Disease References Sinclair 2005

advertisement
Reference Lists for Topics in Diseases of Trees and Shrubs, Second Edition
About this book
Brako, L., Rossman, A. Y., and Farr, D. F. 1995. Scientific and common names of 7,000
vascular plants in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 295 pp.
Brunt, A. A., Crabtree, K., Dallwitz, M. J., Gibbs, A. J., Watson, L. and Zurcher, E. J., eds.
1996– . Plant viruses online. Descriptions and lists from the VIDE database. Austral. Natl.
Univ., Canberra. Internet resource.
CAB International. CABI Bioscience Databases. Index Fungorum. The CABI Bioscience and
CBS Database of Fungal Names. Internet resource.
Conners, I. L. 1967. An annotated index of plant diseases in Canada. Can. Dep. Agric. Pub.
1251. 381 pp.
Dirr, M. A. 1998. Manual of woody landscape plants. Stipes, Champaign, IL. 1187 pp.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
Missouri Botanical Garden, W3TROPICOS VAST (VAScular Tropicos) database. St. Louis,
MO. Internet resource.
Regenmortel, M. H. V. van, Fauquet, C. M., and Bishop, D. H. L., eds. 2000. Virus taxonomy:
classification and nomenclature of viruses. Seventh report of the International Committee on
Taxonomy of Viruses. Academic Press, San Diego. 1162 pp.
U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Fungal
Databases. Beltsville, MD. Internet resource. [Host and distribution records, nomenclature]
U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Germ Plasm
Resources Information Network. GRIN Taxonomy. Vascular Plant Database. Beltsville, MD.
Internet resource. [taxonomy, nomenclature]
U.S. Natural Resources Conservation Service. National Plant Data Center. The PLANTS
Database. Baton Rouge, LA. Internet resource. [Nomenclature and U.S. distributions]
-----------------How to use this book
Brako, L., Rossman, A. Y., and Farr, D. F. 1995. Scientific and common names of 7,000
vascular plants in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 295 pp.
U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Germ Plasm
Resources Information Network. GRIN Taxonomy. Vascular Plant Database. Beltsville, MD.
Internet resource.
-----------------Overview of fungal diseases of woody plants, page 2
Alexopoulos, C. J., Mims, C. W., and Blackwell, M. 1996. Introductory mycology. 4th ed.
Wiley, New York. 868 pp.
Arx, J. A. von 1987. Plant pathogenic fungi. Cramer, Stuttgart. 288 pp.
Bacon, C. W., and White, J. F., eds. 2000. Microbial endophytes. Marcel Dekker, New York.
487 pp.
Barnett, H. L., and Hunter, B. B. 1998. Illustrated genera of imperfect fungi. 4th ed. APS Press,
1
St. Paul, MN. 218 pp.
Carmichael, J. W., Kendrick, W. B., Conners, I. L., and Sigler, L. 1980. Genera of
Hyphomycetes. Univ. Alberta Press, Edmonton. 386 pp.
Ellis, M. B., and Ellis, J. P. 1997. Microfungi on land plants: an identification handbook.
Richmond, Slough, UK. 868 pp.
Esser, K., and Bennett, J. W., eds. 1994–2003. The Mycota. Vols. I–XII. Springer, New York.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Gilbertson, R. L., and Ryvarden, L. 1986, 1987. North American polypores. Vol. I: Albatrellus–
Lindtneria. Vol. II: Megasporaporia–Wrightoporia. Fungiflora, Oslo. 885 pp.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
Griffin, D. H. 1994. Fungal physiology. 2nd ed. Wiley-Liss, New York. 458 pp.
Hanlin, R. T. 1998. Combined keys to Illustrated genera of ascomycetes, Vols. I, II. APS Press,
St. Paul. 263 pp.
Ingold, C. T., and Hudson, H. J. 1993. The biology of fungi. 6th ed. Chapman & Hall, New
York. 224 pp.
Jennings, D. H. 1995. The physiology of fungal nutrition. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge,
UK. 622 pp.
Jennings, D. H., and Lysek, G. 1996. Fungal biology: understanding the fungal lifestyle. BIOS
Scientific Pub., Oxford, UK. 156 pp.
Kendrick, B. 1992. The fifth kingdom. 2nd ed. Focus Information Group, Newburyport, MA.
406 pp.
Kirk, P. M., Cannon, P. F., David, J. C., and Stalpers, J. A., eds. 2001. Ainsworth & Bisby's
dictionary of the fungi. 9th ed. CABI Pub., New York. 655 pp.
Leslie, J. F. 1993. Fungal vegetative compatibility. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 31:127–150.
Moore, D. 1998. Fungal morphogenesis. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, UK. 469 pp.
Moore, D., and Frazer, L. N. 2002. Essential fungal genetics. Springer-Verlag, New York. 357
pp.
Moore-Landecker, E. 1996. Fundamentals of the fungi. 4th ed. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle
River, NJ. 574 pp.
Rossman, A. Y., Palm, M. E., and Spielman, L. J. 1987. A literature guide for the identification
of plant pathogenic fungi. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 252 pp.
Saikkonen, K., Faeth, S. H., Helander, M. L., and Sullivan T. J. 1998. Fungal endophytes: a
continuum of interactions with host plants. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 29:319–343.
Seifert, K. A., Gams, W., Crous, P. W., and Samuels, G. J., eds. 2000. Molecules, morphology
and classification: towards monophyletic genera in the Ascomycetes. Stud. Mycol. No. 45.
230 pp.
Sivanesan, A. 1984. The bitunicate ascomycetes and their anamorphs. J. Cramer, Vaduz,
Liechtenstein. 701 pp.
Smith, I. M., Dunez, J., Phillips, D. H., Lelliott, R. A. and Archer, S. A., eds. 1988. European
handbook of plant diseases. Blackwell Scientific, Boston. 583 pp.
Sutton, B. C. 1980. The Coelomycetes: Fungi Imperfecti with pycnidia, acervuli, and stromata.
Commonw. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK. 696 pp.
Ulloa, M., and Hanlin, R. T. 2000. Illustrated dictionary of mycology. APS Press, St. Paul,
Minn. 448 pp.
2
Weber, H. 1993. Allgemeine Mykologie. Gustav Fischer, Jena. 541 pp.
-----------------Taphrina diseases: Plates 1–2, pages 3–5
Ainsworth, G. C., Sparrow, F. K., and Sussman, A. S. 1973. The fungi. An advanced treatise.
Vols. IVA and IVB. Academic Press, New York. 621 and 504 pp.
Arx, J. A. von, Walt, J. P. van der, and Liebenberg, N. V. D. M. 1982. The classification of
Taphrina and other fungi with yeast-like cultural states. Mycologia 74:285–296.
Callan, B. E. 1998. Diseases of Populus in British Columbia: a diagnostic manual. Can. For.
Serv. Pac. For. Cent., Victoria, BC. 157 pp.
Camp, R. R., and Whittingham, W. F. 1974. Ultrastructural alterations in oak leaves parasitized
by Taphrina caerulescens. Am. J. Bot. 61:964–972.
Conners, I. L. 1967. An annotated index of plant diseases in Canada. Can. Dep. Agric. Pub.
1251. 381 pp.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Funk, A. 1985. Foliar fungi of western trees. Can. For. Serv. Pac. For. Res. Cent. BC-X-265. 159
pp.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
Henry, B. W. 1951. Oak leaf blister severe in south Mississippi. Plant Dis. Rep. 35:384.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Johnston, J. C., and Trione, E. J. 1974. Cytokinin production by the fungi Taphrina cerasi and T.
deformans. Can. J. Bot. 52:1583–1589.
Kern, H., and Naef-Roth, S. 1975. Zur Bildung von Auxinen und Cytokininen durch TaphrinaArten. Phytopathol. Z. 83:193–222.
Mix, A. J. 1949. A monograph of the genus Taphrina. Univ. Kans. Sci. Bull. 23, Pt. I, No. 1. 167
pp.
Nishida, H., and Sugiyama, J. 1994. Archiascomycetes: detection of a major new lineage within
the Ascomycota. Mycoscience 35:361–366.
Ogawa, J. M., and English, H. 1991. Diseases of temperate zone tree fruit and nut crops. Univ.
Calif. Div. Agric. & Nat. Resour. Pub. 3345. 461 pp.
Raggi, V. 1987. Water relations in peach leaves infected by Taphrina deformans (peach leaf
curl)—diffusive resistance, total transpiration and water potential. Physiol. Mol. Plant
Pathol. 30:109-120.
Raggi, V. 1995. CO2 assimilation, respiration and chlorophyll fluorescence in peach leaves
infected by Taphrina deformans. Physiol. Plant. 93:540–544.
Schneider, A., and Dargent, R. 1977. Localisation et comportement du mycélium de Taphrina
deformans dans le mésophyll et sous la cuticle des feuilles de pêcher (Prunus persica). Can.
J. Bot. 55:2485–2495.
Schneider, A., and Sutra, G. 1969. Les modalités de l'infection de Populus nigra L. par Taphrina
populina Fr. C. R. Hebd. Séances Acad. Sci. (Paris) D 269:1056–1059.
Scorza, R. 1992. Evaluation of foreign peach and nectarine introductions in the U.S. for
resistance of leaf curl [Taphrina deformans (Berk.) Tul.]. Fruit Var. J. 46:141–145.
3
Spanos, K. A., and Woodward, S. 1994. The effects of Taphrina betulina infection on growth of
Betula pubescens. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 24:277–286.
Taris, B., and Avenard, J.-C. 1969. Comparaison de l'évolution au printemps des attaques de
deux Taphrinales, Taphrina aurea (Pers.) Fr. et Taphrina deformans (Berk.) Tul., et se
développant sur les jeunes bouquets foliaires de Populus et de Prunus persica. C. R. Hebd.
Séances Acad. Sci., Paris D 268:3078–3081.
Taylor, J., and Birdwell, D. O. 2000. A scanning electron microscopic study of the infection of
water oak (Quercus nigra) by Taphrina caerulescens. Mycologia 92:309–311.
Thompson, E. O. 1939. Morphological differences in Taphrina caerulescens upon different
species of Quercus. Univ. Kans. Sci. Bull. 26:357–366.
-----------------Powdery mildews, Plates 3–5, pages 7–11
Overview
Adams, G. C. J., Gottwald, T. R., and Leach, C. M. 1986. Environmental factors initiating
liberation of conidia of powdery mildews. Phytopathology 76:1239–1245.
Ainsworth, G. C., Sparrow, F. K., and Sussman, A. S. 1973. The fungi. An advanced treatise.
Vols. IVA, IVB. Academic Press, New York. 621 and 504 pp.
Amano, K. 1986. Host range and geographical distribution of the powdery mildew fungi. Jap.
Sci. Soc. Press, Tokyo. 741 pp.
Bélanger, R. R., Bushnell, W. R., Dik, A. J., and Carver, T. L. W., eds. 2002. The powdery
mildews: a comprehensive treatise. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 292 pp.
Braun, U. 1987. A monograph of the Erysiphales (powdery mildews). Nova Hedwigia Beih. No.
89. 700 pp.
Braun, U. 1995. The powdery mildews (Erysiphales) of Europe. Gustav Fischer, Jena. 337 pp.
Braun, U. 1999. Some critical notes on the classification and generic concept of the
Erysiphaceae. Schlechtendalia 3:49–55.
Braun, U., and Takamatsu, S. 2000. Phylogeny of Erysiphe, Microsphaera, Uncinula
(Erysipheae) and Cystotheca, Podosphaera, Sphaerotheca (Cystotheceae) inferred from
rDNA ITS sequences—some taxonomic consequences. Schlechtendalia 4:1–33.
Celio, G. J., and Hausbeck, M. K. 1998. Conidial germination, infection structure formation, and
early colony development of powdery mildew on poinsettia. Phytopathology 88:105–113.
Cook, R. T. A., Inman, A. J., and Billings, C. 1997. Identification and classification of powdery
mildew anamorphs using light and scanning electron microscopy and host range data. Mycol.
Res. 101:975–1002.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
Hirata, T., Cunnington, J. H., Paksiri, U., Limkaisang, S., Shishkoff, N., Grigaliunaite, B., Sato,
Y., Takamatsu, S., Urailak, P., and Saranya, L. 2000. Evolutionary analysis of subsection
Magnicellulatae of Podosphaera section Sphaerotheca (Erysiphales) based on the rDNA
internal transcribed spacer sequences with special reference to host plants. Can. J. Bot.
78:1521–1530.
4
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Mori, Y., Sato, Y., and Takamatsu, S. 2000. Evolutionary analysis of the powdery mildew fungi
using nucleotide sequences of the nuclear ribosomal DNA. Mycologia 92:74–93.
Robbins, J. 2001. The powdery mildews as gall-inducers. Cecidology 16:13–22.
Saenz, G. S., and Taylor, J. W. 1999. Phylogeny of the Erysiphales (powdery mildews) inferred
from internal transcribed spacer ribosomal DNA sequences. Can. J. Bot. 77:150–168.
Sivapalan, A. 1993. Effects of water on germination of powdery mildew conidia. Mycol. Res.
97:71–76.
Spencer, D. M., ed. 1978. The powdery mildews. Academic Press, New York. 565 pp.
Vineet, K., Babu, A. M., Sharma, D. D., and Datta, R. K. 1998. Penetration and infection process
of Phyllactinia corylea on mulberry leaf causing powdery mildew—I. Asexual stage. J.
Phytopathol. 146:469–472.
-----------------Representative diseases and pathogens
Adams, G. C. J., Gottwald, T. R., and Leach, C. M. 1986. Environmental factors initiating
liberation of conidia of powdery mildews. Phytopathology 76:1239–1245.
Amano, K. 1986. Host range and geographical distribution of the powdery mildew fungi. Jap.
Sci. Soc. Press, Tokyo. 741 pp.
Bender, C. L., and Coyier, D. L. 1984. Isolation and identification of races of Sphaerotheca
pannosa var. rosae. Phytopathology 74:100–103.
Braun, U. 1987. A monograph of the Erysiphales (powdery mildews). Nova Hedwigia Beih. No.
89. 700 pp.
Conti, G. G., Bassi, M., Maffi, D., and Bonecchi, R. 1985. Host-parasite relationship in a
susceptible and a resistant rose cultivar inoculated with Sphaerotheca pannosa. I. Fungal
growth, mechanical barriers and hypersensitive reaction. Phytopathol. Z. 113:71–80.
Cortesi, P., Gadoury, D. M., Seem, R. C., and Pearson, R. C. 1995. Distribution and retention of
cleistothecia of Uncinula necator on the bark of grapevines. Plant Dis. 79:15–19.
Ellis, M. A., Ferree, D. C., and Spring, D. E. 1981. Photosynthesis, transpiration, and
carbohydrate content of apple leaves infected by Podosphaera leucotricha. Phytopathology
71:392–395.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Gadoury, D. M., and Pearson, R. C. 1991. Heterothallism and pathogenic specialization in
Uncinula necator. Phytopathology 81:1287–1293.
Gardner, M. W., Yarwood, C. E., and Kuafala, T. 1972. Oak mildews. Plant Dis. Rep. 56:313–
317.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
Hewitt, H. G., and Ayers, E. G. 1976. Effect of infection by Microsphaera alphitoides (powdery
mildew) on carbohydrate levels and translocation of seedlings of Quercus robur. New
Phytol. 77:379–390.
Hibben, C. R., Walker, J. T., and Allison, J. R. 1977. Powdery mildew ratings of lilac species
and cultivars. Plant Dis. Rep. 61:192–196.
5
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Jones, A. L., and Aldwinckle, H. S., eds. 1990. Compendium of apple and pear diseases. APS
Press, St. Paul, MN. 100 pp.
