Propaganda Packet
Appeals, Persuasive Techniques, Fallacies, and Claims
Propaganda—writing or images that seek to persuade through emotional appeal rather than
through logical proof; written or visual texts that describe or depict using highly connotative
words or images—favorable or unfavorable—without justification
Purpose—the specific reason or reasons for the writing
It conveys what the readers have to gain by reading the essay. Purpose is the objective or
the goal that the writer wishes to establish.
A writer’s purpose might be to:
 Support a cause
 Promote a change
 Refute a theory
 Stimulate interest
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
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Win agreement
Arouse sympathy
Provoke anger
Audience—the writer’s targeted reader or readers
The relationship between the writer and the audience is critical. Students should consider the
kind of information, language, and overall approach that will appeal to a specific audience.
Aristotle— (384 B.C. to 322 B.C.) The Greek philosopher was a student of Plato and the teacher of
Alexander the Great. He wrote about many diverse subjects including physics, poetry, government,
ethics, biology and more. It is said that he took the very abstract work by Plato and made it easier to
understand.
Aristotle named three appeals one could employ when trying to persuade someone: ethos,
logos, and pathos.
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Aristotle’s Persuasive Appeals
Ethos (ethics) means that a person is influenced by the writer’s character or image as shown in the
syntax, voice, attitude and presentation. Aristotle called it the “moral rightness” of an argument. It also
includes the expertise and knowledge of the speaker (or writer). Aristotle said that if a speaker has
“good sense, good moral character and goodwill,” we are inclined to believe what the person has to
say. To apply the technique of ethos, consider the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
What kind of image do you want to project?
How can you protect this image?
What words or ideas do you want to avoid in order not to harm your image?
What effect do misspelled words and grammatical errors have on your image?
Logos (logic) means an argument based on reason. He saw it as the ability to construct logical
arguments and to persuade that your assumptions are true, therefore the solution is true. To apply the
technique of logos, consider the following:
1. Could you lay out your problem like a mathematical equation?
2. Are any of the common fallacies apparent?
Pathos (passion) is the use of emotional appeals to get the audience to accept one’s viewpoint. It is
intended that the message inspire followers. A common use of pathos in argument is to create a sense
of rejection if the audience doesn’t agree. To apply the technique of pathos, consider the following:
1. What assumptions are being made by the presenter?
2. What is the emotion being addressed (anger, love, belonging, fear, prestige, etc.)?
3. Is the appeal appropriate to the audience?
Appeal to Authority: Although this rhetorical strategy was not termed by Aristotle, writers in today’s
world recognize it as a having a strong effect on audiences. It uses any authority position (whether that
authority is real or not) to strengthen the argument.
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Persuasive Appeals
(The broad categories of persuasive techniques)
Argument
Explanation
Example
Appeal to authority
Calls on an expert (individual, group or
other source) to provide credibility or
importance to product, service or position.
Dentist promotes a certain brand
of toothpaste.
Appeal to emotion
(Pathos)
Uses emotionally charged language or
images.
Audience is shown pictures of
devastation caused by natural
disasters and is asked to support
relief efforts.
Appeal to ethics
(Ethos)
Positions the writer or speaker as a person
of good sense, good moral character and
good intentions.
A political candidate says he
refuses to mud-sling and prefers to
talk about the issues instead.
Appeal to logic
(Logos)
Provides rational arguments to support
one’s claim using facts, figures and
statistics.
Facts are given that support the
need to reduce traffic fatalities.
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Specific Persuasive Techniques
Review:
Technique
Explanation
Example
Bandwagon
Attempts to convince the audience that
something is good because “everyone” is buying
into it (“jumping on the bandwagon”) by
appealing to the desire to be part of the group or
appealing to the desire to be included.
“Everyone is switching to this cell
phone network. Shouldn’t you?”
Endorsement /
testimonial
Uses a popular figure such as a celebrity to
endorse a product, service or cause.
Celebrities with beautiful complexions
endorse Proactive.
Euphemisms
Substitutes an agreeable or inoffensive
expression for one that may offend or suggest
something unpleasant.
The phrase “though we are
experiencing heavy casualties” to
describe people dying.
Glittering generalities Uses slogans or simple phrases that sound good
but provide little or no information due to the
vagueness of the message or the positive
connotations of the words.
A politician states, “A vote for me is a
vote for peace.”
Loaded words
Chooses words that will influence audience’s
perception of an item or issue.
“The assignment was asinine.” vs. “The
assignment was irksome.”
Plain-folks appeal
Works by suggesting that everyday things are
superior to special or extravagant things.
Country Time lemonade sells itself as
simple and therefore valuable — a
return to the “good old days” when
plain folks and simple ways were
important.
“As a busy mother, I can’t afford to be
sidelined by a cold, so I use XYZ sinus
product, and you should too.”
Rhetorical questions
Asks a question in which no response is expected “Can we continue to allow our troops to
or desired (the answer is obvious). The question die?”
is used for effect or is used to emphasize a point.
Snob appeal
Plays on our desire for fancy items and the “good Video shows the glassware to call a cat
life.”
to a Fancy Feast dinner.
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New:
Technique
Explanation
Example
Bait and Switch
A tactic in which a customer is attracted by the
advertisement of a low-priced item but is then
encouraged to buy a higher-priced one.
Wal-Mart “rolls back” the price on
it’s generic brand of paper towels,
but before the shopper can get to the
paper towel aisle, she sees a center
display for Bounty paper towels that
are on sale, but for a higher price
than the generic brand.
Card stacking
Leaves out information necessary for the
audience to make an informed decision; “stacks
the cards” in favor of one’s viewpoint by using
only arguments that support a position or by
ignoring or denying the arguments against it.
