The so-called fall of the Roman Empire marks the end of ancient times and the beginning of the Middle Ages in Europe. The Middle Ages themselves are often sliced in the middle, making (1) the early Middle Ages (so-called
Dark Ages) (c500-c1000) and (2) the later Middle Ages (c1000-c1500). Of course, these time divisions are artificial. No period begins or ends on a given date. History, like a stream, flows on continuously. In fact, it would be difficult to divide the history of China, India, or early America into such historical periods as ancient times and Middle Ages.
There is little indication that living conditions in these areas underwent fairly sharp changes about 500, about 1000, or about 1500 A.D.
However, historians generally agree that Europe’s history during the thousand years after the downfall of the
Roman Empire was considerably different from Europe’s history before this event. Certain characteristics identify the
Middle Ages. Some of these characteristics were products of the past. Others pointed toward the beginnings of modern times.
How can one identify the early Middle Ages? The early Middle Ages can be characterized by fairly common disorder, disunity, and despair which long gave the period the name Dark Ages; by the growth of powerful religions and empires; by the spread of Christianity and Islam, both of which have much in common with Judaism; by frequent barbarian invasions; by a new arrangement of landholding based upon military service, called feudalism. When the organized government of Rome collapsed, western civilization was dealt a heavy blow. Business without government protection was so risky that the business class sharply declined. All but a few former merchants became farmers.
Cities decayed and art, literature and learning seemed almost at a standstill. At this time, however, China’s culture under the T’ang was flourishing.
When the Christian Church and Islam became strong, each cast light and hope into the considerably dark picture. In the so-called Dark Ages, too, the torch of Greek and Roman learning was kept burning by the Eastern
Roman (Byzantine) Empire at Constantinople. In central Europe another empire, that of Charlemagne, tried to bring order out of chaos by reviving the idea of a united Roman Empire. Some technological progress was also made, as shown by the use of the windmill, wheeled plow, and water wheel. These are reasons why some say that the so-called
Dark Ages were really not so dark! When Charlemagne’s empire split, feudalism and Christianity were the controlling forces in European life. Feudalism was a force of disunity, whereas Christianity was the one important force of unity during an age of conflict.
How can one identify the later Middle Ages? The later Middle Ages can be characterized by an increase in business and the rise of powerful business class; by the growth of towns and cities; by a decline in feudalism and the birth of nations; by an increasing interest in culture; by conflict between Christianity and Islam known as the Crusades; by a long, drawn out struggle between Popes and emperors.
Often the word medieval (pertaining to the Middle Ages) brings to mind miracles and martyrs, knights in shining armor fighting for their ladies fair, castles with drawbridges, nobles hunting, and serfs toiling. But the word medieval means much more. The medieval spirit meant faith and obedience to authority. This was very different from the ancient Greek spirit of skepticism and intellectual freedom for each individual. Medieval Europe made far more valuable scientific contributions than was formerly thought. Yet in general, medieval Europeans believed that
Aristotle, Ptolemy and Galen had recorded the correct answers to most scientific problems. It was taught and believed by many that bodily comfort here on earth was relatively unimportant. Immortality in heaven, the goal of every good
Christian, could be achieved only through the salvation of one’s soul. Therefore, since faith was considered to be the road to salvation, most persons were suspicious of scientific experimentation. Democracy and freedom of expression, as we know them, did not exist. People were born into a class from which they could seldom rise. Scholars and workers generally were regarded as inferior to the warring nobility.
All was not solemn and gloomy during the Middle Ages. The great emphasis on the afterlife did not prevent people from working hard, from playing games, from falling in love, from getting married, or from raising children.
In this period of storm and stress, the Christian Church was a haven for all who sought its guidance. In the late
Middle Ages, along with the improvement of business, national languages developed, literature flourished, and universities were founded. People began to forsake farm life for city life. Comforts increased. Europe was then on the threshold of modern times.