Khairi, S. M., and Preece, T. F. 1978. Hawthorn powdery mildew: occurrence, survival, and
ascospore productivity of Podosphaera clandestina cleistothecia in England. Trans. Br.
Mycol Soc. 71:289–293.
Khairi, S. M., and Preece, T. F. 1978. Hawthorn powdery mildew: overwintering mycelium in
buds and the effect of clipping hedges on disease epidemiology. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc.
71:399–404.
Klein, L. A., Windham, M. T., and Trigiano, R. N. 1998. Natural occurrence of Microsphaera
pulchra and Phyllactinia guttata on two Cornus species. Plant Dis. 82:383–385.
Mmbaga, M. T. 2000. Winter survival and source of primary inoculum of powdery mildew of
dogwood in Tennessee. Plant Dis. 84:574–579.
Mmbaga, M. T. 2002. Ascocarp formation and survival and primary inoculum production in
Erysiphe (sect. Microsphaera) pulchra in dogwood powdery mildew. Ann. Appl. Biol.
141:153–161.
Ogawa, J. M., and English, H. 1991. Diseases of temperate zone tree fruit and nut crops. Univ.
Calif., Div. Agric. & Nat. Resour. Pub. 3345. 461 pp.
Ogawa, J. M., Zehr, E. I., Bird, G. W., Ritchie, D. F., Uriu, K., and Uyemoto, J. K., eds. 1995.
Compendium of stone fruit diseases. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 98 pp.
Pearson, R. C., and Goheen, A. C. 1988. Compendium of grape diseases. APS Press, St. Paul,
MN. 93 pp.
Price, T. V. 1970. Epidemiology and control of powdery mildew (Sphaerotheca pannosa) on
roses. Ann. Appl. Biol. 65:231–248.
Ranney, T. G., Grand, L. F., and Knighten, J. L. 1995. Susceptibility of cultivars and hybrids of
kousa dogwood to dogwood anthracnose and powdery mildew. J. Arboric. 21:11–16.
Smith-Fiola, D. 1995. Pest resistant ornamental plants. Rutgers Coop Exten., Toms River, NJ. 29
pp.
Spencer, D. M., ed. 1978. The powdery mildews. Academic Press, New York. 565 pp.
Spotts, R. A., Covey, R. P., and Chen, P. M. 1981. Effect of low temperature on survival of
apple buds infected with the powdery mildew fungus. HortScience 16:781–783.
Vineet, K., Babu, A. M., Sharma, D. D., and Datta, R. K. 1998. Penetration and infection process
of Phyllactinia corylea on mulberry leaf causing powdery mildew—I. Asexual stage. J.
Phytopathol. 146:469–472.
West, E. 1933. Powdery mildew of crape myrtle caused by Erysiphe lagerstroemiae n. sp.
Phytopathology 23:814–819.
Windham, M. T., Witte, W. T., and Trigiano, R. N. 2003. Three white-bracted cultivars of
Cornus florida resistant to powdery mildew. HortScience 38:1253–1255.
Yarwood, C. E., and Gardner, M. W. 1972. Powdery mildews favored by man. Plant Dis. Rep.
56:852–855.
-----------------Witches'-broom of hackberry and black witches'-broom of serviceberry, Plate 6, page 13
Witches'-broom of hackberry
6
Amrine, J. W. Jr., and Stasny, T. A. 1994. Catalog of the Eriophyoidea (Acarina: Prostigmata) of
the world. Indira Pub. House, West Bloomfield, MI. 804 pp.
Braun, U., and Takamatsu, S. 2000. Phylogeny of Erysiphe, Microsphaera, Uncinula
(Erysipheae) and Cystotheca, Podosphaera, Sphaerotheca (Cystotheceae) inferred from
rDNA ITS sequences—some taxonomic consequences. Schlechtendalia No. 4:1–33.
Hepting, G. H. 1971. Diseases of forest and shade trees of the United States. USDA Agric.
Handb. 386. 658 pp.
Keifer, H. H., Baker, E. W., Kono, T., Delfinado, M., and Styer, W. E. 1982. An illustrated
guide to plant abnormalities caused by eriophyid mites in North America. USDA Agric.
Handb. 573. 178 pp.
Kellerman, W. A., and Swingle, W. T. 1889. Branch knot of the hackberry. Kans. Agric. Exp.
Stn. Rep. 1888:302–315.
Snetsinger, R., and Himelick, E. B. 1957. Observations on witches'-broom of hackberry. Plant
Dis. Rep. 41:541–544.
-----------------Witches'-broom of serviceberry
Corlett, M. 1976. Apiosporina collinsii. Fungi Canadenses No. 76. 2 pp.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Kennedy, L. L., and Stewart, A. W. 1967. Development and taxonomy of Apiosporina collinsii.
Can. J. Bot. 45:1597–1604.
Sprague, R., and Heald, F. D. 1927. A witches' broom of the service berry. Trans. Am.
Microscop. Soc. 46:219–247.
-----------------Dark fungi on plants: sooty molds, black mildews, and others, Plate 7, page 15
Barr, M. E. 1955. Species of sooty molds from western North America. Can. J. Bot. 33:497–514.
Barr, M. E. 1987. Prodromus to Class Loculoascomycetes. Pub. by author, Univ. Mass.,
Amherst. 168 pp. Distrib. by Luprecht & Cramer, Ltd., Forestburgh, NY.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on Plants and Plant
Products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Davis, C., and Meyer, T. 1997. Field guide to tree diseases of Ontario. NODA/NFP Tech. Rep.
TR-46. Can. For. Serv. Great Lakes For. Cent. and Ontario Minist. Nat. Resour., Sault Ste.
Marie. 135 pp.
Funk, A. 1985. Foliar fungi of western trees. Can. For. Serv. Pac. For. Res. Cent. BC-X-265. 159
pp.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
Hansen, E. M., and Lewis, K. J., eds. 1997. Compendium of conifer diseases. APS Press, St.
Paul, MN. 101 pp.
Hansford, C. G. 1961. The Meliolineae. A monograph. Sydowia Beih. 2. 806 pp.
Hansford, C. G. 1965. Iconographia meliolinearum. Sydowia Beih. 5. Unpaged.
Hughes, S. J. 1976. Sooty moulds. Mycologia 68:693–820.
Luttrell, E. S. 1940. Morenoella quercina, cause of leaf spot of oaks. Mycologia 32:652–666.
7
Luttrell, E. S. 1989. Morphology of Meliola floridensis. Mycologia 81:192–204.
Mueller, W. C., Goos, R. D., Quainoo, J., and Morgham, A. T. 1991. The structure of the
phialides (mucronate hyphopodia) of the Meliolaceae. Can. J. Bot. 69:803–807.
Mueller, W. C., Morgham, A. T., and Goos, R. D. 1991. Ultrastructure of the haustoria of
Meliola sandwicensis. Mycol. Res. 95:1208–1210.
Parbery, I. H., and Brown, J. F. 1986. Sooty moulds and black mildews in extra-tropical
rainforests. Pages 101–120 in: Microbiology of the phyllosphere. N. J. Fokkema and J. van
den Heuvel, eds. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, UK.
Reynolds, D. R. 1978. Foliicolous Ascomycetes 1. The capnodiaceous genus Scorias:
reproduction. Nat. Hist. Mus. Los Angeles County, Contrib. Sci. No. 288. 16 pp.
Reynolds, D. R. 1979. Foliicolous Ascomycetes. 3. The stalked capnodiaceous species.
Mycotaxon 8:417–445.
Reynolds, D. R. 1989. Foliicolous fungi 8. Capnodium in California, USA. Mycotaxon 34:197–
216.
Reynolds, D. R. 1998. Capnodiaceous sooty mold phylogeny. Can. J. Bot. 76:2125–2130.
Reynolds, D. R. 1999. Capnodium citri: the sooty mold fungi comprising the taxon concept.
Mycopathologia 148:141–147.
Sivanesan 1984. The bitunicate ascomycetes and their anamorphs. J. Cramer, Vaduz. 701 pp.
Wood, B. W., Tedders, W. L., and Reilly, C. C. 1988. Sooty mold fungus on pecan foliage
suppresses light penetration and net photosynthesis. HortScience 23:851–853.
-----------------Spot anthracnoses and scabs caused by Elsinoë and Sphaceloma, Plate 8, page 17
Barrus, M. F., and Horsfall, J. G. 1928. Preliminary note on snowberry anthracnose.
Phytopathology 18:797–801.
Burkholder, W. H. 1917. The anthracnose disease of the raspberry and related plants. Cornell
Univ. Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull. 395:153–183.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant products in the United
States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Florida Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services, Division of Plant Industry. 1962–
present. Plant Pathology Circulars 1– .
Horst, R. K. 2001. Westcott's plant disease handbook. 6th ed. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New
York. 1008 pp.
Jenkins, A. E. 1930. Sphaceloma symphoricarpi. Mycologia 22:106–110.
Jenkins, A. E., and Bitancourt, A. A. 1957. Studies in the Myriangiales. VII. Elsinoaceae on
evergreen euonymus, rose, and English ivy. Mycologia 49:95–101.
Jenkins, A. E., Bitancourt, A. A., and Pollack, F. G. 1946. Spot anthracnoses in the United
States. J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 36:416–421.
Jenkins, A. E., Miller, J. H., and Hepting, G. H. 1953. Spot anthracnose and other leaf and petal
spots of flowering dogwood. Natl. Hortic. Mag. 32:57–69.
Ruehle, G. D. 1941. Poinsettia scab caused by Sphaceloma. Phytopathology 31:947–948.
Spiers, A. G., and Hopcroft, D. H. 1992. Some electron microscope observations of conidium
ontogeny of Sphaceloma murrayae on Salix. N.Z. J. Bot. 30:353–358.
Sutton, B. C., and Pollack, F. G. 1973. Gloeosporium cercocarpi and Sphaceloma cercocarpi.
Mycologia 65:1125–1134.
8
Swart, L., Crous, P. W., Kang, J., Mchau, G. R. A., Pascoe, I., Palm, M. E., and Kang, J. C.
2001. Differentiation of species of Elsinoë associated with scab disease of Proteaceae based
on morphology, symptomatology, and ITS sequence phylogeny. Mycologia 93:366–379.
-----------------Diseases caused by Mycosphaerella and its anamorphs, Plate 9, page 19
Overview and listed pathogens
Andersen, P. C., Aldrich, J. H., and Gould, A. B. 1990. Impact of pecan leaf blotch on gas
exchange of pecan leaves. Plant Dis. 74:203–207.
Braun, U. 1993. New genera of phytopathogenic Deuteromycetes. Cryptog. Bot. 4:107–114.
Braun, U. 1995, 1998. A monograph of Cercosporella, Ramularia, and allied genera
(phytopathogenic hyphomycetes). Vols. 1, 2. IHW-Verlag, Munich. 333 and 493 pp.
Braun, U. 1995. Miscellaneous notes on phytopathogenic hyphomycetes (II). Mycotaxon
55:223–241.
Conners, I. L. 1967. An annotated index of plant diseases in Canada. Can. Dep. Agric. Pub.
1251. 381 pp.
Corlett, M. 1991. An annotated list of the published names in Mycosphaerella and Sphaerella. J.
Cramer, Berlin. 328 pp.
Corlett, M. 1995. An annotated list of the published names in Mycosphaerella and Sphaerella:
corrections and additions. Mycotaxon 53:37–56.
Crous, P. W. 1998. Mycosphaerella spp. and their anamorphs associated with leaf spot diseases
of Eucalyptus. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 170 pp.
Crous, P. W., Aptroot, A., Kang, J. C., Braun, U., and Wingfield, M. J. 2000. The genus
Mycosphaerella and its anamorphs. Stud. Mycol. No. 45:107–121.
Crous, P. W., and Braun, U. 2003. Mycosphaerella and its anamorphs: 1. Names published in
Cercospora and Passalora. Centraalbur. voor Schimmelcultures, Utrecht. 571 pp.
Crous, P. W., Kang, J., Braun, U., and Kang, J. C. 2001. A phylogenetic redefinition of
anamorph genera in Mycosphaerella based on ITS rDNA sequence and morphology.
Mycologia 93:1081–1101.
Evans, H. C. 1984. The genus Mycosphaerella and its anamorphs Cercoseptoria, Dothistroma,
and Lecanosticta on pines. Commonw. Mycol. Inst. Mycol. Pap. No. 153. 102 pp.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Gilman, J. C., and Wadley, B. N. 1952. The ascigerous stage of Septoria querceti Theum.
Mycologia 44:216–220.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
Guo, Y.-L., and Hsieh, W.-H. 1995. The genus Pseudocercospora in China. Mycosystema
Monogr. Ser. No. 2. International Academic Pub., Beijing. 388 pp.
Hodges, C. S., and Haasis, F. A. 1964. The perfect stage of Cercospora magnoliae. Mycologia
56:53–57.
Jenkins, A. E. 1930. The cherry leaf-spot fungus, Mycosphaerella cerasella Aderh., its
morphology and life history. Phytopathology 20:329–337
Patton, R. F., and Spear, R. N. 1983. Needle cast of European larch caused by Mycosphaerella
laricina in Wisconsin and Iowa. Plant Dis. 67:1149–1153.
Seaver, F. J. 1922. Phyllostictales. N. Am. Flora 6 (Pt. 1):1–84.
9
Sivanesan, A. 1984. The bitunicate ascomycetes and their anamorphs. Cramer, Vaduz. 701 pp.
Sivanesan, A., and Holliday, P. 1976. Mycosphaerella citri. C.M.I. Descr. Pathogenic Fungi
Bact. No. 510. 2 pp.
Stewart, E. L., Liu, Z., Crous, P. W., and Szabo, L. J. 1999. Phylogenetic relationships among
some cercosporoid anamorphs of Mycosphaerella based on rDNA sequence analysis. Mycol.
Res. 103:1491–1499.
Sutton, B. C., and Hennebert, G. L. 1994. Interconnection amongst anamorphs and their possible
contribution to ascomycete systematics. Ascomycete systematics. Problems and perspectives
in the nineties. D. L. Hawksworth, ed. NATO ASI Series 269:77–100.
Sutton, T. B., Brown, E. M., and Hawthorne, D. J. 1987. Biology and epidemiology of
Mycosphaerella pomi, cause of Brooks fruit spot of apple. Phytopathology 77:431–437.
Vanev, S. G., and Aa, H. A. van der. 1998. An annotated list of the published names in
Asteromella. Persoonia 17:47–67.
Mycosphaerella leaf spots of ash
Braun, U. 1994. Studies on Ramularia and allied genera. Nova Hedwigia 58:191–222.
Braun, U. 1995, 1998. A monograph of Cercosporella, Ramularia, and allied genera
(phytopathogenic hyphomycetes). Vols. 1, 2. IHW-Verlag, Munich.
Hepting, G. H. 1971. Diseases of forest and shade trees of the United States. USDA Agric.
Handb. 386. 658 pp.
Riffle, J. W., and Peterson, G. W., tech. coords. 1986. Diseases of trees in the Great Plains.
USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-129. 149 pp.
Wolf, F. A. 1939. Leafspot of ash and Phyllosticta viridis. Mycologia 31:258–266.
Wolf, F. A., and Davidson, R. W. 1941. Life cycle of Piggotia fraxini, causing leaf disease of
ash. Mycologia 33:526–539.
-----------------Diseases caused by Mycosphaerella and its anamorphs, continued, Plate 10, page 21
Leaf spot of walnut
Kessler, K. J. Jr. 1984. Mycosphaerella juglandis, causal agent of a leaf spot of Juglans nigra.
Mycologia 76:362–366.
Kessler, K. J. Jr. 1985. Mycosphaerella leaf spot of black walnut. Plant Dis. 69:1092–1094.
