Discussions. You can also send details of websites which you
have found interesting, as well as receive copies of the training and resource manuals
and the in-service course programme.
The other areas are for closed discussions and at the moment they contain some of the
details of the various meetings which the tutors have had as well as information about
the funding bids which have been made for the HST Project.
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Pathway
This region contains materials which are provided to complement the face to face inservice course. It will look something like this but the site will continue to be
developed and there may be some changes when you actually look at it.
Pathway also contains some tasks which you will look at when you are working on
lessons and projects in history of science and technology in your own school. Some of
them are reflective tasks which will require a response. Some of them relate to the
action research which you will carry out to inform your own teaching and to help you
gain accreditation for your work as part of the HST Project.
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Resource Centre
In here you will find two different sorts of resources to help you teach history of
science and technology. The section above will link you straight into websites which
you can access directly.
In the File Bank particularly useful for materials which have been generated by the
HST Project, including worksheets for pupils to use as well as teaching ideas. Some
of these ideas are in Appendix 2 of this HST Training Manual.
. In the Image Library we are building up a collection of images of pupils working on
HST Project. We shall also include other images too for example pictures of famous
scientists, diagrams of apparatus etc. which can be a good resource for downloading
for teaching sessions in history of science and technology.
In Lecture Presentations we are building up a record of some of the lectures and
workshop sessions which will take place during the face-to-face in-service course and
to which you might like to refer from time to time. There will be other support for
HST teaching in here too as we build up the collection of PowerPoint lecture material.
Finally
If you click on Exit at the top left, then you will need to re-enter both your username
and password to get back into Merlin. At the moment, HST in Merlin is only being
developed for use with teachers who are involved in the European Comenius funded
courses in history of science and technology. If future funding is forthcoming then we
shall develop online learning facilities for pupils and students to use too.
I hope that you enjoy exploring this online learning environment and that you find it a
useful way of extending your own teaching of history of science and technology.
Bert Sorsby b.d.sorsby@educ.hull.ac.uk
Hull UK
May 2002
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Unit 6 Action Research in the Classroom. How effective was the
teaching and learning?
In this study unit we shall consider ways of evaluating the teaching and learning in
classrooms and laboratories when history of science and technology is being taught. It
will form the basis of the assignment for those teachers who want to receive
accreditation in HST at higher degree level as a result of attending a HST course.
The purposes of this unit are:
 to discuss why we need to carry out classroom-based research into teaching, and
learning;
 to consider ways of evaluating teaching and learning in the classroom;
 to present some of the advantages and disadvantages of action research.
What is action research and why do we need action research in the classroom?
The short answer is that action research is the study of what is going on in a
classroom with the intention of improving it. Working from this definition, the reason
for carrying out action research becomes very clear. It is to make sure that both
teaching and learning of history of science and technology is enhanced.
The first purpose of action research often involves finding out more about the
teaching which goes on and then using what we have discovered in order to help the
teacher teach better lessons. But this is only part of what teachers involved in action
research are trying to do, because the real purpose of teaching is so that pupils will
learn more effectively and will achieve more.
Who carries out action research?
Very occasionally an external researcher may be in the classroom but basically action
research is carried out by teachers working with their own pupils, in their own
classrooms, during their ordinary lessons. These are 'normal' teachers who reflect
upon their own practice and upon their pupils' learning, and who then take steps to
make sure that what they have discovered about effective - and ineffective - learning
strategies, are incorporated into their future plans for teaching.
What are the pleasures and pitfalls of action research in HST?
Some of the benefits are:
1. 1 It gives greater autonomy and power to the teachers. . Because teachers take
responsibility for the action research it is they who are in the driving seat, and it is
they who can begin to initiate the change towards better quality learning for their
pupils.
2. It addresses relevant issues in HST teaching and learning, because the questions
and issues which are studied are the ones identified by the teachers themselves as
being important.
3. It raises the status and profile of teachers because it makes them more research
orientated and reflective. In a word, teachers become more professional.
There are however a number of constraints.
1. The work must be carried out within the limitations of the curriculum and ethos of
the school. For example it is no good trying to carry out studies into how child
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centred discussions affect learning in HST if the pupils have never before
experienced the chance to discuss during their immediate school experience..
Similarly, if there are no resources for practical science work, then it is pointless
trying to carry out a teaching scheme involving re-creation of classic experiments
in the history of science.
2. It is very likely that at a later stage, other people will become involved from
outside the classroom so that the research findings may be fully exploited and put
into action more fully. Extra resources may be needed to implement the change
and so this will include informing other teachers, parents school governors and
inspectors.
3. It involves careful planning so that the research itself does not interfere with the
learning of the children.
What techniques can be used in action research?
Action research does not have any particular set of research techniques, but borrows
its methodologies for all aspects of educational research.
Techniques which you may consider using in your classroom include:
1. Observing the pupils. For example, one group of pupils have not done well during
a particular piece of practical work, and next tie they work in this way you decide
that you will watch them especially closely.
2. Giving out questionnaires for the pupils to complete. For example, can the
children suggest why they enjoy using computers when they study HST? You can
use all sorts of questionnaires from open ended questions which require writing a
few sentences to complete them, to attitude scales where the pupils are asked to
respond on a scale of 1 to 7 ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree.
3. Interviews with the pupils. These are particularly useful because with a careful
and empathetic approach you can probe more deeply than with questionnaire
responses. You can also gain extra insights - but it is very important remain
neutral and not lead the pupils to agree with your own views. You need to have
the insights to see when the pupils are saying something just to please you. They
may not necessarily believe what they have just said to you and are only saying it
so that you will not question them any more!
4. Keeping a reflective diary of what has happened in the classroom. This too can be
a powerful way of carrying out action research. But you do need to analyse very
carefully though what went well and try to say also WHY it went well. The
amount of information collected in this way can be enormous so you need to have
a framework which restricts your data collection.
5. Tests and assessments. Analysing where children were successful and were not
successful is very important, and you need to try to find out why they did not do
well on that particular test item.
How is it done? What are the stages in carrying out an action research project?
I am tempted to give the response of Feyerabend. When he wrote about how science
proceeds, he basically said, 'Anything goes!' Each individual research project will
indeed have its own set of characteristics, but it is possible to identify a very general
framework as follows:
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1. Finding a starting point. This is a general idea which might interest you and which
has arisen out of your work with children as you have been teaching history of
science and technology.
