REVIEW SHEET A& P II: EXAM 3 Chapters 24 & 25
Chapter 24: Digestive System
What are the Accessory and Alimentary Organs?
What is mechanical & chemical digestion and where does each occur?
definitions of propulsion, ingestion, absorption, secretion, defecation, peristalsis, segmentation
where does segmentation occur?
know peritoneal membranes, what is mesentery? what organs are bound by the lesser omentum? and the
greater omentum?
what is peritonitis? What are some causes? why is it bad? what is ascites?
which organs are retroperitoneal? know which arteries supply the organs of the GI tract: superior mesenteric,
gastric, pancreatic, cystic, inferior mesenteric, hepatic artery, hepatic vein , hepatic portal vein
4 tunics: which is innermost? which is outermost? functions & characteristics of each. What type of muscle is
found in the muscularis?
Which layers have autonomic nerve plexuses? What are they named? What effect does ACh have? and NE?
Which binds to alpha receptors? Which binds to muscarinic receptors?
what is the ENS? what is its function? What is the main neurotransmitter released from it? What does it do?
Mouth: lined with what type of tissue? what type of digestion occurs in the mouth?
what structures form the hard/soft palates and what is the purpose of the palates? what is found in a papillae?
what is the function of the tongue?, teeth? know the # and types of teeth. How many deciduous? permanent?
What material is on the outside of the tooth? what is the bulk of the tooth made up of? what is the central pulp
cavity? and the gingiva? what is the purpose of cementum?
salivary glands: what are their names and where are they? What are the components and functions of saliva?
Pharynx: parts of the pharynx that food passes through
Esophagus: functions: passes through what organ? what is a hiatal hernia? what sphincter lies between the
esophagus and stomach? what is reflux?
what is GERD? Why does it happen? What are the 3 treatment options (know mechanisms of each)
Stomach: gross and microscopic anatomy
what do gastric glands produce? what do they do? what do parietal cells secrete? how do they make HCl?
what is the function of HCl?
what do goblet cells make?
what do chief cells secrete? and G cells? what is the function of gastrin?
what type of digestion occurs in the stomach? what is pepsinogen? what does pepsin do? what is the pH of the
stomach?
stages for increasing gastric secretions: all 3 (cephalic, gastric, intestinal): what occurs during each and what
triggers each. know the hormones and neural reflexes and the effects from each.
what is the enterogastric reflex? how is it protective? What is its function?
motility/emptying of stomach what is it? how long is chyme in the stomach? duration depends on?
how is the stomach lining (epithelium) protected from the pepsin and HCl? (3 ways)
Small Intestine: gross anatomy (what are the 3 divisions?) what are the sphincters at the beginning and end
named?
Histology: what type of epithelial tissue? the small intestine is adapted for?
what are the functions of the plicae circulares, villi, microvilli? what is the is the brush border? what does the
brush border do?
what are duodenal glands? why are they only in the duodenum?
what is enterocrinin? what does it do?
what are Peyer’s Patches? why are they located b/w the ileum and cecum?
what is in intestinal juice? what is its pH? what is the function of VIP?
components and characteristics of digestive juice
Liver & gallbladder: functions and ducts (R,L hepatic, common hepatic, cystic, common bile)
what is the porta hepatic? What enters/exits here?
characteristics of liver: what is a lobule? hepatocytes: what 3 structures found in portal triad?
how is blood processed in liver? blood leaves the central vein to enter the?
what is the function of the hepatic portal vein? what are sinusoids and Kupffer cells?
Which way does blood flow through the lobule? Which way does bile flow?
Know all 9 functions of hepatocytes
What are the 5 types of hepatitis? What are the s/s of a hepatitis infection?
Know the characteristics, mode of transmission and Tx for hep-A, B, & C
What is cirrhosis? What are the main causes?
composition of bile: what does it do?, where is it stored and concentrated? what are the 4 effects of CCK
how do gallstones form? Why do they cause pain? When is a “gallstone attack” more likely to happen?
Where is the hepatopancreatic sphincter located? what does it do?
Pancreas: characteristics of pancreas and its juice: which 2 hormones control pancreatic juice? what do they
do?
which cells produce enzymes? which cells produce hormones?
What is pancreatitis? What might cause it to happen?
Large Intestine: gross anatomy: what are the divisions of the large intestine? What is the function of the
appendix?
what are haustra? what is the bacterial flora of the large intestine? what does E. Coli do for us?
Why are the “good” bacteria helpful to us? What factors might wipe them out? Why is this bad?