-----------------Greasy spot of citrus
Pretorius, M. C., Crous, P. W., Groenewald, J. Z., and Braun, U. 2003. Phylogeny of some
cercosporoid fungi from Citrus. Sydowia 55:286–305.
Timmer, L. W., Roberts, P. D., Darhower, H. M., Bushong, P. M., Stover, E. W., Peever, T. L.,
and Ibáñez, A. M. 2000. Epidemiology and control of citrus greasy spot in different citrusgrowing areas in Florida. Plant Dis. 84:1294–1298.
Whiteside, J. O. 1970. Etiology and epidemiology of citrus greasy spot. Phytopathology
60:1409–1414.
Whiteside, J. O. 1972. Histopathology of citrus greasy spot and identification of the causal
fungus. Phytopathology 62:260–263.
Whiteside, J. O. 1974. Environmental factors affecting infection of citrus leaves by
Mycosphaerella citri. Phytopathology 64:115–120.
10
Whiteside, J. O. 1981. Aberrant behavior of Mycosphaerella citri on freeze-killed citrus leaf
tissue and its taxonomic and epidemiologic implications. Phytopathology 71:1108–1110.
Whiteside, J. O., Garnsey, S. M., and Timmer, L. W., eds. 1988. Compendium of citrus diseases.
APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 80 pp.
-----------------Leaf spots of rose, mountain-ash, sycamore
Boelema, B. H. 1973. A Cercospora leaf spot and stem necrosis on Rosa spp. in the Transvaal.
Phytophylactica 5:7–12.
Crous, P. W., and Corlett, M. 1998. Reassessment of Mycosphaerella spp. and their anamorphs
occurring on Platanus. Can. J. Bot. 76:1523–1532.
Davis, B. H. 1938. The Cercospora leafspot of rose caused by Mycosphaerella rosicola.
Mycologia 30:282–298.
Horst, R. K. 1983. Compendium of rose diseases. Am. Phytopathol. Soc., St. Paul, MN. 50 pp.
Takayama, T., Yoshida, H., Araki, K., and Nakayama, K. 1983. Microbial production of abscisic
acid with Cercospora rosicola. I. Stimulation of abscisic acid accumulation by plant extracts.
Biotech. Lett. 5:55–58.
-----------------Septoria diseases of poplar and other plants, Plate 11, page 23
Septoria diseases of poplars
Bier, J. E. 1939. Septoria canker of introduced and native hybrid poplars. Can. J. Res. C17:195–
204.
Callan, B. E. 1998. Diseases of Populus in British Columbia: a diagnostic manual. Can. For.
Serv. Pac. For. Cent., Victoria, BC. 157 pp.
Krupinsky, J. M. 1989. Variability in Septoria musiva in aggressiveness. Phytopathology
79:413–416.
Lo, M. H., Abrahamson, L. P., White, E. H., and Manion, P. D. 1995. Early measures of basal
area and canker disease predict growth potential of some hybrid poplar clones. Can. J. For.
Res. 25:1113–1118.
Liang, H., Catranis, C. M., Maynard, C. A., and Powell, W. A. 2002. Enhanced resistance to the
poplar fungal pathogen, Septoria musiva, in hybrid poplar clones transformed with genes
encoding antimicrobial peptides. Biotechnol. Lett. 24:383–389.
Luley, C. J., and McNabb, H. S. Jr. 1991. Estimation of seasonal ascospore production of
Mycosphaerella populorum. Can. J. For. Res. 21:1349–1353.
Maxwell, D. L., Kruger, E. L., and Stanosz, G. R. 1997. Effects of water stress on colonization
of poplar stems and excised leaf disks by Septoria musiva. Phytopathology 87:381–388.
Newcombe, G., and Bradshaw, H. D. Jr. 1996. Quantitative trait loci conferring resistance in
hybrid poplar to leaf spot caused by Septoria populicola. Can. J. For. Res. 26:1943–1950.
Newcombe, G., and Ostry, M. 2001. Recessive resistance to Septoria stem canker of hybrid
poplar. Phytopathology 91:1081–1084.
Ostry, M. E., Wilson, L. F., and McNabb, H. S. Jr. 1989. Impact and control of Septoria musiva
on hybrid poplars. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-133. 5 pp.
Schroeder, W. R., and Lindquist, C. H. 1989. Assiniboine poplar. Can. J. Plant Sci. 69:351–353.
Sivanesan, A. 1990. Mycosphaerella populorum. C.M.I. Descr. Pathogenic Fungi Bact. No. 988.
2 pp.
11
Thompson, G. E. 1941. Leaf-spot diseases of poplars caused by Septoria musiva and S.
populicola. Phytopathology 31:241–254.
Waterman, A. M. 1954. Septoria canker of poplars in the United States. USDA Circ. 947. 24 pp.
Zalasky, H. 1978. Stem and leaf spot infections caused by Septoria musiva and S. populicola on
poplar seedlings. Phytoprotection 59:43–50.
-----------------Other Septoria diseases
Farr, D. F. 1991. Septoria species on Cornus. Mycologia 83:611–623.
Florida Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services, Division of Plant Industry. 1962–
present. Plant Pathology Circulars 1– .
Hemmi, T., and Kurata, S. 1931. Studies on septorioses of plants. II. Septoria azaleae Voglino
causing the brown-spot disease of the cultivated azaleas in Japan. Mem. Coll. Agric. Kyoto
Imp. Univ. No. 13, Art. 1. 22 pp.
Hepting, G. H. 1971. Diseases of forest and shade trees of the United States. USDA Agric.
Handb. 386. 658 pp.
Jenkins, A. E., Miller, J. H., and Hepting, G. H. 1953. Spot anthracnose and other leaf and petal
spots of flowering dogwood. Natl. Hortic. Mag. 32:57–69.
Neely, D., and Nolte, D. S. 1989. Septoria leaf spot on dogwoods. J. Arboric. 15:263–267.
Salmon, E. S., and Ware, W. M. 1927. Leaf scorch of azalea. Gard. Chron. 81:286–288.
Tehon, L. R., and Daniels, E. 1925. Notes on the parasitic fungi of Illinois—II. Mycologia
17:240–249.
Wu, W., Sutton, B. C., and Gange, A. C. 1996. Revision of Septoria species on Hebe and
Veronica and description of Kirramyces hebes sp. nov. Mycol. Res. 100:1207–1217.
-----------------Brown spot needle blight of pines, Plate 12, page 25
Barr, M. E. 1996. Planistromellaceae, a new family in the Dothideales. Mycotaxon 60:433–442.
Cordell, C. E., Anderson, R. L., Hoffard, W. H., Landis, T. D., Smith, R. S. Jr., and Toko, H. V.,
tech. coords. 1989. Forest nursery pests. USDA Agric. Handb. 680. 184 pp.
Crous, P. W., Kang, J., Braun, U., and Kang, J. C. 2001. A phylogenetic redefinition of
anamorph genera in Mycosphaerella based on ITS rDNA sequence and morphology.
Mycologia 93:1081–1101.
Evans, H. C. 1984. The genus Mycosphaerella and its anamorphs Cercoseptoria, Dothistroma,
and Lecanosticta on pines. Commonw. Mycol. Inst. Mycol. Pap. No. 153. 102 pp.
Funk, A. 1985. Foliar fungi of western trees. Can. For. Serv. Pac. For. Res. Cent. BC-X-265. 159
pp.
Huang, Z. Y., Smalley, E. B., and Guries, R. P. 1995. Differentiation of Mycosphaerella
dearnessii by cultural characters and RAPD analysis. Phytopathology 85:522–527.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Jewell, F. F. Sr. 1983. Histopathology of the brown spot fungus on longleaf pine needles.
Phytopathology 73:854–858.
Jewell, F. F. Sr. 1993. Histopathology of loblolly pine needles infected by Mycosphaerella
dearnessii, the brown-spot needle disease pathogen. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 23:110–119.
12
Kais, A. G. 1975. Environmental factors affecting brown spot infection on longleaf pine.
Phytopathology 65:1389–1392.
Kais, A. G. 1977. Influence of needle age and inoculum spore density on susceptibility of
longleaf pine to Scirrhia acicola. Phytopathology 67:686–688.
Laflamme, G., Bérubé, J. A., and Hamelin, R. C., eds. 1998. Foliage, shoot, and stem diseases of
trees. Can. For. Serv. Laurentian For. Cent. Inf. Rep. LAU-X-122. 272 pp.
Lin, Z. S., and Liang, Z. C. 1988. Comparative resistance of several pine species to brown spot
needleblight and the origin of the disease. Sci. Silvae Sinicae 24:25–47.
Peterson, G. W., tech. coord. 1986. Recent research on conifer needle diseases: conference
proceedings, 1984, Gulfport, MS. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-50. 106 pp.
Riffle, J. W., and Peterson, G. W., tech. coords. 1986. Diseases of trees in the Great Plains.
USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-129. 149 pp.
Siggers, P. V. 1944. The brown spot needle blight of pine seedlings. USDA Tech. Bull. 870. 36
pp.
Skilling, D. D., and Nicholls, T. H. 1974. Brown spot needle disease—biology and control in
Scotch pine plantations. USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. NC-109. 19 pp.
Snyder, E. B., and Derr, H. J. 1972. Breeding longleaf pines for resistance to brown spot needle
blight. Phytopathology 62:325–329.
Tainter, F. H., and Baker, F. A. 1996. Principles of forest pathology. Wiley, New York. 805 pp.
Wolf, F. A., and Barbour, W. J. 1941. Brown-spot needle disease of pines. Phytopathology
31:61–74.
Ye, J., Qi, G., Bao, H., and Feng, W. 2000. Studies on the mechanisms of the brown spot needle
blight fungus toxin in making host cell damage. Sci. Silvae Sinicae 36:82–86.
------------------------Dothistroma needle blight of pines, Plate 13, page 27
Ades, P. K., and Simpson, J. A. 1991. Variation in susceptibility to Dothistroma needle blight
among provenances of Pinus radiata var. radiata. Silvae Genet. 40:6–13.
Ades, P. K., Simpson, J. A., and Eldridge, K. G. 1992. Genetic variation in susceptibility of
Dothistroma needle blight among provenances and families of Pinus muricata. Can. J. For.
Res. 22:1111–1117.
Barr, M. E. 1996. Planistromellaceae, a new family in the Dothideales. Mycotaxon 60 60:433–
442.
Bradshaw, R. E., Ganley, R. J., Jones, W. T., and Dyer, P. S. 2000. High levels of dothistromin
toxin produced by the forest pathogen Dothistroma pini. Mycol. Res. 104:325–332.
Butin, H. 1985. Teleomorph- und Anamorph-entwicklung von Scirrhia pini Funk & Parker auf
Nadeln von Pinus nigra Arnold. Sydowia 38:20–27.
Capretti, P., Heiniger, U., and Stephan, R., eds. 1995. Shoot and foliage diseases in forest trees.
IUFRO Proceedings. Vallombrosa, Firenze, Italy, 1994. Inst. Patol. Zool. For. Agrar., Univ.
Studi di Firenze, Italy. 309 pp.
Chou, C. K. S. 1991. Perspectives of disease threat in large-scale Pinus radiata monoculture—
the New Zealand experience. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 21:71–81.
Cordell, C. E., Anderson, R. L., Hoffard, W. H., Landis, T. D., Smith, R. S. Jr., and Toko, H. V.,
tech. coords. 1989. Forest nursery pests. USDA Agric. Handb. 680. 184 pp.
Evans, H. C. 1984. The genus Mycosphaerella and its anamorphs Cercoseptoria, Dothistroma,
and Lecanosticta on pines. Commonw. Mycol. Inst. Mycol. Pap. No. 153. 102 pp.
13
Franich, R. A., Carson, M. J., and Carson, S. D. 1986. Synthesis and accumulation of benzoic
acid in Pinus radiata needles in response to tissue injury by dothistromin, and correlation
with resistance of P. radiata families to Dothistroma pini. Physiol. Mol. Plant Pathol.
28:267–286.
Funk, A. 1985. Foliar fungi of western trees. Can. For. Serv. Pac. For. Res. Cent. BC-X-265. 159
pp.
Gibson, I. A. S. 1972. Dothistroma blight of Pinus radiata. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 10:51–72.
Gibson, I. A. S. 1974. Impact and control of Dothistroma blight of pines. Eur. J. For. Pathol.
4:89–100.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Ivory, M. H. 1994. Records of foliage pathogens of Pinus species in tropical countries. Plant
Pathol. 43:511–518.
Laflamme, G., Bérubé, J. A., and Hamelin, R. C., eds. 1998. Foliage, shoot, and stem diseases of
trees. Can. For. Serv. Laurentian For. Cent. Inf. Rep. LAU-X-122. 272 pp.
Peterson, G. W. 1981. Pine and juniper diseases in the Great Plains. USDA For. Serv. Gen.
Tech. Rep. RM-86. 47 pp.
Peterson, G. W. 1984. Resistance to Dothistroma pini within geographic seed sources of Pinus
ponderosa. Phytopathology 74:956–960.
Shain, L., and Franich, R. A. 1981. Induction of Dothistroma blight symptoms with
dothistromin. Physiol. Plant Pathol. 19:49–55.
Stoessl, A., Abramowski, Z., Lester, H. H., Rock, G. L., and Towers, G. H. N. 1990. Further
toxic properties of the fungal metabolite dothistromin. Mycopathologia 112:179–186.
Woods, A. J. 2003. Species diversity and forest health in northwest British Columbia. For.
Chron. 79:892–897.
-----------------Stigmina leaf spot of palms and Mycosphaerella leaf spot of Yucca, Plate 14, page 29
Stigmina leaf spot of palms
Alfieri, S. A. J., Langdon, K. R., Kimbrough, J. W., El-Gholl, N. E., and Wehlburg, C. 1994.
Diseases and disorders of plants in Florida. Fla. Dep. Agric. Consum. Serv., Div. Plant
Indus., Gainesville. 1114 pp.
Chase, A. R., and Broschat, T. K., eds. 1991. Diseases and disorders of ornamental palms. APS
Press, St. Paul, MN. 56 pp.
Elliott, M. L. Broschat, T. K., Uchida, Y., and Simone, G. W. 2004. Compendium of ornamental
palm diseases and disorders. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 69 pp.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Florida Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services, Division of Plant Industry. 1962–
present. Plant Pathology Circulars 1– .
Hughes, S. J. 1952. Studies on micro-fungi. XIV. Stigmella, Stigmina, Camptomeris,
Polythrincium, and Fusicladiella. Commonw. Mycol. Inst. Mycol. Pap. No. 49. 25 pp.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
14
Sutton, B. C., and Pascoe, I. G. 1989. Reassessment of Peltosoma, Stigmina and
Batcheloromyces and description of Hyphothyrium gen. nov. Mycol. Res. 92:210–222.
-----------------Mycosphaerella leaf spot of Yucca
Braun, U. 1993. New genera of phytopathogenic Deuteromycetes. Cryptog. Bot. 4:107–114.
Corlett, M. 1991. An annotated list of the published names in Mycosphaerella and Sphaerella. J.
Cramer, Berlin. 328 pp.
Deighton, F. C. 1973. Five North American Cercospora-like fungi. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc.
61:107–120.
Simay, E. I. 1987. Stigmina leaf spot of Yucca filamentosa in Hungary. Novenyvedelem 23:413–
417.
-----------------Blights and leaf spots caused by fungi of the Cercospora complex, Plate 15, page 31
Overview
Braun, U. 1993. New genera of phytopathogenic Deuteromycetes. Cryptog Bot. 4:107–114.
Braun, U. 1993. Taxonomic notes on some species of the Cercospora complex (II). Cryptog.
Bot. 2:235–244.
Braun, U. 1995. A monograph of Cercosporella, Ramularia, and allied genera (phytopathogenic
hyphomycetes). Vol. 1. IHW-Verlag, Munich. 333 pp.