2. Identifying a research question. You need to think very carefully about this, and to
make sure especially that it is not too large a question. It is much better to refine
the question right down to something that can be tackled within the time and
resource constraints, and these are imposed by your working environment. It is a
good idea to do some extra reading here to see what other people have published
on your own area of interest because this will help you to tighten the focus on a
particular question.
3. Developing strategies for action research and then trying them out in your own
situation. You will probably find that you will need to run a pilot study to check
whether your methodology and protocol will work when you try it out on a larger
scale.
4. Reflecting of what you have done and what you have discovered. You will need to
consider the work of others during this stage too in order to see if your findings
agree or disagree with what others have done.
5. Using what you have discovered in order to inform your planning of learning
experiences for the pupils. This is vital - and it will ensure that the work which
you have done is really worthwhile in helping the learning process. It will also
mean that you will need to re-visit some of your earlier ideas which you
considered what you set the work up originally.
6. Making the knowledge public. This phase is not strictly necessary, but it is an
opportunity missed if you do not share your experiences and findings more widely
with your fellow professionals.
Some case studies for action research on HST in the classroom
1 How effective is a visit to a museum to study HST
Following a visit to Buffon's ironworks with her class of 11 year old pupils, Mme
Debru was concerned that all the children seemed to remember about the visit were
the things they bought in the museum shop, and the beef-burgers they had for lunch.
She began to wonder about the following questions as the beginning of a piece of
action research on the effectiveness of museum visits.
Why has their learning about HST been so limited?
What do children learn about HST from a visit to a museum?
What do they now know about HST which they did not know before?
What skills have they developed?
What attitudes have they developed?
2. Pupils' misunderstandings and misconceptions
As a result of marking a science test, Mr Smith discovered that many of his 14 year
old pupils still believed that objects only move when they are pushed. He wondered
about the sorts of alternative teaching strategies which he could use to challenge the
pupils ideas and he began to plan how he could assess which was the best way to
ensure that the pupils had made progress.
With the same class, Mr Jones found that some of the pupils had difficulty in history
lessons when he asked them to distinguish historical facts from opinions. He
mentioned this to Mr Smith during a coffee break and the two of them decided to
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carry out a small scale study to see if they could help their pupils to come to terms
with these misconceptions in both history and science.
A checklist for Classroom-based Action Research in History of Science and
Technology.
A. Identify an area for study
B. Identify a precise problem or question. Is it capable of being
investigated?
C. Consider other (published ) work in the area.
D. Analyse and refine the problem further as a result of your
reading.
E. Suggest actions that are likely to lead to change (with
reasons for these).
F. Plan to carry out the actions, considering carefully how you
will monitor the effects of these.
G. Collect data to monitor the effects of these actions (What
will you do to collect data? How will you ensure that it is
(a) valid and (b) reliable?)
H. Analyse which actions are effective and which are not.
I. Re-formulate ideas concerning further actions.
J. Report and disseminate your findings more widely.
Bert Sorsby
Hull UK
May 2002
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Qu’entend-on par recherche pédagogique active (RPA) ?
Un professeur élabore toujours un protocole du déroulement de l’activité5 qu’il
compte développer en classe. Il prévoit, selon le type d’élève et selon le caractère de
chacun, telle ou telle réaction ou intervention orale. Il doit donc anticiper les réponses
et se préparer à faire face à toutes les situations.
Juste après cette activité, dans la journée tout au plus, l’enseignant note ses
observations ou ses remarques dans son cahier personnel, propose quelques
modifications à l’activité menée ou élabore un autre protocole sur le même sujet qu’il
utilisera l’année suivante ou avec une autre classe.
Cette attitude de recherche avant, d’observation pendant, et d’analyse après la séance
d’enseignement, permet de progresser dans sa propre façon d’enseigner comme de
mieux répondre aux besoins des élèves, et cela à quelque niveau que ce soit. C’est ce
travail de l’enseignant que nous nommons RPA au cours de ce chapitre.
Réfléchir sur sa pratique ou sur ce que les élèves retiennent ou apprennent réellement
fait partie actuellement de la formation initiale des enseignants. Il apparaît donc plus
que nécessaire d’appliquer ces règles déontologiques à l’enseignement de l’HST
lorsque l’on est un professeur de sciences ou de technologie sans formation initiale la
plupart du temps en HST. On pourra rapidement alors savoir où sont les avantages et
les plaisirs, les difficultés et les pièges de ce type d’activité.
Avantages et difficultés d’une RPA utilisant l’HST
Parmi les avantages, citons :
1° Utiliser l’HST donne une grande autonomie aux enseignants. Chacun est
responsable du choix du thème abordé et choisit librement la façon de l’aborder en
classe. Il peut donc s’exprimer plus spontanément, plus naturellement.
2° Utiliser l’HST permet aussi dans certains cas une plus facile compréhension
d’un sujet par l’élève car l’HST permet une approche graduelle d’un thème. Le
professeur aura mieux cerné les difficultés par l’approche historique et saura mieux
expliquer le thème choisi.
3° Utiliser l’HST, c’est aussi conduire une véritable recherche intellectuelle
pour soi comme pour les élèves. C’est donc une activité valorisante qui rend
5
On entend par activité, une leçon, une séance de travaux pratiques ou dirigés, une séance d’exercices
dirigés, etc.
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professionnellement plus assuré. En effet, découvrir et réfléchir sur la façon dont telle
ou telle découverte ou innovation a été faite permet en retour de définir, d’éclairer
puis de surmonter les obstacles épistémologiques rencontrés par les enseignants au
cours de leur formation initiale comme ceux rencontrés par les élèves au cours de leur
scolarité.
Il y a cependant un certain nombre de contraintes.
1° Le travail doit être mené à l’intérieur des limites du programme officiel et
du caractère propre de l’établissement scolaire. Par exemple, il n’est pas bon
d’innover en introduisant au niveau des élèves lors de l’introduction de l’HST - notion
déjà nouvelle - la discussion en classe si les élèves n’ont, préalablement, jamais appris
à débattre entre eux en présence du professeur dans des disciplines plus classiques. De
même, si l’établissement ne permet pas en cours de sciences de procéder à des
expériences, il serait délicat d’introduire un thème portant exlusivement sur la
comparaison d’expériences historiques. Dans cette éventualité, l’introduction du texte
historique n’a de sens que si la ou les expériences peuvent être faites devant les
élèves. Par exemple, le texte relatant la combustion du fer par Lavoisier n’est
intéressant que si l’expérience de combustion est faite devant les élèves. De même
l’expérience de dispersion des couleurs par le prisme doit accompagner le texte de
Newton.