How can you repopulate/maintain the “good” bacterial flora in the large intestine?
what are the 3 functions of the large intestine? what is it’s motility (mass movements)
why is fiber important in the diet?
How does defecation occur? Which sphincter is involuntary? Which is voluntary? Which nerve is involved?
Hormones of digestion: site of release, trigger for release and function: gastrin, VIP, GIP, CCK, secretin,
enterocrinin
How are glucose and amino acids absorbed into the columnar epithelial cell of the small intestine?
-out of the back of the cell into interstitial fluid? and into the blood (capillary) from the interstitial fluid?
How are lipids absorbed? what is the micelle? what are the 5 types of lipoproteins?
how does the CM get from the small intestine into the blood?
If you cannot absorb fat – what type of stool might you have?
What is the first thing that happens when it enters the bloodstream? what happens to the CM remnant?
How are most minerals and vitamins absorbed? what are the lipid-soluble vitamins? and the water soluble?
What is Crohn’s disease? And Celiac disease?
Chapter 25: Nutrition, Metabolism & Body Temperature Regulation
definitions of catabolism, anabolism, how do cells use anabolic reactions?
CHO, fat, protein: how much should be in the diet, functions of each, kcal/gram for each
proteins: 4 factors which determine if AA used for energy
importance of omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids.
minerals what are the macrominerals? Why are they important? And the microminerals? Know basic
functions for those listed in notes
vitamins,:fat & water soluble vitamins: examples and brief function of each
water: why important?
Metabolism: what are oxidation-reduction reactions, what happens? what is the purpose of NAD and FAD?
substrate-level phosphorylation and oxidative phosporylation which produces the most ATP? where do they
occur?
CHO Metabolism: glycolysis , what is the first step for glycolysis?
what are the end products for glycolysis? what happens to pyruvic acid if oxygen isn’t available?
What is the transition reaction?
what is the first step of the Krebs cycle? what happens if oxaloacetic acid levels decrease (why would this
happen?)
What are the end products of the Krebs cycle? What happens to the CO2? what happens to the NADH and
FADH2 molecules?
How does the ETS (ETC) make ATP? How are the electrons used? how are the protons used? what is the
name of this process?
Know the # of ATP produced for each pathway and total for aerobic cellular respiration
functions of glucokinase, hexokinase, lipoprotein lipase
what is glycogenesis? glycogenolysis? (how does it happen in the liver? and how in skeletal muscle?)
gluconeogenesis: what can be used?
Lipid Metabolism: glycerol and FA metabolism: how is glycerol used for ATP synthesis? and fatty acids?
how many ATP from each? and from 1 TG? what is lipogenesis? what substances are made?
What is the function of VLDL? how is IDL formed? What is LDL? why is it considered the “bad” cholesterol?
how does it enter cells? what do cells use it for? what are levels for high and low risk of CV disease?
Why is HDL considered the “good” cholesterol? what are desirable levels?
What factors improve the lipid profile?
What is insulin resistance? What is metabolic syndrome? What are causes of it? How can it be treated?
How does stress impact this?
when does lipolysis occur? what are ketones (prod. from rapid lipolysis)
Protein Metabolism: oxidation of AA where occurs: what are the by products- what happens to them?
can AA be stored? What is the first step in the oxidation of AA? what happens to the keto acids?
why do we want protein synthesis to occur? where does it happen (which organelle) what are some examples
of proteins?
Absorptive vs Postabsorptive States:
Absorptive state- occurs when? what happens to the CHO, lipids and proteins?
what is the main hormone? and its functions?
Postabsorptive state: when does it occur?-how does body get glucose? why does it need it?
know the names of the processes and where they occur. what is glucose sparing? what is the role of the symp.
nervous system?
Food intake: what are effects of body temperature on appetite?
What are the effects of insulin, glucagon, epinephrine, galanin, neuropeptide Y, cortisol, ghrelin & leptin, CCK
on hunger (note: know all functions of insulin and glucagon)
Body Energy Balance: what is BMR? and TMR? what is dietary thermogenesis?
what factors increase metabolism?
Body Temp. Regulation: core vs shell temp. what is normal body temp?
what are radiation, conduction, convection, evaporation?
which region of the brain contains the thermoregulatory centers?
what is the heat promoting center: when is it active? what does it do?
what is the heat loss center? when is it active, what does it do?
what is heat exhaustion? what are signs/symptoms? causes?
what is heat stroke? signs/symptoms? causes?
how does a fever occur? why is it good? what are signs/symptoms that you are getting a fever?
What is hypothermia?