Braun, U. 1996. Taxonomic notes on some species of the Cercospora complex (IV). Sydowia
48:205–217.
Chupp, C. 1954. A monograph of the fungus genus Cercospora. Published by author, Ithaca,
NY. 667 pp.
Cordell, C. E., Anderson, R. L., Hoffard, W. H., Landis, T. D., Smith, R. S. Jr., and Toko, H. V.,
tech. coords. 1989. Forest nursery pests. USDA Agric. Handb. 680. 184 pp.
Crous, P. W. 1998. Mycosphaerella spp. and their anamorphs associated with leaf spot diseases
of Eucalyptus. 170 pp.
Crous, P. W., and Braun, U. 2003. Mycosphaerella and its anamorphs: 1. Names published in
Cercospora and Passalora. Centraalbur. voor Schimmelcultures, Utrecht. 571 pp.
Crous, P. W., Kang, J., Braun, U., and Kang, J. C. 2001. A phylogenetic redefinition of
anamorph genera in Mycosphaerella based on ITS rDNA sequence and morphology.
Mycologia 93:1081–1101.
Deighton, F. C. 1976. Studies on Cercospora and allied genera. VI. Pseudocercospora Speg.,
Pantospora Cif. and Cercoseptoria Petr. Commonw. Mycol. Inst. Mycol. Pap. No. 140. 168
pp.
Deighton, F. C. 1987. New species of Pseudocercospora and Mycovellosiella, and new
combinations into Pseudocercospora and Phaeoramularia. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 88:365–
391.
Guo, Y.-L., and Hsieh, W.-H. 1995. The genus Pseudocercospora in China. Mycosystema
Monogr. Ser. No. 2. International Academic Pub., Beijing. 388 pp.
Guo, Y.-L., and Liu, X. J. 1991. Studies on the genus Pseudocercospora in China V.
Mycosystema 4:99–118.
15
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Stewart, E. L., Liu, Z., Crous, P. W., and Szabo, L. J. 1999. Phylogenetic relationships among
some cercosporoid anamorphs of Mycosphaerella based on rDNA sequence analysis. Mycol.
Res. 103:1491–1499.
-----------------"Cercospora" blights of Cupressaceae
Baker, W. A., Partridge, E. C., and Morgan-Jones, G. 2000. Notes on Hyphomycetes. LXXVIII.
Asperisporium sequoiae, the causal organism of conifer needle blight, reclassified in
Cercosporidium, with comments on the status of the genus. Mycotaxon 76:247–256.
Cordell, C. E., Anderson, R. L., Hoffard, W. H., Landis, T. D., Smith, R. S. Jr., and Toko, H. V.,
tech. coords. 1989. Forest nursery pests. USDA Agric. Handb. 680. 184 pp.
Crous, P. W., and Braun, U. 2003. Mycosphaerella and its anamorphs: 1. Names published in
Cercospora and Passalora. Centraalbur. voor Schimmelcultures, Utrecht. 571 pp.
Hodges, C. S., and May, L. C. 1972. Cercospora sequoiae in Brasil. Fitopatologia 7:32–34.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Ito, K., Shibukawa, K., and Kobayashi, T. 1974. Etiological and pathological studies on the
needle blight of Cryptomeria japonica – IV. Blight and canker of the tree caused by
Cercospora sequoiae Ellis et Everhart (C. cryptomeriae Shirai). Bull. Gov. For. Exp. Stn.,
Tokyo 268:81–134.
Kelman, A., Hodges, C. S., and Garris, H. R. 1960. Needle blight of redcedar, Juniperus
virginiana L. Plant Dis. Rep. 44:527–531.
Peterson, G. W. 1977. Epidemiology and control of a blight of Juniperus virginiana caused by
Cercospora sequoiae var. juniperi. Phytopathology 67:234–238.
Peterson, G. W. 1981. Pine and juniper diseases in the Great Plains. USDA For. Serv. Gen.
Tech. Rep. RM-86. 47 pp.
Plakidas, A. G. 1945. Blight of Oriental arborvitae. Phytopathology 35:181–190.
Sutton, B. C., and Hodges, C. S. 1990. Revision of Cercospora-like fungi on Juniperus and
related conifers. Mycologia 82:313–325.
Tisserat, N. A., and Pair, J. C. 1997. Susceptibility of selected juniper cultivars to cedar-apple
rust, Kabatina tip blight, Cercospora needle blight and Botryosphaeria canker. J. Environ.
Hortic. 15:160–163.
-----------------Blights and leaf spots caused by fungi of the Cercospora complex, continued, Plate 16, page
33
Some "Cercospora" leaf spots
Braun, U. 1993. Taxonomic notes on some species of the Cercospora complex (II). Cryptog.
Bot. 2:235–244.
Braun, U. 1996. Taxonomic notes on some species of the Cercospora complex (IV). Sydowia
48:205–217.
16
Chupp, C. 1954. A monograph of the fungus genus Cercospora. Published by author, Ithaca,
NY. 667 pp.
Crous, P. W., Ferreira, F. A., and Sutton, B. C. 1997. A comparison of the fungal genera
Phaeophleospora and Kirramyces (Coelomycetes). S.Afr. J. Bot. 63:111–115.
Crous, P. W., and Wingfield, M. J. 1997. New species of Mycosphaerella occurring on
Eucalyptus leaves in Indonesia and Africa. Can. J. Bot. 75:781–790.
Crous, P. W., Wingfield, M. J., Marasas, W. F. O., and Sutton, B. C. 1989. Pseudocercospora
eucalyptorum sp. nov. on Eucalyptus leaves. Mycol. Res. 93:394–398.
Deighton, F. C. 1987. New species of Pseudocercospora and Mycovellosiella, and new
combinations into Pseudocercospora and Phaeoramularia. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 88:365–
391.
Gill, D. L., and Sobers, E. K. 1974. Control of Cercospora sp. leafspot of Ligustrum japonicum.
Plant Dis. Rep. 58:1015–1017.
Guo, Y.-L., and Hsieh, W.-H. 1995. The genus Pseudocercospora in China. Mycosystema
Monogr. Ser. No. 2. International Academic Pub., Beijing. 388 pp.
Guo, Y.-L., and Liu, X. J. 1991. Studies on the genus Pseudocercospora in China V.
Mycosystema 4:99–118.
Horie, H., and Kobayashi, T. 1979. Brown leaf spot of mountain-laurel, Kalmia latifolia L.,
caused by Cercospora kalmiae Ell. & Ev. Bull. Tokyo Agric. Exp. Stn. 12:10–18.
McArthur, G. W. F. M. 1959. Cercospora leaf spot on Rhododendron (C. handelii Bubak). N.Z.
J. Agric. Res. 2:86–89.
Peterson, J. L., Davis, S. H. Jr., and Judd, R. W. Jr. 1976. Effect of fungicide and application
timing on Cercospora leafspot of mountain laurel. Plant Dis. Rep. 60:138–140.
Pirozynski, K. A. 1974. Cercospora handelii. Fungi Canadenses No. 22. 2 pp.
Plakidas, A. G. 1940. Angular leaf spot of Pittosporum. Mycologia 32:601–608.
Sobers, E. K. 1964. Cercospora diseases of Ligustrum. Proc. Fla. State Hortic. Soc. 77:486–489.
Zhao, W. X., and Guo, Y. L. 1993. Studies on Hyphomycetes of Zhangjiajie in Hunan. II.
Cercospora and Pseudocercospora. Acta Mycol. Sinica 12:193–199.
-----------------Linden leaf blotch and leaf spots caused by Coniothyrium, Microsphaeropsis, Sonderhenia,
and "Hendersonia," Plate 17, page 35
Linden leaf blotch
Butin, H., and Kehr, R. 1995. Leaf blotch of lime associated with Asteromella tiliae comb. nov.
and the latter's connection to Didymosphaeria petrakiana. Mycol. Res. 99:1191–1194.
Sutton, B. C. 1980. The Coelomycetes: Fungi Imperfecti with pycnidia, acervuli, and stromata.
Commonw. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK. 696 pp.
U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Fungal
Databases. Beltsville, MD. Internet resource.
-----------------Coniothyrium and Microsphaeropsis
Barr, M. E. 1992. Additions to and notes on the Phaeosphaeriaceae (Pleosporales,
Loculoascomycetes). Mycotaxon 43:371–400.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
17
Horst, R. K. 1983. Compendium of rose diseases. Am. Phytopathol. Soc., St. Paul, MN. 50 pp.
Howells, J. 1993. Clematis wilt. A review of the literature. Plantsman 15:148–160.
Huhndorf, S. M. 1992. Systematics of Leptosphaeria species found on the Rosaceae. Ill. Nat.
Hist. Surv. Bull. 34:479–534.
Humphreys-Jones, D. R. 1977. Leaf and shoot death (Coniothyrium fuckelii Sacc.) of Juniperus
communis L. var. compressa Carr. Plant Pathol. 26:47–48.
Humphreys-Jones, D. R. 1977. Leaf blotch (Coniothyrium viburni Died.) of Viburnum
burkwoodii L. Plant Pathol. 26:101.
Kirk, P. M., Cannon, P. F., David, J. C., and Stalpers, J. A., eds. 2001. Ainsworth & Bisby's
dictionary of the fungi. 9th ed. CABI Pub., New York. 655 pp.
Kowalski, T., and Krygier, J. 1996. Mycological study on symptomless and diseased needles in
pine stand attacked by Lophodermella sulcigena (Rostr.) v. Hohn. Phytopathol. Polon.
11:159–168.
Mitchell, C. P., Millar, C. S., and Minter, D. W. 1978. Studies on decomposition of Scots pine
needles. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 71:343–348.
Moreau, M., Moreau, C., and Péresse, M. 1971. Une maladie chancreuse des genévriers
d'ornement. Ann. Phytopathol. 3:233–241.
Morgan-Jones, G., and White, J. F. J. 1987. Notes on Coelomycetes. III. Concerning
Microsphaeropsis concentrica: morphology and ultrastructure. Mycotaxon 30:177–187.
Old, K. M., Wingfield, M. J., and Yuan, Z. K. 2003. A manual of diseases of eucalypts in SouthEast Asia. Center for International Forestry Research, Jakarta, Indonesia. 98 pp.
Schulz, U. 1981. Untersuchungen zur biologischen Bekämpfung von Cytospora-Arten. Z.
Pflanzenkr. Pflanzenschutz 88:132–141.
Sivanesan, A. 1984. The bitunicate ascomycetes and their anamorphs. Cramer, Vaduz, Austria.
701 pp.
Sobers, E. K. 1967. The perfect stage of Coniothyrium concentricum on leaves of Yucca
aloifolia. Phytopathology 57:234–235.
Sutton, B. C. 1980. The Coelomycetes: Fungi Imperfecti with pycnidia, acervuli, and stromata.
Commonw. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK. 696 pp.
U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Fungal
Databases. Beltsville, MD. Internet resource.
-----------------Sonderhenia and the "Hendersonia" group of fungi
Crous, P. W., Ferreira, F. A., and Sutton, B. C. 1997. A comparison of the fungal genera
Phaeophleospora and Kirramyces (Coelomycetes). S.Afr. J. Bot. 63:111–115.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Funk, A. 1985. Foliar fungi of western trees. Can. For. Serv. Pac. For. Res. Cent. BC-X-265. 159
pp.
Kowalski, T., and Krygier, J. 1996. Mycological study on symptomless and diseased needles in
pine stand attacked by Lophodermella sulcigena (Rostr.) v. Hohn. Phytopathol. Polon.
11:159–168.
Mitchell, C. P., Williamson, B., and Millar, C. S. 1976. Hendersonia acicola on pine needles
infected by Lophodermella sulcigena. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 6:92–102.
18
Ogawa, J. M., and English, H. 1991. Diseases of temperate zone tree fruit and nut crops. Univ.
Calif., Div. Agric. & Nat. Resour. Pub. 3345. 461 pp.
Stahl, S. A., Rogers, J. D., and Adams, M. J. 1988. Observations on Hendersonia pinicola and
the needle blight of Pinus contorta. Mycotaxon 31:323–338.
Sutton, B. C. 1980. The Coelomycetes: Fungi Imperfecti with pycnidia, acervuli, and stromata.
Commonw. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK. 696 pp.
Swart, H. J., and Walker, J. 1988. Australian leaf-inhabiting fungi. XXVIII. Hendersonia on
Eucalyptus. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 90:633–641.
U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Fungal
Databases. Beltsville, MD. Internet resource.
-----------------Ascochyta blight of lilac, Plate 18, page 37
Arx, J. A. von 1970. A revision of the fungi classified as Gloeosporium, 2nd ed. Bibl. Mycol.
Vol. 24. 203 pp.
Bresadola, J. 1894. Fungi aliquot saxonici novi vel critici a cl. W. Krieger lecti. Hedwigia
33:206–210.
Curzi, M. 1927. Di uno speciale parassitismo dell' Ascochyta syringae. Riv. Patol. Veg. 17:22–
23.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
Lanier, L., Joly, P., Bondoux, P., and Bellemère. 1978. Mycologie et pathologie forestières I.
Mycologie forestière. Masson, Paris. 487 pp.
Mel'nik, V. A. 2000. Key to the fungi of the genus Ascochyta Lib. (Coelomycetes). Mitt. Biol.
Bundes. Land- u. Forstw. Berlin-Dahlem. Heft 379. Parey Buchverlag, Berlin. 192 pp.
U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Fungal
Databases. Beltsville, MD. Internet resource.
-----------------Leaf spots and blights caused by Guignardia and Phyllosticta, Plate 19, page 39
Guignardia blotch of horse-chestnut and buckeye
Aa, H. A. van der. 1973. Studies in Phyllosticta I. Stud. Mycol. No. 5. 110 pp.
Baayen, R. P., Bonants, P. J. M., Verkley, G., Carroll, G. C., Aa, H. A. van der, Weerdt, M. de,
Brouwershaven, I. R. van, Schutte, G. C., Maccheroni, W. Jr., Blanco, C. G. de, and
Azevedo, J. L. 2002. Nonpathogenic isolates of the citrus black spot fungus, Guignardia
citricarpa, identified as a cosmopolitan endophyte of woody plants, G. mangiferae
(Phyllosticta capitalensis). Phytopathology 92:464–477.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Hudson, H. J. 1987. Guignardia leaf blotch of horsechestnut. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 89:400–
401.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
19
Nag Raj, T. R. 1993. Coelomycetous anamorphs with appendage-bearing conidia. Mycologue
Pub., Waterloo, ON. 1101 pp.
National Mycological Herbarium (Canada). 1973–1993. Fungi Canadenses Nos. 1–330. Agric.
Can., Res. Branch, Biosyst. Res. Inst., Ottawa.
Neely, D. 1971. Additional Aesculus species and subspecies susceptible to leaf blotch. Plant Dis.
Rep. 55:37–38.
Neely, D., and Himelick, E. B. 1963. Aesculus species susceptible to leaf blotch. Plant Dis. Rep.
47:170.
Schneider, R. 1961 Untersuchungen über das Auftreten der Guignardia-blattbräune der
Rosskastanie (Aesculus hippocastanum) in Westdeutschland und ihren Erreger. Phytopathol.
Z. 42:272–278.
Sivanesan 1984. The bitunicate ascomycetes and their anamorphs. Cramer, Vaduz, Austria. 701
pp.
Stewart, V. B. 1916. The leaf blotch disease of horse-chestnut. Phytopathology 6:5–19.
-----------------Leaf spots and blights caused by Guignardia and Phyllosticta, continued, Plate 20, page 41
Guignardia leaf spot of Boston ivy and black rot of grapevine
Becker, C. M., and Pearson, R. C. 1996. Black rot lesions on overwintered canes of Euvitis
supply conidia of Guignardia bidwellii for primary inoculum in spring. Plant Dis. 80:24–27.