2° Il est souhaitable qu’à un stade ultérieur, une personne extérieure à la classe
puisse intervenir et apporter un regard neuf sur les recherches entreprises (RPA) afin
de pouvoir les exploiter plus pleinement. Des ressources extérieures peuvent aussi être
nécessaires pour réaliser cet échange et ceci inclut d’informer les autres enseignants,
les parents, et les personnes responsables de l’établissement ainsi que les inspecteurs.
3° Si la RPA est une attitude habituelle, ‘normale’ en quelque sorte du
professeur, elle devient une expérimentation lorsqu’elle est appliquée à une discipline
nouvelle, ici l’HST. Il est donc nécessaire d’organiser soigneusement le planning de
travail et d’intervention afin que la recherche elle-même n’interfère pas par ailleurs
avec l’apprentissage ordinaire des élèves.
Protocole d’application d’une RPA en HST
En fait, il n’y a rien de nouveau dans la démarche qui soit spécifique à l’HST.
Rappelons quelques règles essentielles à suivre :
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1° Observer les élèves au cours de la séance. Si par exemple, un groupe
d’élèves ne travaille pas bien sur une série de questions, il faudra s’en occuper
davantage lors de la série suivante.
2° Une petite enquête peut être faite auprès des élèves sur l’activité en HST
que l’on vient de mener. Par exemple, à l’occasion de cette discipline, ont-ils aimé
utiliser l’ordinateur ? Ou bien, on peut leur demander d’apprécier la démarche et les
questions touchant l’HST que l’on vient de traiter avec une échelle de 1 à 7.
3° On peut aussi poser ce même genre de questions oralement, la réponse sera
plus spontanée, moins académique. La discussion permet de mieux préciser sa pensée.
Il peut y avoir des opinions divergentes et il est bon de pouvoir en débattre. C’est
aussi l’occasion de revenir sur tel ou tel aspect de la séance qui aurait pu n’être pas
clair pour tel ou tel élève.
4° Il est indispensable d’établir un carnet de bord de telles séances. On peut
d’ailleurs charger un ou plusieurs élèves de le tenir à tour de rôle. Ce cahier de bord
doit contenir précisément et de façon détaillée les différentes étapes de l’activité selon
un protocole qu’il s’agira de définir et que chacun successivement responsable
appliquera. Il sera contresigné par le professeur. Un tel cahier de bord responsabilise
l’élève. Il prend conscience de ce qu’est un travail de groupe, et par là de son rôle de
futur citoyen. Cela n’interfère pas avec le carnet personnel de l’enseignant qui est le
lieu de ses réflexions personnelles et qui doit contenir de façon très détaillée le
déroulement de l’activité et les réactions des élèves quelles qu’elles soient, positives
ou négatives.
5° Il est nécessaire de contrôler les acquis des élèves. De même il est
nécessaire d’analyser l’ensemble des réponses aux tests donnés afin de dégager une
analyse sur le questionnaire lui-même, témoin de l’enseignement que l’on a dispensé,
de ses points forts comme de ses faiblesses.
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Quelles sont les étapes à mettre en oeuvre pour une RPA ?
Il n’y a pas de réponse toute faite. Chaque recherche personnelle a ses propres
caractéristiques mais il est possible de dégager quelques caractéristiques d’un cadre
général :
1° Trouver un point de départ. C’est une idée générale bien sûr, mais ce point
peut surgir du travail déjà fait avec les élèves lors d’une utilisation de l’HST.
2° Identifier un sujet de recherche. Il faut y penser très soigneusement et être
sûr que ce ne soit pas un sujet trop important, trop vaste ou trop général. Il est
préférable de définir son sujet plus étroitement plutôt que de jongler avec le temps et
(ou) de devoir en restreindre les ressources, et ceci est imposé par l’environnement. Il
est bon de faire ici quelques lectures pour voir si des publications n’ont pas déjà été
effectuées sur le sujet retenu. Cela aiderait à mieux se concentrer sur une question
particulière.
3° Développer quelques démarches de RPA et les essayer dans sa propre
situation. Peut-être aura-t-on besoin de suivre quelque étude servant de guide au
départ puis au fur et à mesure que son propre travail avance, on peut s’en émanciper.
4° Réfléchir sur sa pratique et sur ses découvertes. Il faut aussi considérer le
travail des autres durant cette étape afin de comparer ses propres découvertes et
observations à celles d’autrui et savoir ainsi si on est en accord ou en désaccord.
5° Utiliser ce que l’on a découvert en l’investissant dans l’organisation des
activités futures avec les élèves. Ceci est vital - et assurera que le travail effectué est
réellement positif pour l’apprentissage des élèves. Il signifie aussi que l’enseignant
n’hésite pas à revoir ses idées préalables et qu’il est prêt à les adapter à la lumière de
l’expérience pédagogique menée.
6° Faire connaître son expérience. Cette phase n’est pas indispensable mais ce
serait une opportunité manquée que de ne pas partager son expérience et ses
découvertes plus largement avec ses collègues.
Quelques études de cas pour une RPA en HST en classe
1° Rendre une visite au musée plus fructueuse.
Lacher sa troupe d’élèves dans un musée des sciences ou des techniques sans
préparation et sans encadrement revient à perdre son temps. Si on interroge les élèves
après la visite, ils n’ont retenu que ce qu’ils ont acheté à la boutique, ou ce qu’il ont
pu consommer à la cafetaria, éventuellement, l’anecdote un peu drôle qu’ils ont pu
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entendre ou découvrir. Ils seront en général incapables de fixer leur attention. Il est
donc indispensable de préparer la visite. Elle doit venir en complément d’une activité
ou faire partie de l’activité elle-même. De même il est indispensable de distribuer un
questionnaire à l’entrée du musée. Ce questionnaire peut se présenter comme un jeu
de piste et permet de faire une visite cohérente et formatrice autour de quelques objets
ou autour d’un thème donné. Le reste de la visite sera libre et dépendra du goût de
chacun. La visite ne doit pas excéder une heure. Au-delà l’attention des élèves tombe
et on risque de susciter l’ennui. On peut donner rendez-vous à la fin ou au milieu de la
visite autour d’un objet ou d’un ensemble cohérent d’objets et en faire le commentaire
et susciter des questions. Un telle visite demande un sérieux investissement en temps
de la part du professeur. Il doit lui-même visiter le musée ou du moins obtenir par
correspondance suffisamment de renseignements pour construire sa visite. Bien sûr,
certains musées peuvent fournir un guide dont l’exposé peut être adapté au type de
public qui se présente. L’objet suscite en général un commentaire et un
questionnement d’élève plus libre qu’un texte. Plus interessé, l’élève se souviendra
plus facilement.