A newspaper uses a large picture of
a smiling spokesperson for an
organization that it favors or a lessattractive or smaller picture of a
person speaking on behalf of a
position they do not endorse.
Exaggeration
Overstates the effectiveness or importance of a
product.
An anti-wrinkle cream promises to
take off 10 years in one night.
Fear
Presents a dreaded circumstance and usually
follows it up with the kind of behavior needed to
avoid that horrible event.
“This is your brain (image of an
egg). This is your brain on drugs
(image of the egg being cracked into
a hot frying pan).”
Name calling
Uses derogatory implications or innuendoes to
turn people against something.
Burger King implies that its flamebroiled burgers are superior to the
other fast-food companies,
specifically McDonald’s.
Repetition
Repeats product, service or position several
times.
“Head On — apply it directly to
your forehead. Head On — apply it
directly to your forehead. Head On
— apply it directly to your
forehead.”
Scientific approach
Uses tests, statistics and scientific-sounding
jargon or diagrams to lend credibility to
something.
A chair is ergonomically designed to
fit the contours of your body.
Sex appeal
Uses beautiful and sexy people to sell you
something.
A handsome man promotes using a
Gillette razor.
Something for nothing
Belief that most people are seeking a “good buy”
or “something for nothing.”
“If you buy this computer, we’ll
throw in a free printer.”
Transfer
Uses words, images or symbols that arouse
emotions and connect the viewer’s emotion to
the product being sold.
A tire dealer places red, white and
blue banners throughout his store, or
a political activist closes his speech
with a prayer.
Urgency / call to action Creates the impression that you have to act fast.
/ Exigency
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“Order now! Supplies are limited!
Everything must go!”
Types of Logical Fallacies—Errors in Logic
Misusing logical appeal in a persuasive setting can hurt the credibility of a claim or person. Below are
different types of logical fallacy that can cause one to lose credibility.
Review:
Logical Fallacy
Ad hominem /
Attacking the
person
Definition
Example
An attack against an opponent’s character
instead of against an argument.
Francis Bacon’s philosophy should be
dismissed since Bacon was removed
from his chancellorship for dishonesty.
Hasty generalization When a claim draws a conclusion based on
insufficient evidence. A stereotype is one type
of hasty generalization.
Women are bad drivers.
Stereotype
Blondes are dumb.
A generalization that results from an
oversimplification or a bias.
New:
Logical Fallacy
Definition
Example
Begging the
question
When the claim is included in the evidence, so
nothing is proven.
Since I’m not lying, I must be telling the
truth.
Card stacking
Completely leaving out one side of an
argument.
There should be no “moment of silence”
in schools because it discriminates
against certain religions, causes
unnecessary controversy and takes away
from study time.
Circular Reasoning
Trying to prove one idea with another idea that A writer is a person who writes.
is too similar to the first idea; such an error
logical moves backward in its attempt to move
forward
Either / or; also
called False
dilemma
When only two options are given when many
choices exist.
Either you’re for the Republican plan or
you’re a socialist and un-American.
Faulty cause and
effect
Lack of connection between two consecutive
events.
Because I watched “Friends” last night,
I passed my math test.
Overgeneralizing
Very little is true all of the time, so be careful
of sweeping statements.
The only reason teenagers quit school is
to avoid the work.
Oversimplifying
Most issues worth arguing are complex, so be
wary of “quick fix” explanations or solutions.
If women would just stay home to care
for their children, we would have no
day-care problem in this country.
Wrong direction
The cause-and-effect relationship is reversed.
Cancer causes smoking.
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Types of Advertising Claims
Review:
Claim
Definition
Example
The Weasel Word
Claim
A weasel word is a modifier that practically negates the claim
that follows. Words or claims that appear substantial upon first
look but disintegrate into hollow meaninglessness on analysis
are weasels.
Helps, like, virtually,
fights, etc.
“Helps control dandruff
symptoms with regular
use.”
“Listerine fights bad
breath.”
The Unfinished
Claim
The ad claims the product is better, or has more of something
but does not finish the comparison.
“Anacin: Twice as much
of the pain reliever
doctors recommend
most.”
(Twice as much as what
pain reliever?)
The Scientific or
Statistical Claim
This method uses some sort of scientific proof or experiment,
very specific numbers, or an impressive mystery ingredient.
“Certs contains a
sparkling drop of
Retsyn.”
(“Retsyn” is their name
for vegetable oil)
New:
Claim
Definition
Example
The “Compliment
the Consumer”
Claim
This claim butters up the consumer with some form of
flattery.
“We think a cigar
smoker is someone
special.”
The “So What”
Claim
This is a claim which is true, but which gives no real
advantage to the product. It is similar to the “water is wet”
claim, except it claims an advantage which is not shared by
most of the other brands in the product category.
“Geritol has more than
twice the iron of ordinary
supplements.”
(But is twice as much
beneficial to the body?)
The Vague Claim
The vague claim is simply not clear. It uses words that are
colorful but meaningless and subjective and emotional
opinions that defy verification. It often overlaps with other
claims.
“Lips have never looked
so luscious.”
(How could you prove or
disprove such a claim?)
The “Water is Wet” This technique claims something about the product that is
Claim
true for any brand in that product category. This is usually a
statement of fact, but not a real advantage over the
competition.
“Rheingold, the natural
beer.”
(It is made from grains
and water, as are other
beers)
“We’re Different
and Unique” Claim
“There is no other
mascara like it.”
The claim states simply that there is nothing else quite like
the product advertised. The uniqueness is supposed to be
interpreted as a claim to superiority.
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