Ferrin, D. M., and Ramsdell, D. C. 1977. Ascospore dispersal and infection of grapes by
Guignardia bidwellii, the causal agent of grape black rot disease. Phytopathology 67:1501–
1505.
Ferrin, D. M., and Ramsdell, D. C. 1978. Influence of conidia dispersal and environment on
infection of grape by Guignardia bidwellii. Phytopathology 68:892–895.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Kuo, K., and Hoch, H. C. 1995. Visualization of the extracellular matrix surrounding
pycnidiospores, germlings, and appressoria of Phyllosticta ampelicida. Mycologia 87:759–
771.
Kuo, K., and Hoch, H. C. 1996. Germination of Phyllosticta ampelicida pycnidiospores:
prerequisite of adhesion to the substratum and the relationship of substratum wettability.
Fungal Genet. Biol. 20:18–29.
Kuo, K., and Hoch, H. C. 1996. The parasitic relationship between Phyllosticta ampelicida and
Vitis vinifera. Mycologia 88:626–634.
Luttrell, E. S. 1948. Physiologic specialization in Guignardia bidwellii, cause of black rot of
Vitis and Parthenocissus species. Phytopathology 38:716–723.
Pearson, R. C., and Goheen, A. C., eds. 1988. Compendium of grape diseases. APS Press, St.
Paul, MN. 93 pp.
Reddick, D. 1911. The black rot disease of grapes. Cornell Univ. Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull. 293:287–
364.
Shaw, B. D., Kuo, K., and Hoch, H. C. 1998. Germination and appressorium development of
Phyllosticta ampelicida pycnidiospores. Mycologia 90:258–268.
20
Spotts, R. A. 1980. Infection of grape by Guignardia bidwellii—factors affecting lesion
development, conidial dispersal, and conidial populations on leaves. Phytopathology 70:252–
255.
-----------------Phyllosticta leaf spots and blotches of dogwood, hazelnut, witch hazel, maples
Aa, H. A. van der. 1973. Studies in Phyllosticta I. Stud. Mycol. No. 5. 110 pp.
Aa, H. A. van der, and Vanev, S. 2002. A revision of the species described in Phyllosticta.
Centralbureau voor Schimmelcultures, Baarn. 510 pp.
Bissett, J., and Palm, M. E. 1989. Species of Phyllosticta on conifers. Can. J. Bot. 67:3378–
3385.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Fergus, C. L. 1954. An epiphytotic of Phyllosticta leaf spot of maple. Plant Dis. Rep. 38:678–
679.
Florida Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services, Division of Plant Industry. 1962–
present. Plant Pathology Circulars 1– .
Jenkins, A. E., Miller, J. H., and Hepting, G. H. 1953. Spot anthracnose and other leaf and petal
spots of flowering dogwood. Natl. Hortic. Mag. 32:57–69.
Nag Raj, T. R. 1993. Coelomycetous anamorphs with appendage-bearing conidia. Mycologue
Pub., Waterloo, ON. 1101 pp.
National Mycological Herbarium (Canada). 1973–1993. Fungi Canadenses Nos. 1–330. Agric.
Can., Res. Branch, Biosyst. Res. Inst., Ottawa.
Pearson, R. C., and Goheen, A. C., eds. 1988. Compendium of grape diseases. APS Press, St.
Paul, MN. 93 pp.
Seaver, F. J. 1922. Phyllostictales. N. Am. Flora 6 (Pt. 1):1–84.
Sivanesan 1984. The bitunicate ascomycetes and their anamorphs. J. Cramer, Vaduz, Austria.
701 pp.
Sutton, B. C. 1980. The Coelomycetes: Fungi Imperfecti with pycnidia, acervuli, and stromata.
Commonw. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK. 696 pp.
-----------------Tubakia leaf spot of oaks and other trees and fly-speck leaf spot of Vaccinium, Plate 21,
page 43
Tubakia leaf spot
Belisario, A. 1991. Dicarpella dryina sp. nov., teleomorph of Tubakia dryina. Mycotaxon
41:147–155.
Boddy, L., and Rayner, A. D. M. 1984. Fungi inhabiting oak, Quercus robur, twigs before and at
fall. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 82:501–506.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Florida Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services, Division of Plant Industry. 1962–
present. Plant Pathology Circulars 1– .
Gennaro, M., Gonthier, P., Nicolotti, G., and Cellerino, G. P. 2001. First report of Tubakia
dryina in buds and shoots of Quercus cerris and Quercus robur. Plant Dis. 85:1289.
Glawe, D. A., and Crane, J. L. 1987. Illinois fungi. 13. Tubakia dryina. Mycotaxon 29:101–112.
21
Holdenrieder, O., and Kowalski, T. 1989. Pycnidial formation and pathogenicity in Tubakia
dryina. Mycol. Res. 92:166–169.
Jones, J. P., and Holcomb, G. E. 1978. Conidium ontogeny and cytology of Tubakia dryina from
Louisiana hardwoods. Mycologia 70:1212–1216.
Limber, D. P., and Cash, E. K. 1945. Actinopelte dryina. Mycologia 37:129–137
Munkvold, G. P., and Neely, D. 1990. Pathogenicity of Tubakia dryina. Plant Dis. 74:518–522.
Munkvold, G. P., and Neely, D. 1991. Development of Tubakia dryina on host tissue. Can. J.
Bot. 69:1865–1871.
Sutton, B. C. 1973. Tubakia nom. nov. Trans Br. Mycol. Soc. 60:164.
Taylor, J. 2001. Pycnothyrium ultrastructure in Tubakia dryina. Mycol. Res. 105:119–121.
Taylor, J., and Clark, S. 1996. Infection and fungal development of Tubakia dryina on sweet
gum (Liquidambar styraciflua). Mycologia 88:613–618.
U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Fungal
Databases. Beltsville, MD. Internet resource.
Venkatasubbaiah, P., and Chilton, W. S. 1992. Phytotoxins produced by Tubakia dryina.
Mycopathologia 120:33–37.
Zhang, Y. C., and Walker, J. T. 1995. Factors affecting infection of water oak, Quercus nigra, by
Tubakia dryina. Plant Dis. 79:568–571.
-----------------Fly-speck leaf spot of Vaccinium
Boyd, E. S. 1934. A developmental study of a new species of Ophiodothella. Mycologia 26:456–
468.
Florida Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services, Division of Plant Industry. 1962–
present. Plant Pathology Circulars 1– .
Hanlin, R. T. 1990. Icones Ascomycetum Georgiae: Ophiodothella vaccinii. Mycotaxon 39:1–8.
Hanlin, R. T., Goh, T. K., and Skarshaug, A. J. 1992. A key to and descriptions of species
assigned to Ophiodothella based on the literature. Mycotaxon 44:103–126.
-----------------Lophodermium needle casts, Plate 22, page 45
Capretti, P., Heiniger, U., and Stephan, R., eds. 1995. Shoot and foliage diseases in forest trees.
IUFRO Proceedings. Vallombrosa, Firenze, Italy, 1994. Inst. Patol. Zool. For. Agrar., Univ.
Studi di Firenze, Italy. 309 pp.
Darker, G. C. 1932. The Hypodermataceae of conifers. Contrib. Arnold Arbor. No. 1. 131 pp.
Darker, G. D. 1967. A revision of the genera of the Hypodermataceae. Can. J. Bot. 45:1399–
1444.
Deckert, R. J., Hsiang, T., and Peterson, R. L. 2002. Genetic relationships of endophytic
Lophodermium nitens isolates from needles of Pinus strobus. Mycol. Res. 106:305–313.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Funk, A. 1985. Foliar fungi of western trees. Can. For. Serv. Pac. For. Res. Cent. BC-X-265. 159
pp.
Hansen, E. M., and Lewis, K. J., eds. 1997. Compendium of conifer diseases. APS Press, St.
Paul, MN. 101 pp.
Hunt, R. S., and Ziller, W. G. 1978. Host-genus keys to the Hypodermataceae of conifer leaves.
22
Mycotaxon 6:481–496.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Laflamme, G., Bérubé, J. A., and Hamelin, R. C., eds. 1998. Foliage, shoot, and stem diseases of
trees. Can. For. Serv. Laurentian For. Cent. Inf. Rep. LAU-X-122. 272 pp.
Merrill, W., and Kistler, B. R. 1976. Seasonal development and control of Lophodermium
pinastri in Pennsylvania. Plant Dis. Rep. 60:652–655.
Merrill, W., and Kistler, B. R. 1978. Needlecast and weeds interact to cause branch mortality in
Scots pine. Plant Dis. Rep. 62:200–202.
Merrill, W., and Ostry, M. E., eds. 1990. Recent research on foliage diseases. Conference
proceedings, 1989, Carlisle, PA. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-56. 145 pp.
Millar, C. S. 1981. Infection processes on conifer needles. Pages 185–207 in: Microbial ecology
of the phylloplane. J. P. Blakeman, ed. Academic Press, London. 502 pp.
Minter, D. W. 1981. Lophodermium on pines. Commonw. Mycol. Inst. Mycol. Pap. No. 147. 54
pp.
Minter, D. W., and Cannon, P. F. 1984. Ascospore discharge in some members of the
Rhytismataceae. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 83:65–92.
Minter, D. W., and Millar, C. S. 1978. Lophodermium seditiosum. C.M.I. Descr. Pathogenic
Fungi Bact. No. 568. 2 pp.
Minter, D. W., and Millar, C. S. 1980. Ecology and biology of three Lophodermium species on
secondary needles of Pinus sylvestris. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 10:169–181.
Minter, D. W., Staley, J. M., and Millar, C. S. 1978. Four species of Lophodermium on Pinus
sylvestris. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 71:295–301.
Osorio, M., and Stephan, B. R. 1989. Ascospore germination and appressorium formation invitro of some species of the Rhytismataceae. Mycol. Res. 93:439–451.
Osorio, M., and Stephan, B. R. 1991. Life cycle of Lophodermium piceae in Norway spruce
needles. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 21:152–163.
Peterson, G. W., tech. coord. 1986. Recent research on conifer needle diseases: Conference
proceedings, 1984, Gulfport, MS. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-50. 106 pp.
Sieber, T. N., Rys, J., and Holdenrieder, O. 1999. Mycobiota in symptomless needles of Pinus
mugo ssp. uncinata. Mycol. Res. 103:306–310.
Stephan, B. R., and Millar, C. S., compilers. 1975. Lophodermium on pines. Proceedings of the
5th European colloquium on forest pathology, Schmalenbeck, 1975. Mitt. Bundes. Forst- u.
Holzw. 108:1–201.
-----------------Ploioderma needle casts of pines, Plate 23, page 47
Boyce, J. S. Jr. 1954. Hypoderma needle blight of southern pines. J. For. 52:496–498.
Capretti, P., Heiniger, U., and Stephan, R., eds. 1995. Shoot and foliage diseases in forest trees.
IUFRO Proceedings. Vallombrosa, Firenze, Italy, 1994. Inst. Patol. Zool. For. Agrar., Univ.
Studi di Firenze, Italy. 309 pp.
Czabator, F. J. 1976. A new species of Ploioderma associated with a pine needle blight. Mem.
N.Y. Bot. Gard. 28:41–44.
Darker, G. C. 1932. The Hypodermataceae of conifers. Contrib. Arnold Arbor. No. 1. 131 pp.
23
Darker, G. D. 1967. A revision of the genera of the Hypodermataceae. Can. J. Bot. 45:1399–
1444.
Hunt, R. S., and Ziller, W. G. 1978. Host-genus keys to the Hypodermataceae of conifer leaves.
Mycotaxon 6:481–496.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Jewell, F. F., Sr. 1990. Histopathology of longleaf pine needles infected by Ploioderma
hedgcockii (Dearn.) Darker. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 20:24–31.
Jewell, F. F. Sr. 1994. Histopathology of Pinus elliottii var. elliottii needles infected by
Ploioderma hedgcockii. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 24:323–334.
Jewell, F. F. Sr. 2001. Histopathology of Pinus taeda needles infected by Ploioderma lethale.
For. Pathol. 31:33–42.
Kraus, J. F., and Hunt, D. L. 1971. Inherent variation of resistance to Hypoderma lethale in slash
and loblolly pines. For. Sci. 17:143–144.
Merrill, W., and Ostry, M. E., eds. 1990. Recent Research on foliage diseases. Conference
proceedings, 1989, Carlisle, PA. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-56. 145 pp.
Minter, D. W., and Cannon, P. F. 1984. Ascospore discharge in some members of the
Rhytismataceae. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 83:65–92.
Minter, D. W., and Gibson, I. A. S. 1978. Ploioderma lethale. C.M.I. Descr. Pathogenic Fungi
Bact. No. 570. 2 pp.
Peterson, G. W., tech. coord. 1986. Recent research on conifer needle diseases: Conference
proceedings, 1984, Gulfport, MS. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-50. 106 pp.
-----------------Canavirgella and Davisomycella needle casts of pines, Plate 24, page 49
Canavirgella needle cast of white pines
Cox, R. M., Percy, K. L., Jensen, K. F., and Simpson, C. M., eds. 1996. Air pollution and
multiple stresses: IUFRO proceedings, 16th international meeting for specialists in air
pollution effects on forest ecosystems, Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada, 1994. Can.
For. Serv., Fredericton, NB. 402 pp.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Linzon, S. N. 1960. The development of foliar symptoms and the possible cause and origin of
white pine needle blight. Can. J. Bot. 38:153–161.
Linzon, S. N. 1967. Histological studies of semimature-tissue needle blight on eastern white
pine. Can. J. Bot. 45:133–143.
Linzon, S. N. 1967. Ozone damage and semimature-tissue needle blight of eastern white pine.
Can. J. Bot. 45:2047–2061.
Linzon, S. N. 1968. Etiological studies on needle fungi associated with semimature-tissue needle
blight of eastern white pine. Can. J. Bot. 46:1565–1574.
Merrill, W., and Ostry, M. E., eds. 1990. Recent research on foliage diseases. USDA For. Serv.
Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-56. 145 pp.
Merrill, W., Wenner, N. G., and Dreisbach, T. A. 1996. Canavirgella banfieldii gen. and sp.
nov.: a needlecast fungus on pine. Can. J. Bot. 74:1476–1481.
24
Wenner, N. G., and Merrill, W. 1998. Pathological anatomy of needles of Pinus strobus exposed
to carbon-filtered air or to three times ambient ozone concentrations, or infected by
Canavirgella banfieldii. Can. J. Bot. 76:1331–1339.
-----------------Davisomycella needle casts
Canadian Forest Service, Forest Insect and Disease Survey. 1980–1995. Forest insect and
disease conditions in Canada. Issued annually beginning 1980; early issues titled Annual
Report.
Darker, G. C. 1932. The Hypodermataceae of conifers. Contrib. Arnold Arbor. No. 1. 131 pp.
Darker, G. D. 1967. A revision of the genera of the Hypodermataceae. Can. J. Bot. 45:1399–
1444.
Dubin, J., and Staley, J. M. 1969. Lophodermium (Davisomycella) ponderosae. Mycologia
61:396–397.
Funk, A. 1985. Foliar fungi of western trees. Can. For. Serv. Pac. For. Res. Cent. BC-X-265. 159
pp.
Hunt, R. S. 1995. Common pine needle casts and blights in the Pacific Region. Can. For. Serv.
Pac. For. Cent. For. Pest Leafl. 43. 7 pp.
Hunt, R. S., and Ziller, W. G. 1978. Host-genus keys to the Hypodermataceae of conifer leaves.
Mycotaxon 6:481–496.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Minter, D. W., and Cannon, P. F. 1984. Ascospore discharge in some members of the
Rhytismataceae. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 83:65–92.