2°Fausse compréhension et fausses conceptions des élèves
Voici un canevas classique des difficultés constatées par deux enseignants, l’un de
science et l’autre d’histoire. En corrigeant un test de sciences, M. Dupont découvre
que plusieurs de ses élèves de quatorze ans croient encore que les objets ne se
déplacent que si une force agit sur eux6. Il se demande quelle sorte de stratégie
pédagogique il pourrait appliquer pour changer les idées de ses élèves et il commence
à réfléchir à la meilleure voie à suivre pour cela.
Avec la même classe, M. Martin trouve que plusieurs de ses élèves ont des difficultés
en cours d’histoire quand il leur demande de distinguer les faits historiques des
opinions. Il mentionne cela à M. Dupont durant la pause café et tous les deux décident
de mettre en oeuvre une petite étude pour voir s’ils ne pourraient pas aider leurs
élèves à surmonter en même temps leurs difficultés en histoire et en science. L’HST
s’impose alors comme domaine commun.
6
Obstacle épistémologique classique auquel l’histoire des sciences apporte une réponse.
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Liste récapitulative pour une Recherche pédagogique active en
histoire des sciences et des techniques
A. Identifier un domaine d’étude.
B. Identifier un problème ou un sujet précis dans ce domaine
d’étude. Peut-il être étudié ?
C. Considérer les publications dans ce domaine
.
D. Analyser et préciser le futur sujet en fonction des lectures
faites.
E. Suggérer des pistes d’étude du sujet qu’il serait bon de travailler
en propre (avec les raisons pour cela).
F. Planifier tout le travail projeté en considérant soigneusement
comment on va en maîtriser les différents aspects et les
conséquences.
G. Collecter les informations pour nourrir et conduire l’étude.
Comment faire pour collecter ces informations ? Comment être sûr
de la validité des informations collectées ?
H. Analyser quelles pistes d’étude du sujet peuvent être retenues
ou non.
I. Reformuler éventuellement les idées concernant les pistes
d’étude retenues.
K. Faire connaître largement son expérience et ses découvertes.
Danielle Fauque
Paris
juillet 2000
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Unit 7 Additional Tasks in HST for Teachers' In-Service Courses
As well as formal lectures and structured seminars and workshop session the HST
courses will use a number of tasks. Some tasks will be carried out before teachers
attend the five-day training course. Some will take place during the course itself and
others will form part of the work which follows up the five-day course.
The purpose of this unit is:
 to provide the extra tasks in addition to the ones in Units 3, 4 and 5 which will
form the basis of study of HST by teachers who attend the HST Project in-service
training courses for European teachers.
There is one main task which has to be carried out before the Course begins. Its
purpose is to find out about the countries and people who will take part in the inservice course.
Task 1 Pre-course task.
Poster display preparation
What work do you carry out with your pupils in science, history and/or
technology?
Please bring with you to the first meeting of the HST In-service Course, some details
about your country, your region, your school, your pupils or students and also some
examples of work which you might have done with them which relates to history of
science and technology.
One of the first activities on the course will be for each teacher to use these materials
to set up a small display measuring about 1m x1m so that everyone can see what is
done in all the European countries represented on the course.
There are also two main tasks which are ongoing and which will take place at various
times throughout the five day course, and also afterwards
The purpose of Task 2 is to consolidate and extend all that has been learned on the
five day in-service course
Task 2
Developing HST resources work for students and children
 Work with one or two other teachers.
 Use the ideas and the Framework in the Teachers' Resource Manual to develop or
produce resources which will directly help your teaching of history of science and
technology with a European dimension.
 Use some of the resources which appear in Part 3 of Unit 8;
 Begin to plan how you will send details of your work in school to the other
members of the course so that you can share details of how the work has been
carried out in the various schools.
 Begin to plan how you will evaluate your proposals using action research ( based
on Unit 6)
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How to write reflectively - keeping a learning log
This is another ongoing task, but a personal one. Its purpose is to allow us all chance
to reflect on our learning and also to help in evaluating the in-service course.
During the HST in-service course, you will be asked to keep a written log of what you
have learned during each day. The notes on reflective writing are intended to help you
in this work.
If you want accreditation for following the HST course, then you will need to submit
your learning log to your tutor to be assessed.
Some notes on reflective writing
In adults, as in children, "deep learning, " is hard to define. However deep learning is
to be encouraged rather than superficial learning, and according to a recent project
(Improving Student Learning 1992) there are seven key elements which foster depth
in learning with adults:•
1. The first element involves encouraging independent learning. Adults have a
fair degree of autonomy over the choice of what they learn, how they learn, the
pace of their study and some choice in the relevant assessment instruments.
•
2. This learning element involves personal development It involves developments
in the affective domain, including feelings and motivation as well as intellect.
•
3. New learning needs to be related to the real world and to break new ground, as
opposed to trying to solve problems by well-worn routes.
•
4. New learning can be encouraged by reflection and an important method here
involves keeping learning diaries and reflective journals.
•
5. There needs to be an element of learning by doing, by carrying out practical
activities to elicit and explore the possibilities and ramifications of the new
learning.
•
6. In order to develop deep understanding - as opposed to knowledge and recall of
facts- there has to be an element of applying the learning to new situations.
•
7. There has to be a sense of purpose with which the student can identify and to
which she or he can relate.
Please pause at this point and consider the relevance of points 1 to 7 to your learning
on this course. Are any points more important that the others? Do your pupils learn
best in this way? Is there anything here that will assist your science teaching in
school?
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According to Ruddock (1991 p 327) keeping diaries and journals is, "the most
obvious way of introducing reflection/critical consciousness into (initial) teacher
education ." There is also great emphasis, at all levels of teacher education, to
develop the teacher as a "reflective practitioner”, with many books on the subject.
(See Pollard 1997 for example).
