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Theories of Adult Learning
Two of the most widely applied theories of adult learning are Andragogy by Malcolm Knowles, and the Characteristics of Adults as Learners model by K. Patricia Cross.
Andragogy
Andragogy (the science and art of learning in adults) was a revolutionary theory created to explain how learning in adults differed from the way in which children learn. According to andragogic theory, adults are motivated to learn, are self-directed, responsible, and use prior experiences as a template for learning 1 .
Andragogy is based on the assumptions that adults:
(a) Tend to become more self-directed as they mature;
(b) Have had rich life experiences;
(c) Want to learn and are internally motivated to do so;
(d) Want learning to be purposeful, practical, relevant, and immediately applicable; and
(e) Are more problem-centered than content-centered.
A sixth assumption was later added: Adults need to understand why they are learning a particular topic.
Characteristics of Adults as Learners (CAL) Model of Adult Learning
The Characteristics of Adults as Learners Model is based upon differences in personal characteristics (physical, psychological, and socio-cultural) and situational characteristics (part-time versus full-time attendance and voluntary versus compulsory participation) 2
According to this model, four basic things characterize adult learners:
(a) participation is motivated by both positive and negative factors;
(b) participation is correlated to anticipated learning outcomes;
(c) a sense of security precedes the need for achievement; and
(d) expectations of rewards affect motivation.
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Pedagogy and Andragogy
Andragogy (And-rè-go´jê)
Andragogy “the art and science of helping adults learn,” refers to learner-focused education.
The andragogic model asserts that five issues be considered and addressed in formal learning.
They include (1) letting learners know why something is important to learn, (2) showing learners
1 Knowles, 1980
2 Cross, 1981

how to direct themselves through information, and (3) relating the topic to the learners’ experiences. In addition, (4) people will not learn until they are ready and motivated to learn.
Often this (5) requires helping them overcome inhibitions, behaviors, and beliefs about learning.
Pedagogy (pèd-e-go´jê)
Pedagogy literally means “the art and science of educating children” and often is used as a synonym for teaching. Pedagogy embodies teacher-focused education. In the pedagogic model, teachers assume responsibility for making decisions about what will be learned, how it will be learned, and when it will be learned. Teachers direct learning.
Optimum Environments for Adult Learning
Adult learning theories emphasize the importance of experience and self-directedness in adult learning and imply that adult learners benefit most from experientially-based constructivist learning environments.
Experientially-based Learning Environments
A major theme of adult learning theory is that learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas based upon prior knowledge and experience 3 . Learning occurs by synthesizing new information into currently existing knowledge and adjusting prior understandings and beliefs to assimilate new experiences. In an experientially-based learning environment learners are exposed to a series of exercises or simulations that support active learning. Through active participation, knowledge is acquired and self-constructed by the learner.
Constructivist Learning Environments
Adults have a rich repository of experience from which to draw. How successful a learner will be may depend upon how well the learner can integrate new knowledge into an existing schema and amend prior misconceptions.
Constructivist learning environments emphasize learning over teaching, encourage learners to engage in peer dialogue, support collaborative learning while encouraging learner autonomy, emphasize the context in which learning occurs, and anchor learning to real-world, authentic tasks, so as to link to learner’s prior experiences.
Anchoring learning to larger, relevant, complex, challenging tasks can help the learner develop learning strategies for problem solving through scaffolding. Scaffolding is a strategy in which support is provided to help the learner accomplish a task he would be unable to achieve on his own; support is gradually removed as the learner takes more responsibility for his own learning.
The goal of scaffolding is to help a learner go beyond the "zone of proximal development", the gap between what a learner can do on his own and what he could accomplish with assistance.
Since knowledge is embedded in experience and personally constructed, instruction must situate learning in authentic, real-world contexts that involve collaboration and social interaction. To be
3 Bruner, 1966

authentic, learning environment must have attributes of real-world problems. Problems should be ill-structured and complex, contain both relevant and irrelevant information, and require the learner to identify resources, to set priorities, and to explore alternative solutions in a collaborative setting.
Adult Learning Best Practices 4
Adults will commit to learning when the goals and objectives are considered realistic and important to them. Application in the 'real world' is important and relevant to the adult learner's personal and professional needs.
Adults want to be the origin of their own learning and will resist learning activities they believe are an attack on their competence. Thus, professional development needs to give participants some control over the what, who, how, why, when, and where of their learning.
Adult learners need to see that the professional development learning and their day-today activities are related and relevant.
Adult learners need direct, concrete experiences in which they apply the learning in real work.
Adult learning has ego involved. Professional development must be structured to provide support from peers and to reduce the fear of judgment during learning.
Adults need to receive feedback on how they are doing and the results of their efforts.
Opportunities must be built into professional development activities that allow the learner to practice the learning and receive structured, helpful feedback.
Adults need to participate in small-group activities during the learning to move them beyond understanding to application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Small-group activities provide an opportunity to share, reflect, and generalize their learning experiences.
Adult learners come to learning with a wide range of previous experiences, knowledge, self-direction, interests, and competencies. This diversity must be accommodated in the professional development planning.
Transfer of learning for adults is not automatic and must be facilitated. Coaching and other kinds of follow-up support are needed to help adult learners transfer learning into daily practice so that it is sustained."
4 Speck 1996