Myren, D. T., ed. 1994. Tree diseases of eastern Canada. Natural Resources Canada, Canadian
Forest Service, Ottawa. 159 pp.
Staley, J. M. 1964. A new Lophodermium on ponderosa pine. Mycologia 56:757–762.
Worrall, J, and Sullivan, K. 2002. Discoloration of ponderosa pine on the San Juan National
Forest, 1999–2001. USDA For. Serv. Rocky Mtn. Region, For. Health Manag. Biol. Eval.
R2-02-06. 20 pp.
Ziller, W. G., and Funk, A. 1973. Studies of hypodermataceous needle diseases. III. The
association of Sarcotrochila macrospora n. sp. and Hemiphacidium longisporum n. sp. with
pine needle cast caused by Davisomycella ampla and Lophodermella concolor. Can. J. Bot.
51:1959–1963.
-----------------Elytroderma needle casts of pines, Plate 25, page 51
Capretti, P., Heiniger, U., and Stephan, R., eds. 1995. Shoot and foliage diseases in forest trees.
IUFRO Proceedings. Vallombrosa, Firenze, Italy, 1994. Inst. Patol. Zool. For. Agrar., Univ.
Studi di Firenze, Italy. 309 pp.
Childs, T. W. 1968. Elytroderma disease of ponderosa pine in the Pacific Northwest. USDA For.
Serv. Res. Pap. PNW-69. 45 pp.
Darker, G. C. 1932. The Hypodermataceae of conifers. Contrib. Arnold Arbor. No. 1. 131 pp.
Darker, G. D. 1967. A revision of the genera of the Hypodermataceae. Can. J. Bot. 45:1399–
1444.
25
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Funk, A. 1985. Foliar fungi of western trees. Can. For. Serv. Pac. For. Res. Cent. BC-X-265. 159
pp.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
Hunt, R. S., and Ziller, W. G. 1978. Host-genus keys to the Hypodermataceae of conifer leaves.
Mycotaxon 6:481–496.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Laflamme, G., Bérubé, J. A., and Hamelin, R. C., eds. 1998. Foliage, shoot, and stem diseases of
trees. Can. For. Serv. Laurentian For. Cent. Inf. Rep. LAU-X-122. 272 pp.
Merrill, W., and Ostry, M. E., eds. 1990. Recent research on foliage diseases. Conference
proceedings, 1989, Carlisle, PA. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-56. 145 pp.
Minter, D. W., and Cannon, P. F. 1984. Ascospore discharge in some members of the
Rhytismataceae. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 83:65–92.
Peterson, G. W., tech. coord. 1986. Recent research on conifer needle diseases: Conference
Proceedings, 1984, Gulfport, MS. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-50. 106 pp.
Roth, L. F. 1959. Perennial infection of ponderosa pine by Elytroderma deformans. For. Sci.
5:182–191.
Sikorowski, P. P., and Roth, L. F. 1962. Elytroderma mycelium in the phloem of ponderosa pine.
Phytopathology 52:332–336.
Waters, C. W. 1962. Significance of life history studies of Elytroderma deformans. For. Sci.
8:250–254.
-----------------Lophodermella and Cyclaneusma needle casts of pines, Plate 26, page 53
Lophodermella needle casts
Capretti, P., Heiniger, U., and Stephan, R., eds. 1995. Shoot and foliage diseases in forest trees.
IUFRO Proceedings. Vallombrosa, Firenze, Italy, 1994. Inst. Patol. Zool. For. Agrar., Univ.
Studi di Firenze, Italy. 309 pp.
Czabator, F. J., Staley, J. M., and Snow, G. A. 1971. Extensive southern pine needle blight
during 1970–71 and associated fungi. Plant Dis. Rep. 55:764–766.
Deusen, P. C. Van, and Snow, G. A. 1991. Paired-tree study suggests 20-year recurrent slash
pine blight. Can. J. For. Res. 21:1145–1147.
Funk, A. 1985. Foliar fungi of western trees. Can. For. Serv. Pac. For. Res. Cent. BC-X-265. 159
pp.
Hansen, E. M., and Lewis, K. J., eds. 1997. Compendium of conifer diseases. APS Press, St.
Paul, MN. 101 pp.
Harvey, G. M. 1976. Epiphytology of a needle cast fungus, Lophodermella morbida, in
ponderosa pine plantations in western Oregon. For. Sci. 22:223–230.
Hoff, R. J. 1985. Susceptibility of lodgepole pine to the needle cast fungus Lophodermella
concolor. USDA For. Serv. Res. Note INT-349. 6 pp.
Hunt, R. S., Ying, C. C., and Ashbee, D. 1987. Variation in damage among Pinus contorta
provenances caused by the needle cast fungus Lophodermella concolor. Can. J. For. Res.
26
17:594–597.
Hunt, R. S., and Ziller, W. G. 1978. Host-genus keys to the Hypodermataceae of conifer leaves.
Mycotaxon 6:481–496.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Millar, C. S. 1981. Infection processes on conifer needles. Pages 185–207 in: Microbial ecology
of the phylloplane. J. P. Blakeman, ed. Academic Press, London. 502 pp.
Minter, D. W., and Cannon, P. F. 1984. Ascospore discharge in some members of the
Rhytismataceae. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 83:65–92.
Mitchell, C. P., Millar, C. S., and Williamson, B. 1978. The biology of Lophodermella conjuncta
Darker on Corsican pine needles. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 8:108–118.
Peterson, G. W., tech. coord. 1986. Recent research on conifer needle diseases: Conference
proceedings, 1984, Gulfport, MS. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-50. 106 pp.
Shaw, C. G., and Leaphart, C. D. 1960. Two serious foliage diseases of western white pine in the
Inland Empire. Plant Dis. Rep. 44:655–659.
Staley, J. M. 1979. Lophodermella cerina, a pathogen of pine foliage. Phytopathology 69:1045–
1046.
Wu, H. X., and Ying, C. C. 1998. Stability of resistance to western gall rust and needle cast in
lodgepole pine provenances. Can. J. For. Res. 28:439–449.
Ying, C. C., and Hunt, R. S. 1987. Stability of resistance among Pinus contorta provenances to
Lophodermella concolor needle cast. Can. J. For. Res. 17:1596–1601.
Ziller, W. G., and Funk, A. 1973. Studies of hypodermataceous needle diseases. III. The
association of Sarcotrochila macrospora n.sp. and Hemiphacidium longisporum n.sp. with
pine needle cast caused by Davisomycella ampla and Lophodermella concolor. Can. J. Bot.
51:1959–1963.
---------------Cyclaneusma needle cast
Butin, H. 1973. Morphologische und taxonomische Untersuchungen an Naemacyclus niveus
(Pers. ex Fr.) Fuck. ex Sacc. und verwandten Arten. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 3:146–163.
Capretti, P., Heiniger, U., and Stephan, R., eds. 1995. Shoot and foliage diseases in forest trees.
IUFRO Proceedings. Vallombrosa, Firenze, Italy, 1994. Inst. Patol. Zool. For. Agrar., Univ.
Studi di Firenze, Italy. 309 pp.
Davis, C., and Meyer, T. 1997. Field guide to tree diseases of Ontario. NODA/NFP Tech. Rep.
TR-46. Can. For. Serv. Great Lakes For. Cent. and Ontario Minist. Nat. Resour., Sault Ste.
Marie. 135 pp.
DiCosmo, F., Peredo, H., and Minter, D. W. 1983. Cyclaneusma gen. nov., Naemacyclus, and
Lasiostictis, a nomenclatural problem resolved. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 13:206–212.
Franz, F., Grotjahn, R., and Acker, G. 1993. Identification of Naemacyclus minor hyphae within
needle tissues of Pinus sylvestris by immunoelectron microscopy. Arch. Microbiol. 160:265–
272.
Gadgil, P. D. 1984. Cyclaneusma (Naemacyclus) needle-cast of Pinus radiata in New Zealand.
1: Biology of Cyclaneusma minus. N.Z. J. For. Sci. 14:179–196.
27
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Kistler, B. R., and Merrill, W. 1978. Etiology, symptomatology, epidemiology, and control of
Naemacyclus needlecast of Scotch pine. Phytopathology 68:267–271.
Merrill, W., Kistler, B. R., Zang, L., and Bowen, K. 1980. Infection periods in Naemacyclus
needlecast of Scots pine. Plant Dis. 64:759–761.
Merrill, W., and Ostry, M. E., eds. 1990. Recent research on foliage diseases. Conference
proceedings, 1989, Carlisle, PA. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-56. 145 pp.
Merrill, W., and Wenner, N. G. 1996. Cyclaneusma needlecast and needle retention in Scots
pine. Plant Dis. 80:294–298.
Minter, D. W., and Cannon, P. F. 1984. Ascospore discharge in some members of the
Rhytismataceae. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 83:65–92.
Peterson, G. W., tech. coord. 1986. Recent research on conifer needle diseases: Conference
proceedings, 1984, Gulfport, MS. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-50. 106 pp.
Rack, K., and Scheidemann, U. 1987. On the succession and pathogenic properties of fungi
inhabiting pine needles. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 17:102–109.
Sieber, T. N., Rys, J., and Holdenrieder, O. 1999. Mycobiota in symptomless needles of Pinus
mugo ssp. uncinata. Mycol. Res. 103:306–310.
-----------------Rhizosphaera and Isthmiella needle casts, Plate 27, page 55
Rhizosphaera needle casts
Butin, H., and Kehr, R. 2000. Rhizosphaera pseudotsugae sp. nov. and related species. Mycol.
Res. 104:1012–1016.
Capretti, P., Heiniger, U., and Stephan, R., eds. 1995. Shoot and foliage diseases in forest trees.
IUFRO Proceedings. Vallombrosa, Firenze, Italy, 1994. Inst. Patol. Zool. For. Agrar., Univ.
Studi di Firenze, Italy. 309 pp.
Chiba, O., and Tanaka, K. 1968. The effect of sulfur dioxide on the development of pine needle
blight caused by Rhizosphaera kalkhoffii Bubak (I). J. Jap. For. Soc. 50:135–139.
Diamandis, S. 1978. "Top-dying" of Norway spruce, Picea abies (L.) Karst., with special
reference to Rhizosphaera kalkhoffii Bubak. II. Status of R. kalkhoffii in "top-dying" of
Norway spruce. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 8:345–356.
Diamandis, S., and Minter, D. W. 1980. Rhizosphaera kalkhoffii. C.M.I. Descr. Pathogenic
Fungi Bact. No. 656. 2 pp.
Dotzler, M. 1991. Infektionsversuche mit Rhizosphaera kalkhoffii und Lophodermium piceae an
unterschiedlich gestressen Jungfichten (Picea abies [L.] Karst.). Eur. J. For. Pathol. 21:107–
123.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on Plants and Plant
Products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Funk, A. 1985. Foliar fungi of western trees. Can. For. Serv. Pac. For. Res. Cent. BC-X-265. 159
pp.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
Gourbiére, F., and Morelet, M. 1978. Le genre Rhizosphaera Mangin et Hariot 1. R. oudemansii
et R. macrospora sp. nov. Rev. Mycol. 43:81–95.
28
Gourbiére, F., and Morelet, M. 1980. Le genre Rhizosphaera Mangin et Hariot 2. R. pini, R.
kobayashii, et R. kalkhoffii. Cryptog. Mycol. 1:69–81.
Juzwik, J. 1993. Morphology, cultural characteristics, and pathogenicity of Rhizosphaera
kalkhoffii on Picea spp. in northern Minnesota and Wisconsin. Plant Dis. 77:630–634.
Kumi, J., and Lang, K. J. 1979. Susceptibility of various spruce species to Rhizosphaera
kalkhoffii and some cultural characteristics of the fungus in vitro. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 9:35–
46.
Laflamme, G., Bérubé, J. A., and Hamelin, R. C., eds. 1998. Foliage, shoot, and stem diseases of
trees. Can. For. Serv. Laurentian For. Cent. Inf. Rep. LAU-X-122. 272 pp.
Magan, N., Kirkwood, I. A., McLeod, A. R., and Smith, M. K. 1995. Effect of open-air
fumigation with sulphur dioxide and ozone on phyllosphere and endophytic fungi of conifer
needles. Plant Cell Environ. 18:291–302.
Manter, D. K., and Livingston, W. H. 1996. Influence of thawing rate and fungal infection by
Rhizosphaera kalkhoffii on freezing injury in red spruce (Picea rubens) needles. Can. J. For.
Res. 26:918–927.
Merrill, W., and Kistler, B. R. 1978. Accelerated development of Rhizosphaera needlecast of
blue spruce in Pennsylvania. Plant Dis. Rep. 62:34–35.
Merrill, W., and Ostry, M. E., eds. 1990. Recent research on foliage diseases. Conference
proceedings, 1989, Carlisle, PA. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-56. 145 pp.
Nicholls, T. H., Prey, A. J., and Skilling, D. D. 1974. Rhizosphaera kalkhoffii damages blue
spruce Christmas tree plantations. Plant Dis. Rep. 58:1094–1096.
Waterman, A. M. 1947. Rhizosphaera kalkhoffii associated with a needle cast of Picea pungens.
Phytopathology 37:507–511.
-----------------Isthmiella needle casts
Darker, G. C. 1932. The Hypodermataceae of conifers. Contrib. Arnold Arbor. No. 1. 131 pp.
Darker, G. D. 1967. A revision of the genera of the Hypodermataceae. Can. J. Bot. 45:1399–
1444.
Funk, A. 1985. Foliar fungi of western trees. Can. For. Serv. Pac. For. Res. Cent. BC-X-265. 159
pp.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
Hiratsuka, Y. 1987. Forest tree diseases of the prairie provinces. Can. For. Serv. Inf. Rep. NorX-286. 142 pp.
Hiratsuka, Y., Langor, D. W., and Crane, P. E. 1995. Forest insects and diseases of the prairie
provinces. Can. For. Serv. North. For. Cent. Spec. Rep. 3. 297 pp.
Hunt, R. S., and Ziller, W. G. 1978. Host-genus keys to the Hypodermataceae of conifer leaves.
Mycotaxon 6:481–496.
Peterson, G. W., tech. coord. 1986. Recent research on conifer needle diseases: Conference
proceedings, 1984, Gulfport, MS. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-50. 106 pp.
Staley, J. M., and Hawksworth, F. G. 1967. Bifusella crepidiformis on Engelmann spruce. Plant
Dis. Rep. 51:791–792.
Ziller, W. G. 1968. Studies of hypodermataceous needle diseases. I. Isthmiella quadrispora sp.
nov. causing needle blight of alpine fir. Can. J. Bot. 46:1377–1381.
------------------
29
Rhabdocline and Swiss needle casts of Douglas-fir, Plate 28, page 57
Rhabdocline needle cast
Brandt, R. W. 1960. The Rhabdocline needle cast of Douglas-fir. State Univ. Coll. For.
(Syracuse, NY) Tech. Pub. 84. 66 pp.
Funk, A. 1985. Foliar fungi of western trees. Can. For. Serv. Pac. For. Res. Cent. BC-X-265. 159
pp.
Gernandt, D. S., Platt, J. L., Stone, J. K., Spatafora, J. W., Holst-Jensen, A., Hamelin, R. C., and
Kohn, L. M. 2001. Phylogenetics of Helotiales and Rhytismatales based on partial small
subunit nuclear ribosomal DNA sequences. Mycologia 93:915–933.
Hoff, R. J. 1987. Susceptibility of inland Douglas-fir to Rhabdocline needle cast. USDA For.
Serv. Res. Note INT-375. 3 pp.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
McDowell, J., and Merrill, W. 1985. Rhabdocline taxa in Pennsylvania. Plant Dis. 69:714–715.
Merrill, W., and Ostry, M. E., eds. 1990. Recent research on conifer needle diseases. Conference
proceedings, 1989, Carlisle, PA. USDA For. Serv. Gen Tech. Rep. WO-56. 145 pp.