What then should you write, and how can this be structured? I suggest the headings
below might help at first but of course you can write much more freely than this if
you find the headings too much of a constraint. They are based on a paper presented
at a recent conference on teacher training in primary science (Ryan 1997). There may
very well be overlap between the points.
•
Date; topic; summary of the key points which were presented.
•
What new learning came out of the sessions for me?
•
Was this the most effective way of helping me to learn? If it was, why? If it
wasn't effective, what would have been a better way of helping me to learn?
•
What questions or challenges remain based on what I have studied today?
•
What were my personal reactions to the context, content, teaching strategies, likes,
dislikes etc.?
•
Which ideas particularly interested me? Why was this? Which ideas did I not find
interesting? Why was this? Which ideas did I find difficult? Why did I find these
hard?
•
What will I need to study next? What will be the best way of doing this? How will
I know that I have achieved something?
References for this section;
Improving Student Learning Project, 1992, Outcomes Report, Oxford, Oxford Centre
for Staff Development.
Pollard, A., 1997, Reflective teaching in the primary school. , London, Cassell
Education, Third Edition.
Ruddock, J., 1991, "The language of consciousness and the landscape of actions:
tensions in teacher education." British Educational Research Journal, 17,(4), 319334.
Ryan, C., 1997, "Diary writing in initial teacher education. "Third Summer
Conference for Teacher Education in Primary Science, Durham, University of
Durham.
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What are your views about the nature of science?
The purpose of this task is for you to explore your own and other people's ideas about
the nature of science, and also the nature of technology. Do historical studies help our
understanding of these issues?
Work with two or three other teachers and decide if you agree or disagree with the
statements below. Try to come to a single decision within your group, but you
disagree among yourselves, then put 'undecided'.
1.Science is objective, capable of yielding ultimate truths, and is concerned with proving
things. It has a defined and unique subject matter, unique methods and is value-free. (quoted
in Harlen 1992)
2.Science is built up with facts as a house is with stones. But a collection of facts is no more a
science than a heap of stones is a house. (J.H. Poincaré 1885).
3.Science is nothing but trained common sense … and its methods differ only from common
sense only so far as the manner in which a guardsman's cut and thrust differs from the way in
which a savage wields his club (T.H.Huxley 1825-95)
4. Facts are stupid until brought into connection with some general law. (Louis Agassiz
1807-73)
5. Science searches for relations which are thought to exist independently of the searching
individual. (A. Einstein 1879-1955)
6. It is a capital mistake to theorise before one has data. Insensibly one begins to twist facts to
suit theories instead of theories to suit facts. ( Sherlock Holmes)
7. Any theory is always provisional in the sense that it is only a hypothesis. You can never
prove it. No matter how many times the results of experiment agree with some theory you can
never be sure that the next time the result will not contradict the theory. On the other hand,
you can disprove a theory by finding even a single observation that disagrees with the
predictions of the theory. ( Stephen Hawking 1988)
8. The belief that science proceeds from observation to theory is so widely held that my denial
of it is often met with incredulity ( Karl Popper)
9. Surveying the experimental literature …makes one suspect that a paradigm ( a theory) is
pre-requisite to perception itself. (Thomas Kuhn)
10. First you guess. …..this is the most important step. Then you compute the consequences.
Compare the consequences to experience. If it disagrees with experience, the guess is wrong.
In that simple statement is the key to science. It doesn't matter how beautiful your guess is, or
how smart you are or what your name is. If it disagrees with experience, it's wrong. That's
all there is to it.(Richard Feynman)
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Task 4 Exprimer vos Points de Vue Sur La Nature de la Science
Le but de ce travail est d’explorer vos idées et celles d’autres personnes sur la nature
de la science, autant que la nature de la technologie. Est-ce que les études historiques
aident-elles notre compréhension de ces sujets?ç ê è
Collaborez avec deux or trois autres professeurs pour décider si vous etes d’accord
avec les phrases suivantes. Faites de votre mieux d’arriver à une decision unanime
dans votre groupe, mais si vous n’êtes pas d’accord mettez simplement ‘indécis’.
La science est entièrement objective. elle est capable de donner des vérités definitives, et s’occupe
de preuver des thèses. Elle s’occupe d’une discipline unique et précise, a des méthodes uniques et
les valeurs ne la modifient pas
. ( cite de Harlen 1992)
1.
2.
La science est construite de faits comme on construit une maison de pierres. Mais une collection
de faits n’est plus la science qu’un tas de pierres est une maison.
(J.H.Poincare 1885)
La science n’est que du bon sens bien dressé...et ces méthodes se distingue seulement du bons sens
dans la mesure que le maniement habile de l’epée se distingue du sauvage avec sa matraque.
(T.H.Huxley 1825-95)
3.
4. Les faits ne servent a rien avant d’être liés par une règle génèrale
.(Louis Agassiz 1807-73)
La science se met a la recherche des rapports qu’on croit exister independamment de l’individu
qui les cherche.
(A. Einstein 1879-1955)
5.
Il est une erreur fondamentale d’élaborer une theorie avant de se doter des faits. Insensiblement,
on finit par changer les faits pour soutenir la théorie au lieu d’élaborer la théorie fondée sur les
faits.
( Sherlock Holmes)
6.
Une théorie est toujours provisionelle dans la mesure que ce n’est qu’une hypothèse. On ne peut la
prouver jamais. Meme si a chaque fois que les résultats d’une expérience concordent avec une
théorie quelconque, on ne peut jamais être sur que la prochaine fois les résultats ne la contradira
pas. En revanche, on peut réfuter une théorie en trouvant une seule observation qui ne correspond
pas aux prédictions de cette théorie.
( Stephen Hawking 1988)
7.
L’opinion que la science procède de l’observation a la théorie est si universellement accepté que
ma dénégation de cette opinion provoque souvent des réactions incredules.
( Karl Popper)
8.
En passant en revue la litérature experimentale... se fait soupçonner qu’un paradigme (une
théorie) est indispensable pour la perception elle-meme
.(Thomas Kuhn)
9.
10. Au début, on divine... voila la première chose a faire. Ensuite on calcule les conséquences. On
compare les conséquences a l’expérience. Si l’un ne s’accorde pas a l’autre, la conjecture n’est
pas bonne. Cette déclaration contient la clé de la science. Peu importe si votre conjecture est
belle, ou si vous etes tres intélligent, ou si vous etes bien connu. Si la conjecture ne s’accorde pas
a l’expérience, elle a tort. il n’y a plus que ca dans l’affaire.
(Richard Feynman)
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Unit 8 Resources and information
There are many sources of information for teaching history of science and technology
and in this unit they have been arranged under been arranged under seven main
headings. There are suggestions which link in with many countries in Europe, and
there are some excellent resources available from other parts of the world too,
especially USA and Australia.
The purpose of this study unit is
 to give you some useful contacts and resources to help you to teach history of
science and technology to your pupils.
We all need more contacts so the tasks in this unit invite you to let the rest of us know
by email and/or by Merlin us know of any more resources you have found.
Societies and teachers' organisations
There are many of these and if you have internet access then browsing some of the
websites below can provide some interesting resources. Alternatively you can write to
the society or association concerned.
British Society for the History of Science
(http://www.man.ac.uk/Science_Engineering/CHSTM/bshs/bshs.htm)
BSHS Executive Secretary, 31 High Street, Stanford in the Vale, Faringdon, Oxon
SN7 8LH, UK.
Telephone and Fax: (+44) 1367 718963
Email: bshs@hidex.demon.co.uk
This society has an education section and you can find out more about resources for
HST teaching from the Executive Secretary. There are also details at the Society's
website of you click on 'Education Section'. Within this there is a site called
'Humanity in School Science' which is a discussion forum as well as giving more
details of resources for teaching HST.
Association for Science Education
http://www.ase.org.uk/
ASE , College Lane, Hatfield, Herts.AL 10 9AA UK
Tel. (+44) 1707 283000
Fax (+44) 1707 266532
This is the largest subject teacher organisation in the UK and it has a publications
department which produces many resources for teaching HST. There are more details
in the publications in the Books and Journal Articles sections below. If you visit the
website you can order the publications online.
Société française d’histoire des sciences et des techniques (SFHST)
http://wwwrc.obs-azur.fr/cerga/hdsn/sfhst.html
SFHST, 5 rue de Vertbois, 75141 Paris cedex 03
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History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teachers.
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La société regroupe des chercheurs en épistémologie et en histoire des sciences et des
techniques et des enseignants du supérieur et du secondaire. La promotion de
l’enseignement de l’HST est un de ses objectifs. Une des sessions du congrès qu’elle
organise à Lille du 24 au 27 mai 2001 porte sur l’enseignement de l’HST (voir
SFHST.2001@free.fr).
Union des Physiciens (UDP)
http://www.cnam.fr/hebergement/udp
Créée en 1906 pour répondre à la demande des professeurs de physique et de chimie,
cette association professionnelle est, depuis, un partenaire important dans
l’élaboration des réformes dans ces deux disciplines. Son Bulletin mensuel publie,
entre autres, des articles d’HST adaptés à l’enseignement secondaire.
UDP, 44 boulevard Saint-Michel, 75270 Paris cedex 06.
Task
Please contact Bert Sorsby (b.d.sorsby@hull.ac.uk or via Merlin) or Danielle Fauque
(danielle.fauque@stanislas.fr or via Merlin)if you have any more you would like to add.
The details will beincluded in Merlin.
Books
There are two main types of books for history of science and technology. One sort
gives information about HST itself, and there are lots of these which cover all levels
of expertise and all ranges of interests. You will find examples of these in the
Bibliography section at the end of this training manual..
The other sort of book deals with issues relating to the pedagogy of HST, and these
are much smaller in number.
As well as local, regional and national libraries, if you have access to the internet,
then many bookshops now have on-line catalogues which are very useful. There are
also online book-sale companies such as Amazon (see http://www.amazon.co.uk and look
under 'Science and Nature').which can give details of recent books on history of
science and technology.
An important resource for HST in schools is PREtext Publishing. This is a specialist
mail order service for books relevant to history of science and technology and these
area available at discount prices. The address is:
PREtext Publishing, Boston House, TBAC Business Centre, Grove Technology Park,
Wantage OX12 9FF UK Tel (+44) 1235 227236 email pretextpub@aol.com
:
There are a number of publishers too such as Dorling Kindersley, Blackwells and
Routledge, who specialise in books for teaching purposes, and the Association for
Science Education also publishes books for teaching HST,.
See for example:Solomon, J (1997) Primary Technology Stories Using Stories from History.
Hatfield:Association for Science Education
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History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teachers.
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"Real technology has changed the ways in which we live. How can we show
our pupils that? With these new resources primary teachers can learn more
about technology and plan work to fit in with history, through school-based
INSET. The stories are about girls and boys in the times of KS2 History units
who get excited about new technology:- hammocks for the navy, railway
signal, cars,clay pots, a water wheel for grinding corn, a printing press, a
working greenhouse and.....lots more! There are teachers' notes for each
project, the cost of materials is minimal but making skills for wood and
plastic, as well as planning and designing skills , are learnt with every unit."
ASE (1999) 100 Years of Radium Hatfield:Association for Science Education
"In 1898, Marie Curie discovered two new elements, the second, radium,
being by far the most radioactive element ever known. This package, written
by members of the British Society for the History of Science, celebrates Marie
Curie, her work, and the subsequent development of the science and industry
of radiochemistry. Aimed at pupils from age 14 upwards, the units in this pack
do not form a continuous story. Each unit can stand alone, providing a
historical context, questions and activities - teachers are encouraged to select
the materials for their own uses."
ASE (1997) Henri Becquerel and the Discovery of Radioactivity Hatfield:Association
for Science Education
"To celebrate the centenary of the discovery of radioactivity by Henri
Becquerel in 1896, ASE has produced a SATIS-style book for Key Stage 4
containing units on: history and discovery of radioactivity; uses of radioactive
substances; radioactivity in archaeology ; radon; radioactivity and geology, the
age of the earth, plate tectonics."
------------------------------------------------------------Les documents imprimés en langue française dont on dispose aujourd’hui sont
nombreux. Depuis vingt ans, des articles dans des revues professionnelles, des actes
de colloques puis des livres pédagogiques présentant des exemples directement
applicables en classe, offre un panel de choix. La SFHST édite aussi deux
monographies chaque année.
Nous citerons les plus récents d’abord puis nous ajouterons quelques titres plus
anciens qui rendent encore de grands services.