Parker, A. K. 1970. Effect of relative humidity and temperature on needle cast disease of
Douglas-fir. Phytopathology 60:1270–1273.
Parker, A. K., and Reid, J. 1969. The genus Rhabdocline Syd. Can. J. Bot. 47:1533–1545.
Stephan, B. R. 1980. Prüfung von Douglasien-Herkünften auf Resistenz gegen Rhabdocline
pseudotsugae in Infektionsversuchen. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 10:152–161.
Stimm, B., and Dong, P. H. 2001. The Kaiserslautern Douglas fir provenance trial after nine
decades of observation. Forstwiss. Centralbl. 120:173–186.
Stone, J. K. 1988. Fine structure of latent infections by Rhabdocline parkeri on Douglas-fir, with
observations on uninfected epidermal cells. Can. J. Bot. 66:45–54.
-----------------Swiss needle cast
Boyce, J. S. 1940. A needle cast of Douglas-fir associated with Adelopus gäumannii.
Phytopathology 30:649–659.
Butin, H. 1970. Zwei neue Arten der Gattung Phaeocryptopus Naumov. Phytopathol. Z. 68:269–
275.
Chastagner, G. A., and Byther, R. S. 1983. Infection period of Phaeocryptopus gaeumannii on
Douglas-fir needles in western Washington. Plant Dis. 67:811–813.
Chastagner, G. A., Byther, R. S., MacDonald, J. D., and Michaels, E. 1984. Impact of Swiss
needle cast on postharvest hydration and needle retention of Douglas-fir Christmas trees.
Plant Dis. 68:192–195.
Funk, A. 1985. Foliar fungi of western trees. Can. For. Serv. Pac. For. Res. Cent. BC-X-265. 159
pp.
Hansen, E. M., Stone, J. K., Capitano, B. R., Rosso, P., Sutton, W., Winton, L., Kanaskie, A.,
and McWilliams, M. G. 2000. Incidence and impact of Swiss needle cast in forest plantations
of Douglas-fir in coastal Oregon. Plant Dis. 84:773–778.
Hood, I. A. 1982. Phaeocryptopus gaeumannii on Pseudotsuga menziesii in southern British
Columbia. N.Z. J. For. Sci. 12:415–424.
30
Laflamme, G., Bérubé, J. A., and Hamelin, R. C., eds. 1998. Foliage, shoot, and stem diseases of
trees. Can. For. Serv. Laurentian For. Cent. Inf. Rep. LAU-X-122. 272 pp.
Maguire, D. A., Kanaskie, A., Voelker, W., Johnson, R., and Johnson, G. 2002. Growth of
young Douglas-fir plantations across a gradient in Swiss needle cast severity. West. J. Appl.
For. 17:86–95.
Manter, D. K., Bond, B. J., Kavanagh, K. L., Rosso, P. H., and Filip, G. M. 2000. Pseudothecia
of Swiss needle cast fungus, Phaeocryptopus gaeumannii, physically block stomata of
Douglas-fir, reducing CO2 assimilation. New Phytol. 148:481–491.
McDermott, J. M., and Robinson, R. A. 1989. Provenance variation for disease resistance in
Pseudotsuga menziesii to the Swiss needle-cast pathogen, Phaeocryptopus gaeumannii. Can.
J. For. Res. 19:244–246.
Michaels, E., and Chastagner, G. A. 1984. Distribution, severity, and impact of Swiss needle cast
in Douglas-fir Christmas trees in western Washington and Oregon. Plant Dis. 68:939–942.
Michaels, E., and Chastagner, G. A. 1984. Seasonal availability of Phaeocryptopus gaeumannii
ascospores and conditions that influence their release. Plant Dis. 68:942–944.
Nelson, E. E., Silen, R. R., and Mandel, N. L. 1988. Effects of Douglas-fir parentage on Swiss
needlecast expression. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 19:1–6.
Stimm, B., and Dong, P. H. 2001. The Kaiserslautern Douglas fir provenance trial after nine
decades of observation. Forstwiss. Centralbl. 120:173–186.
Winton, L. M., Manter, D. K., Stone, J. K., and Hansen, E. M. 2003. Comparison of
biochemical, molecular, and visual methods to quantify Phaeocryptopus gaeumannii in
Douglas-fir foliage. Phytopathology 93:121–126.
-----------------Meria needle blight of larch and Didymascella needle blight of cedar, Plate 29, page 59
Meria needle blight of larch
Batko, S. 1956. Meria laricis on Japanese and hybrid larch in Britain. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc.
39:13–16.
Cohen, L. I. 1967. The pathology of Hypodermella laricis on larch, Larix occidentalis. Am. J.
Bot. 54:118–124.
Cooley, S. J. 1984. Meria laricis on nursery seedlings of western larch in Washington. Plant Dis.
84:826.
Cordell, C. E., Anderson, R. L., Hoffard, W. H., Landis, T. D., Smith, R. S. Jr., and Toko, H. V.,
tech. coords. 1989. Forest nursery pests. USDA Agric. Handb. 680. 184 pp.
Funk, A. 1985. Foliar fungi of western trees. Can. For. Serv. Pac. For. Res. Cent. BC-X-265. 159
pp.
Garbutt, R. 1996. Foliage diseases in western larch in British Columbia. Can. For. Serv. Pac.
For. Cent. For. Pest Leafl. 71. 4 pp.
Gernandt, D. S., Camacho, F. J., and Stone, J. K. 1997. Meria laricis, an anamorph of
Rhabdocline. Mycologia 89:735–744.
Peace, T. R. 1962. Pathology of trees and shrubs. Clarendon Press, Oxford. 722 pp.
Peace, T. R., and Holmes, C. H. 1933. Meria laricis. The leaf cast disease of larch. Oxford For.
Mem. 15. 29 pp.
Rehfeldt, G. E. 1992. Breeding strategies for Larix occidentalis: adaptations to the biotic and
abiotic environment in relation to improving growth. Can. J. For. Res. 22:5–13.
31
Rehfeldt, G. E. 1995. Genetic variation, climate models and the ecological genetics of Larix
occidentalis. For. Ecol. Manag. 78:21–37.
-----------------Didymascella needle blight of cedar
Funk, A. 1985. Foliar fungi of western trees. Can. For. Serv. Pac. For. Res. Cent. BC-X-265. 159
pp.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Kope, H. H. 2000. Didymascella thujina. Fungi Canadenses No. 343. Can. J. Plant Pathol.
22:407–409.
Pantidou, M. E., and Darker, G. D. 1963. The genus Didymascella on Juniperus. Mycologia
55:415–420.
Pawsey, R. G. 1960. An investigation into Keithia disease of Thuja plicata. Forestry 33:174–
186.
Trotter, D., Shrimpton, G., and Kope, H. 1994. The effects of Keithia blight on outplanting
performance of western redcedar container seedlings at two reforestation sites in British
Columbia—preliminary results. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-257:196–202.
Weir, J. R. 1916. Keithia thujina, the cause of a serious leaf disease of the western red cedar.
Phytopathology 6:360–363.
-----------------Snow blights, Plate 30, page 61
Arx, J. A. von. 1987. Plant pathogenic fungi. Cramer, Berlin, Stuttgart. 288 pp.
Björkman, E. 1948. Studier över snöskyttesvampens (Phacidium infestans Karst.) biologi samt
metoder för snöskyttets bekämpande. Meddel. fran Statens Skogsforskningsinst. 37(2):1–
136.
Cordell, C. E., Anderson, R. L., Hoffard, W. H., Landis, T. D., Smith, R. S. Jr., and Toko, H. V.,
tech. coords. 1989. Forest nursery pests. USDA Agric. Handb. 680. 184 pp.
Davis, C., and Meyer, T. 1997. Field guide to tree diseases of Ontario. NODA/NFP Tech. Rep.
TR-46. Can. For. Serv. Great Lakes For. Cent. and Ontario Minist. Nat. Resour., Sault Ste.
Marie. 135 pp.
DiCosmo, F., Nag Raj, T. R., and Kendrick, W. B. 1984. A revision of the Phacidiaceae and
related anamorphs. Mycotaxon 21:1–234.
Faull, J. H. 1930. The spread and control of Phacidium blight in spruce plantations. J. Arnold
Arbor. 11:136–147.
Funk, A. 1985. Foliar fungi of western trees. Can. For. Serv. Pac. For. Res. Cent. BC-X-265. 159
pp.
Gernandt, D. S., Platt, J. L., Stone, J. K., Spatafora, J. W., Holst-Jensen, A., Hamelin, R. C., and
Kohn, L. M. 2001. Phylogenetics of Helotiales and Rhytismatales based on partial small
subunit nuclear ribosomal DNA sequences. Mycologia 93:915–933.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
32
Kurkela, T. T. 1996. Ascospore production period of Phacidium infestans, a snow blight fungus
on Pinus sylvestris. Scand. J. For. Res. 11:60–67.
Lagerberg, T. 1949. Some notes on the Phacidiaceae and a new member of this family,
Lophophacidium hyperboreum nov. gen. et sp. Svensk Bot. Tidskr. 43:420–437.
Reid, J., and Cain, R. F. 1962. Studies on the organisms associated with "snow-blight" of
conifers in North America. I. A new genus of the Helotiales. II. Some species of the genera
Phacidium, Lophophacidium, Sarcotrochila, and Hemiphacidium. Mycologia 54:194–200,
481–497.
Roll-Hansen, F. 1989. Phacidium infestans. A literature review. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 19:237–250.
Smerlis, E. 1967. Pathogenicity of Phacidium abietis. Plant Dis. Rep. 51:678–679.
Smerlis, E. 1968. Pathogenicity of Phacidium taxicolum on Canadian yew. Plant Dis. Rep.
52:403–404.
Smerlis, E., and Saint-Laurent, M. 1966. Pathogenicity of Lophophacidium hyperboreum
Lagerberg. Plant Dis. Rep. 50:356–357.
Ziller, W. G., and Funk, A. 1973. Studies of hypodermataceous needle diseases. III. The
association of Sarcotrochila macrospora n. sp. and Hemiphacidium longisporum n. sp. with
pine needle cast caused by Davisomycella ampla and Lophodermella concolor. Can. J. Bot.
51:1959–1963.
-----------------Brown felt blights, Plate 31, page 63
Barr, M. E. 1984. Herpotrichia and its segregates. Mycotaxon 20:1–38.
Barr, M. E. 1987. Prodromus to Class Loculoascomycetes. Pub. by author, Univ. Mass.,
Amherst. 168 pp. Distrib. by Luprecht & Cramer, Ltd., Forestburgh, NY.
Bazzigher, G. 1976. Der schwarze Schneeschimmel der Koniferen [Herpotrichia juniperi
(Duby) Petrak und Herpotrichia coulteri (Peck) Bose]. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 6:109–122.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Freyer, K. 1976. Untersuchungen zur Biologie, Morphologie und Verbreitung von Herpotrichia
parasitica (Hartig) E. Rostrup (formals Trichosphaeria parasitica Hartig). I. Verbreitung
und Morphologie. II. Infektionsweg, Wirtsspektrum und Kulturverhalten. Eur. J. For. Pathol.
6:152–166, 222–238.
Funk, A. 1981. Parasitic microfungi of western trees. Can. For. Serv. Pac. For. Res. Cent. BC-X222. 190 pp.
Funk, A. 1985. Foliar fungi of western trees. Can. For. Serv. Pac. For. Res. Cent. BC-X-265. 159
pp.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
Hanso, M., Torva, A. and Mardiste, M. 1975, 1980, 1986. Black snow mould in Estonia. 1.
Ecology and morphology of Herpotrichia juniperi. 2. Dispersal biology of Herpotrichia
juniperi (Duby) Petr. 3. Sporulation of Herpotrichia juniperi in relation to season and
weather conditions. Metsanduslikud Uurimused 12:262–279; 16:99–119; 21:114–126.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Simms, H. R. 1967. On the ecology of Herpotrichia nigra. Mycologia 59:902–909.
33
Sivanesan, A. 1984. The bitunicate ascomycetes and their anamorphs. J. Cramer, Vaduz. 701 pp.
Sivanesan, A., and Gibson, I. A. S. 1972. Herpotrichia juniperi. C.M.I. Descr. Fungi Bact. No.
328. 2 pp.
-----------------Tar spots, Plate 32, page 65
Cannon, P. F., and Minter, D. W. 1984. Rhytisma acerinum. C.M.I. Descr. Pathogenic Fungi
Bact. No. 791. 2 pp.
Cannon, P. F., and Minter, D. W. 1986. The Rhytismataceae of the Indian subcontinent. CAB
International, Mycol. Pap. No. 155. 123 pp.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Funk, A. 1985. Foliar fungi of western trees. Can. For. Serv. Pac. For. Res. Cent. BC-X-265. 159
pp.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
Hudler, G. W., Banik, M. T., and Miller, S. G. 1987. Unusual epidemic of tar spot on Norway
maple in upstate New York. Plant Dis. 71:65–68.
Hudler, G. W., Jensen-Tracy, S., and Banik, M. T. 1998. Rhytisma americanum sp. nov.: a
previously undescribed species on maples (Acer spp.). Mycotaxon 68:405–416.
Jones, S. G. 1925. Life history and cytology of Rhytisma acerinum (Pers.) Fries. Ann. Bot.
39:41–75.
Leith, I. D., and Fowler, D. 1988. Urban distribution of Rhytisma acerinum (Pers.) Fries (tar
spot) on sycamore. New Phytol. 108:175–181.
Schütt, P. 1972. Untersuchungen über den Einfluss von Cuticularwachsen auf die
Infektsionsfähigkeit pathogenen Pilze. 2. Rhytisma acerinum, Microsphaera alphitoides, und
Fusarium oxysporum. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 2:43–59.
Woo, J. Y., and Partridge, A. D. 1969. The life history and cytology of Rhytisma punctatum on
bigleaf maple. Mycologia 61:1085–1095.
-----------------Ink spot leaf blight of aspen and poplar, Plate 33, page 67
Baranyay, J. A., and Hiratsuka, Y. 1967. Identification and distribution of Ciborinia whetzelii
(Seaver) Seaver in western Canada. Can. J. Bot. 45:189–191.
Batra, L. R. 1960. The species of Ciborinia pathogenic to Salix, Magnolia, and Quercus. Am. J.
Bot. 47:819–827.
Conners, I. L. 1967. An annotated index of plant diseases in Canada. Can. Dep. Agric. Pub.
1251. 381 pp.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Funk, A. 1985. Foliar fungi of western trees. Can. For. Serv. Pac. For. Res. Cent. BC-X-265. 159
pp.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
Groves, J. W., and Bowerman, C. A. 1955. The species of Ciborinia on Populus. Can. J. Bot.
33:577–590.
34
Holst-Jensen, A., Kohn, L. M., and Schumacher, T. 1997. Nuclear rDNA phylogeny of the
Sclerotiniaceae. Mycologia 89:885–899.
Hutchison, L. J. 1999. Wood-inhabiting microfungi isolated from Populus tremuloides from
Alberta and northeastern British Columbia. Can. J. Bot. 77:898–905.
Kohn, L. M. 1979. A monographic revision of the genus Sclerotinia. Mycotaxon 9:365–444.
Kohn, L. M., and Grenville, D. J. 1989. Anatomy and histochemistry of stromatal anamorphs in
the Sclerotiniaceae. Can. J. Bot. 67:371–393.
Pomerleau, R. 1940. Studies on the ink-spot disease of poplar. Can. J. Res. C18:199–214.
Sutton, B. C., and Lawrence, J. J. 1969. Black rib of willows in Manitoba and Saskatchewan.
Plant Dis. Rep. 53:101–102.