Rosmorduc, J (dir.),(1997)Histoire des sciences et des techniques, actes du plan
national de formation des professeurs, mai 1996, Morgat, publié par le Centre
Régional de Documentation pédagogique (CRDP) de Bretagne, 1997, <
crdp35@mail.dotcom.fr >
. Cet ouvrage regroupe plusieurs études de cas d’application de l’HST en
classe dans les différentes disciplines scientifiques.
Id., Chronologie des sciences et des techniques, publié par CRDP de Bretagne, 1997.
Ce petit livre complète le précédent ouvrage en donnant des conseils de
méthode pour aborder l’HST. Il donne une très importante bibliographie et une
chronologie mettant en parallèle les sciences, les techniques et les autres
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événements qui ont marqué la société. Très facile d’emploi, ce petit livre rend
de grands services.
Id., L’histoire des sciences, collection « les enjeux du système éducatif », CNDP /
Hachette, 43 quai de Grenelle, 75905 Paris Cedex 05, 1996.
Cet ouvrage définit les objets et les méthodes de l’histoire des sciences. Il place
aussi les sciences et les techniques dans la société et fournit une abondante
bibliographie.
Andries, B et Beigbeder, I (1993). La culture scientifique et technique pour les
professeurs des écoles, collection « les enjeux du système éducatif », CNDP /
Hachette, 43 quai de Grenelle, 75905 Paris Cedex 05,
Indispensable pour situer l’HST dans une culture élargie à l’école primaire.
Scheidecker-Chevallier, M et Laporte,G (1999). La démarche de modélisation en
chimie, publié par Ellipses, 32 rue Bargue, 75740 Paris cedex 15,
Des textes historiques sont exploités selon un processus didactique permettant
de différencier le champ expérimental et le champ conceptuel.
Sonneville, M et Fauque, D (1997). La gravitation, Paris: Centre National de
Documentation Pedagogique.
Textes originaux de Copernic à Einstein, avec introduction, commentaires et
questions destinées aux élèves du lycée sur le thème de la gravitation.
On peut rappeler les ouvrages suivants :
Audigier, F et Fillon, P (dir.), (1991) Enseigner l’histoire des sciences et des
techniques, une approche pluridiscipinaire, publié par l’INRP, 29 rue d’Ulm, 75230
Paris cedex 05,
Il s’agit du compte rendu et de l’analyse d’une expérience menée par plusieurs
professeurs de disciplines différentes pour introduire l’HST en classe.
Associazione per l’insegnamento della Fisica,(1995) La fisica nella scuola, « La
storia della fisica nella didattica della fisica », quaderno 5, anno XXVIII, sup. al n.2,
aprile-Giugno .
Au plan international, le mouvement d’introduction de l’enseignement de
l’HST dans l’enseignement secondaire en Europe a été mis en valeur par le
colloque de Pavie en 1983. Voir les références des actes des colloques qui ont
suivi celui-ci, l’histoire du mouvement et la bibliographie correspondante dans
l’article de Fabio Bevilacqua et Enrico Giannetto, « La storia della fisica e la
didattica delle fisica, un’esperienza europea », p. 6-16. Ce numéro spécial de
La fisica nella scuola, publié par l’association professionnelle italienne, est
entièrement consacré à l’enseignement de l’histoire de la physique.
(Dipartemento di Fisica dell’Università, via Campi 213/A, 41100, Modena,
Italie.
Xosé A. Fraga (ed.), (1997) Ciencias, educación e historia, Actas V Simposio de
Historia e Ensino das Ciencias, Publicacións do Seminario de Estudos Galegos, , 626
pages.
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History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teachers.
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Il s’agit des actes d’un très important colloque qui s’est déroulé à Vigo, en
Espagne, en septembre 1995 et qui porte sur l’ensemble des disciplines
scientifiques.
Quelques ouvrages adaptés à la formation, personnelle et générale en HST, des
enseignants :
Brock,W H (1992) (The Fontana history of Chemistry, .
North, J (1994) The Fontana history of Astronomy and Cosmology,
Rosmorduc, J (dir.),(1987) Histoire de la physique, t. 1, 1987 et Jean-Paul Mathieu
(coord.), t.2, 1991, éd. Lavoisier, Tec & Doc.
Task
Please contact Bert Sorsby (b.d.sorsby@hull.ac.uk or via Merlin) or Danielle Fauque
(danielle.fauque@stanislas.fr or via Merlin)if you have any more you would like to add.
The details will beincluded in Merlin.
Journal Articles
Many of the more academic journals in HST are very scholarly indeed and just do not
relate to working with pupils and students in classrooms. It is better to look through
the journals of science teacher organisations to find articles which relate closely to
teaching HST in schools. Details of some useful journals are given below, with a few
examples of articles which may be of interest for teachers.
School Science Review.
The online index for this is at:
http://www.ase.org.uk/cgi-bin/dbman/db.cgi?db=ssr&uid=default
Recent articles include:
Swain, P.A., (1999) School Science Review 81 (294) 89-94, 'Bernard CurtoisChemistry and kelp.'
Stock, J.T.,(1999) School Science Review 81 (294)95-100, 'The history and
some applications of coulometry.'
Breakthrough
This is a photocopiable resource which is published three times a year and is
dedicated to history of science and technology in school teaching. Recent articles
include:
Pascal and atmospheric pressure
Newlands and the periodic table
Volta's Pile
Prof. Blondlot's new disovery
William Withering
It is available from :
PREtext Publishing, Boston House, TBAC Business Centre, Grove Technollgy Park,
Wantage OX12 9FF UK Tel (+44) 1235 227236 email pretextpub@aol.com
Task
Please contact Bert Sorsby (b.d.sorsby@hull.ac.uk or via Merlin) or Danielle Fauque
(danielle.fauque@stanislas.fr or via Merlin)if you have any more you would like to add.
The details will beincluded in Merlin.
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History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teachers.
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Museums, Libraries and World Wide Web Links
There are thousands of museums across Europe and the websites and brief
descriptions of just a few of these are given below. If you are thinking about a visit to
a museum with your students then contact the museum well ahead of your visit to see
what resources they have available. Larger museums will have education officers who
may be able to teach your students for you in the museum galleries or offer hands-on
experiences in the primary museum classrooms. Almost all will have worksheets and
information packs which relate to their collections so it is a good idea to see what is
available before you take a group on a visit.
The Science Museum, London
(http://www.nmsi.ac.uk/welcome.html)
This is one of the great museums for history of science and technology. There
are original object which relate to all aspects of science and technology and
the website is of interest too.
The Wellcome Museum and Library, London, UK
http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/en/1/lib.html
This is an excellent resource centre and website for studies in the history of
medicine.
Manchester Museum of Science and Industry, Manchester, UK
http://www.msim.org.uk/
This is one of the largest science and technology museums in England with
important collections from all areas of science and technology.
The Mary Rose Museum Portsmouth UK
http://www.maryrose.org/
This specialist museum displays King Henry VIII's warship, which was sunk
in the Channel in 1543. The website has some excellent ideas for work which
can be done with children. on this topic.
The World Wide Web
There are thousands of websites on the internet, and if you are not yet online some
important resources will not be available to you and your pupils.. Here is a small
selection of some of the more relevant ones and there are more links in the Merlin
Resource Centre (See Study Unit 5)
The Galileo Project
http://es.rice.edu/ES/humsoc/Galileo/index.html
This is an excellent website to generate resources and collect information for
teaching about Galileo, his discoveries and his scientific thinking. There are
primary source links too with the correspondence from his daughter.
The History of Telecommunications
http://www.acclarke.co.uk/shc.html
This site is part of the Arthur C. Clarke Foundation and provides a really
useful timeline which traces developments in all aspects of
telecommunications.
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History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teachers.
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WWW Virtual Library for the History of Science, Technology and Medicine
http://www.asap.unimelb.edu.au/hstm/hstm_map.htm
This is a site which provides links to hundreds of other HST sites. It also links
with sites for history of medicine and history of mathematics too.
History of Mathematics (St Andrews University, Scotland)
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistoryTopics.html
This site has interesting articles on topics not just relating to history of
mathematics. For example there are articles on longitude and cosmology with
some excellent, extensive links made to other sites too.
Primary Historical Documents from Western Europe
http://library.byu.edu/~rdh/eurodocs/homepage.html
Although many of the links here are not directly concerned with HST, it is
good to have these primary sources available for study by students.
Charles Darwin's Correspondence
http://www.lib.cam.ac.uk/Departments/Darwin/
This website is one of the outcomes of the Darwin Correspondence Project
and it has published all the letters to and from this important scientist.
SHiPS Resources for teachers.
http://www1.umn.edu/ships/
This American site gives some useful ideas and contacts for teaching history
of science and technology.
The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/
At this very large site you can find out details of the lives and thoughts of the
philosophers. There is an excellent index and a most useful timeline.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Copernic est un moteur de recherche qui effectue une recherche systématique dans
tous les autres sites. Il permet de sélectionner très rapidement les sites internet en
langue française selon des mots clés choisis et de télécharger les listes obtenues :
Recherche
Nombre total de réponses
Musées d’histoire des
sciences et des techniques
Bibliothèques d’histoire des
sciences et des techniques
Histoire des
télécommunications
116
Sites retenus parmi les plus
consultés
6
165
6
57
4
On pourrait sélectionner selon d’autres critères de recherche et sur d’autres thèmes :
histoire des transports, histoires des communications, navitation astronomique, etc.
Retenons donc :
131
History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teachers.
The HST Project
Musées
Musées scientifiques de Belgique
http://www.ulb.ac.be/assoc/jsb/genial/musee.htm
2-Evolution des sciences et des techniques en Wallonie
http://www.wallonie-en-ligne.net/wallonie-histoire/hist-econom-sociale:chap9-2.htm
3-Muséum d’histoire naturelle de La Rochelle
http://www.ac.poitiers.fr/pedago/missions/maac/serv_edu/musehn17.htm
4-Cité des sciences à Paris
http://www.cite-sciences.fr/sciences-musee.htm
5-Musée des Arts et métiers
http://www.cnam.fr/museum/revue/ref/r15a03.html
6-Association pour l’histoire des chemins de fer en France
http://www.trains-fr.org/ahicf/
Bibliothèques d’histoire des sciences
1-Réseau des bibliothèques. Strasbourg
http://www-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr/reseaubib/hst/dochst.html
2-Catalogue collectif d’histoire des sciences et des techniques. Grenoble
http://dodge.upmf-grenoble.fr:8001/fra/themes/his.html
3-Site de la Bibliothèque de France
http://www.bnf.fr
4-Bibliothèques des sciences . Revues d’histoire des sciences
http://www-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr/reseaubib/hst/revues.html
5-Périodiques analysés
http://www.inist;fr/couvfran/scihtml/listeperio.html
6-Bibliothèque du Musée d’histoire des sciences de Génève
http://www.unige.ch/biblio/repertoire/part56.html
Histoire des télécommunications
1-Histoire des télécommunications
http://www.francetelecom.fr/vfrance/apropos/grp-histt.htm
2-Petite histoire des télécommunications
http://www-mo.enst-bretagne.fr/permanent/duflot/histoire/histoire.html
3-Dossiers télécommunications -revue Pour la Science 249 - juin 1998
http://www.pourlascience.com/numeros/pls-248/art-1.htm
4-Le télégraphe de Claude Chappe
http://www-ic2.univ-lemans.fr/lium/chappe/telecomunications.html
Task
Please contact Bert Sorsby (b.d.sorsby@hull.ac.uk or via Merlin) or Danielle Fauque
(danielle.fauque@stanislas.fr or via Merlin)if you have any more you would like to add.
The details will beincluded in Merlin.
Contact an 'expert'
It is said that we are only three telephone calls away from the word expert in any
subject. There might very well be someone in your local university or college who has
special interests in a particular area of history of science and technology. Certainly
libraries and regional information centres, including tourist offices can often help with
more details of HST in a particular area.
Danielle Fauque
Paris France
Bert Sorsby
Hull UK
July 2002
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History of Science and Technology (HST) for European Teachers.
The HST Project
Short Bibliography
These and other books will be available during the HST Course The first one (*) is
particularly important.
* Goodman, D. and Russell, C. (eds.) (1991) The Rise of Scientific Europe 15001800. London: Hodder and Stoughton Educational.
Debru, C. (ed) (1999), History of Science and Technology in Education and Training
in Europe Conference Strasbourg 25-26 June 1998. Luxembourg: European
Communities.
Sonneville, M. et .Fauque, D. (1997) La Gravitation. Paris: Centre National de
Documentation Pedagogique.
Sorsby, B (2000) ‘The Irresistible Rise of the Nature of Science in Science Curricula’.
in Sorensen, P and Sears, J ( ed.) Current Issues in Science Education. London:
Routledge
133