-----------------Ovulinia petal blight of Rhododendron and Ciborinia flower blight of Camellia, Plate 34,
page 69
Ovulinia petal blight of Rhododendron
Coyier, D. L., and Roane, M. K. 1986. Compendium of rhododendron and azalea diseases. APS
Press, St. Paul, MN. 65 pp.
Florida Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services, Division of Plant Industry. 1962–
present. Plant Pathology Circulars 1– .
Holst-Jensen, A., Kohn, L. M., and Schumacher, T. 1997. Nuclear rDNA phylogeny of the
Sclerotiniaceae. Mycologia 89:885–899.
Jones, R. K., and Benson, D. M., eds. 2001. Diseases of woody ornamentals and trees in
nurseries. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 482 pp.
Kohn, L. M. 1979. A monographic revision of the genus Sclerotinia. Mycotaxon 9:365–444.
Weiss, F., and Smith, F. F. 1940. A flower-spot disease of cultivated azaleas. USDA Circ. 556.
28 pp.
-----------------Ciborinia flower blight of Camellia
Haasis, F. A. 1953. Flower blight of camellias. Am. Camellia Yearb. 1953:111–119.
Hansen, H. N., and Thomas, H. E. 1940. Flower blight of camellias. Phytopathology 30:166–
170.
Holst-Jensen, A., Kohn, L. M., and Schumacher, T. 1997. Nuclear rDNA phylogeny of the
Sclerotiniaceae. Mycologia 89:885–899.
Jones, R. K., and Benson, D. M., eds. 2001. Diseases of woody ornamentals and trees in
nurseries. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 482 pp.
Kohn, L. M. 1979. A monographic revision of the genus Sclerotinia. Mycotaxon 9:365–444.
Taylor, C. H., and Long, P. G. 2000. Review of literature on camellia flower blight caused by
Ciborinia camelliae. N.Z. J. Crop Hortic. Sci. 28:123–138.
Vingnana-Singam, V., Long, P. G., Rowland, R. E., and Zydenbos, S. M. 2000. Infection
processes of Ciborinia camelliae on camellia flower tissue. N.Z. Plant Prot. Conf. Proc.
53:151–156.
-----------------Botrytis blight, Plate 35, page 71
35
Ainsworth, G. C., Sparrow, F. K., and Sussman, A. S. 1973. The fungi. An advanced treatise.
Vols. IVA and IVB. Academic Press, New York. 621 and 504 pp.
Coley-Smith, J. R., Verhoeff, K., and Jarvis, W. R., eds. 1980. The biology of Botrytis.
Academic Press, New York. 318 pp.
Collado, I. G., Hernandez, G. R., Prieto, V., Hanson, J. R., and Redordinos, L. G. 1996.
Biologically active sesquiterpenoid metabolites from the fungus Botrytis cinerea.
Phytochemistry 41:513–517.
Colmenares, A. J., Aleu, J., Duran-Patron, R., Collado, I. G., and Hernandez Galan, R. 2002. The
putative role of botrydial and related metabolites in the infection mechanism of Botrytis
cinerea. J. Chem. Ecol. 28:997–1005.
Cutler, H. G., Parker, S. R., Ross, S. A., Crumley, F. G., and Schreiner, P. R. 1996.
Homobotcinolide: a biologically active natural homolog of botcinolide from Botrytis
cinerea. Biosci. Biotech. Biochem. 60:656–658.
Doss, R. P., Potter, S. W., Soeldner, A. H., Christian, J. K., and Fukunaga, L. E. 1995. Adhesion
of germlings of Botrytis cinerea. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 61:260–265.
Elad, Y., and Evensen, K. 1995. Physiological aspects of resistance to Botrytis cinerea.
Phytopathology 85:637–643.
Elad, Y. 1996. Mechanisms involved in the biological control of Botrytis cinerea incited
diseases. Eur. J. Plant Pathol. 102:719–732.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Fermaud, M., and Gaunt, R. E. 1995. Thrips obscuratus as a potential vector of Botrytis cinerea
in kiwifruit. Mycol. Res. 99:267–273.
Fourie, J. F., and Holz, G. 1995. Initial infection processes by Botrytis cinerea on nectarine and
plum fruit and the development of decay. Phytopathology 85:82–87.
Hennebert, G. L. 1973. Botrytis and Botrytis-like genera. Persoonia 7:183–204.
Hiratsuka, Y., Langor, D. W., and Crane, P. E. 1995. Forest insects and diseases of the prairie
provinces. Can. For. Serv. North. For. Cent. Spec. Rep. 3. 297 pp.
Holst-Jensen, A., Vaage, M., and Schumacher, T. 1998. An approximation to the phylogeny of
Sclerotinia and related genera. Nordic J. Bot. 18:705–719.
James, R. L., Dumroese, R. K., and Wenny, D. L. 1995. Botrytis cinerea carried by adult fungus
gnats (Diptera: Sciaridae) in container nurseries. Tree Planters' Notes 46:48–53.
Jarvis, W. R. 1977. Botryotinia and Botrytis species: taxonomy, physiology, and pathogenicity.
A guide to the literature. Can. Dep. Agric., Res. Branch, Monogr. 15. 195 pp.
Louis, C., Girard, M., Kuhl, G., and Lopez, F. M. 1996. Persistence of Botrytis cinerea in its
vector Drosophila melanogaster. Phytopathology 86:934–939.
Mittal, R. K., Pritam, S., and Wang, B. S. P. 1987. Botrytis: a hazard to reforestation. A literature
review. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 17:369–384.
Peterson, M. J., and Sutherland, J. R. 1990. Controlling gray mold on container-grown Douglasfir by modified styroblock and under-bench, forced air ventilation. West. J. Appl. For. 5:75–
79.
Sasaki, I., and Nagayama, H. 1996. ß-glucosidase of Botrytis cinerea: its involvement in the
pathogenicity of this fungus. Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 60:54–56.
Sbaghi, M., Jeandet, P., Bessis, R., and Leroux, P. 1996. Degradation of stilbene-type
phytoalexins in relation to the pathogenicity of Botrytis cinerea to grapevines. Plant Pathol.
45:139–144.
36
Vancon, S. 1993. Fertilization affects growth and incidence of grey mold on container-grown
giant sequoia. Tree Planters' Notes 44:68–72.
Verhoeff, K., Malathrakis, N. E., and Williamson, B., eds. 1992. Recent advances in Botrytis
research. Proceedings of the 10th international Botrytis symposium, Heraklion, Crete,
Greece. Pudoc Scientific, Wageningen. 294 pp.
Williamson, B., Duncan, G. H., Harrison, J. G., Harding, L. A., Elad, Y., and Zimand, G. 1995.
Effect of humidity on infection of rose petals by dry-inoculated conidia of Botrytis cinerea.
Mycol. Res. 99:1303–1310.
Zhang, P. G., and Sutton, J. C. 1994. High temperature, darkness, and drought predispose black
spruce seedlings to gray mold. Can. J. Bot. 72:135–142.
-----------------Cristulariella leaf spots, Plate 36, page 73
Bowen, P. R. 1930. A maple leaf disease caused by Cristulariella depraedens. Conn. Agric. Exp.
Stn. Bull. 316:625–647.
Cline, M. N., Crane, J. L., and Cline, S. D. 1983. The teleomorph of Cristulariella moricola.
Mycologia 75:988–994.
Cline, M. N., and Neely, D. 1979. Cristulariella pyramidalis and its pathogenesis on black
walnut. Plant Dis. Rep. 63:1028–1032.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Funk, A. 1985. Foliar fungi of western trees. Can. For. Serv. Pac. For. Res. Cent. BC-X-265. 159
pp.
Grand, L. F., and Menge, J. A. 1974. Sclerotia of Cristulariella pyramidalis in nature.
Mycologia 66:712–715.
Harada, Y., and Noro, S. 1988. Grovesinia pruni, sp. nov., the teleomorph of a new zonate leaf
spot fungus on Prunus in Japan. Trans. Mycol. Soc. Jap. 29:85–92.
Kou, K.-C., Kao, C.-W., and Leu, L.-S. 1988. The symptoms, causal organism, and fungicide
screening for the control of grape Cristulariella leaf spot. Plant Prot. Bull. (Taiwan) 30:111–
124.
Kurian, P., and Stelzig, D. A. 1979. The synergistic role of oxalic acid and
endopolygalacturonase in bean leaves infected by Cristulariella pyramidalis.
Phytopathology 69:1301–1304.
Lang, K. J. 2000. New hosts of Cristulariella depraedans. For. Pathol. 30:117–120.
Latham, A. J. 1969. Zonate leafspot of pecan caused by Cristulariella pyramidalis.
Phytopathology 59:103–107.
Latham, A. J. 1974. Effect of temperature and moisture on Cristulariella pyramidalis.
Phytopathology 64:635–639.
Niedbalski, M., Crane, J. L., and Neely, D. 1979. Illinois fungi. 10. Development, morphology,
and taxonomy of Cristulariella pyramidalis. Mycologia 71:722–730.
Redhead, S. A. 1975. The genus Cristulariella. Can. J. Bot. 53:700–707.
Reilly, C. C., Wood, B. W., and Hotchkiss, M. W. 1996. Relative susceptibility of pecan
cultivars to zonate leaf spot. HortScience 31:986–987.
Trolinger, J. C., Elliott, E. S., and Young, R. J. 1978. Host range of Cristulariella pyramidalis.
Plant Dis. Rep. 62:710–714.
37
Waterman, A. M., and Marshall, R. P. 1947. A new species of Cristulariella associated with a
leaf spot of maple. Mycologia 39:690–698.
-----------------Brown rot of stone fruits, Plate 37, page 75
Barnes, E. H. 1975. Atlas and Manual of Plant Pathology. Kluwer Academic/Plenum, New
York. 325 pp.
Batra, L. R. 1983. Monilinia vaccinii-corymbosi (Sclerotiniaceae): its biology on blueberry and
comparison with related species. Mycologia 75:131–152.
Batra, L. R. 1991. World species of Monilinia (Fungi): their ecology, biosystematics and control.
Mycologia Mem. No. 16. J. Cramer, Berlin. 246 pp.
Biggs, A. R., ed. 1993. Handbook of cytology, histology, and histochemistry of fruit tree
diseases. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. 330 pp.
Biggs, A. R., and Northover, J. 1985. Inoculum sources for Monilinia fructicola in Ontario peach
orchards. Can. J. Plant Pathol. 7:302–307.
Byrde, R. J. W., and Willets, H. A. 1977. The brown rot fungi of fruit: their biology and control.
Pergamon, New York. 171 pp.
Caruso, F. L., and Ramsdell, D. C., eds. 1995. Compendium of blueberry and cranberry diseases.
APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 87 pp.
Cruickshank, R. H., and Wade, G. C. 1992. The activation of latent infections of Monilinia
fructicola on apricots by volatiles from the ripening fruit. J. Phytopathol. 136:107–112.
Free, S. J., Holtz, B. A., and Michailides, T. J. 1996. Mating behavior in field populations of
Monilinia fructicola. Mycologia 88:208–211.
Holst-Jensen, A., Kohn, L. M., Jakobsen, K. S., and Schumacher, T. 1997. Molecular phylogeny
and evolution of Monilinia (Sclerotiniaceae) based on coding and noncoding rDNA
sequences. Am. J. Bot. 84:686–701.
Holtz, B. A., Michailides, T. J., and Hong, C. 1998. Development of apothecia from stone fruit
infected and stromatized by Monilinia fructicola in California. Plant Dis. 82:1375–1380.
Honey, E. E. 1940. Monilinia causing a brown rot and blight of the common azalea.
Phytopathology 30:537–538.
Hong, C., and Michailides, T. J. 1998. Effect of temperature on the discharge and germination of
ascospores by apothecia of Monilinia fructicola. Plant Dis. 82:195–202.
Jing, X. F., Yang, Z. X., Zhang, Y. X., and Li, X. Z. 1983. Studies on hawthorne blossom blight
I. Causal organism. II. Symptoms. Acta Phytopathol. Sinica 12:33–36; 13:42–44.
Landgraf, F. A., and Zehr, E. I. 1982. Inoculum sources for Monilinia fructicola in South
Carolina peach orchards. Phytopathology 72:185–190.
Leeuwen, G. C. M. van, Baayen, R. P., Holb, I. J., and Jeger, M. J. 2002. Distinction of the
Asiatic brown rot fungus Monilia polystroma sp. nov. from M. fructigena. Mycol. Res.
106:444–451.
Ogawa, J. M., and English, H. 1991. Diseases of temperate zone tree fruit and nut crops. Univ.
Calif., Div. Agric. & Nat. Resour. Pub. 3345. 461 pp.
Ogawa, J. M., Zehr, E. I., Bird, G. W., Ritchie, D. F., Uriu, K., and Uyemoto, J. K., eds. 1995.
Compendium of stone fruit diseases. APS Press, St. Paul, Minn. 98 pp.
Ramsdell, D. C., Nelson, J. W., and Myers, R. L. 1975. Mummy berry disease of highbush
blueberry: epidemiology and control. Phytopathology 65:229–232.
38
Schlagbauer, H. E., and Holz, G. 1989. Penetration of plums by Monilinia laxa and histology of
a defence reaction. Phytophylactica 21:39–43.
Teviotdale, B. L., Michailides, T. J., and Pscheidt, J. W., eds. 2002. Compendium of nut crop
diseases in temperate zones. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 89 pp.
Wade, G. C., and Cruickshank, R. H. 1992. The establishment and structure of latent infections
with Monilinia fructicola on apricots. J. Phytopathol. 136:95–106.
Watson, W. A., Zehr, E. I., and Grimes, L. W. 2002. Influence of temperature and wetting period
on inoculum production by Monilinia fructicola in peach twig cankers. Plant Dis. 86:666–
668.
-----------------Entomosporium leaf spot of Maloideae, Plate 38, page 77
Baudoin, A. B. A. M. 1986. Infection of photinia leaves by Entomosporium mespili. Plant Dis.
70:191–194.
Baudoin, A. B. A. M. 1986. Environmental conditions required for infection of photinia leaves
by Entomosporium mespili. Plant Dis. 70:519–521.
Bell, R. L., and Zwet, T. van der. 1988. Susceptibility of Pyrus germplasm to Fabraea leaf spot.
Acta Hortic. No. 224:229–236.
Hagan, A. K., Akridge, J. R., Bowen, K. L., Olive, J. W., and Tilt, K. M. 2001. Resistance of
selected cultivars of Indian hawthorn to Entomosporium leaf spot, fireblight, and
anthracnose in Alabama. J. Environ. Hortic. 19:43–46.
Horie, H., and Kobayashi, T. 1979–1980. Entomosporium leaf spot of Pomoideae (Rosaceae) in
Japan. I. Distribution of the disease, morphology and physiology of the fungus. II. Parasitism
and over-wintering of the fungus. III. Additional basis for identification of the fungus and
distribution of the disease. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 9:366–379; 10:117–124, 225–235.
Jacobs, K. A., Santamour, F. S. Jr., Johnson, G. R., and Dirr, M. A. 1996. Differential resistance
to Entomosporium leafspot disease and hydrogen cyanide potential in Photinia. J. Environ.
Hortic. 14:154–157.
Mims, C. W., Sewall, T. C., and Richardson, E. A. 2000. Ultrastructure of conidiogenesis and
mature conidia in the plant pathogenic Entomosporium mespili. Mycol. Res. 104:453–462.
Mims, C. W., Sewall, T. C., and Richardson, E. A. 2000. Ultrastructure of the host-pathogen
relationship in Entomosporium leaf spot disease of Photinia. Int. J. Plant Sci. 161:291–295.
Nag Raj, T. R. 1993. Coelomycetous anamorphs with appendage-bearing conidia. Mycologue
Pub., Waterloo, ON. 1101 pp.
Ronald, P. S., St. Pierre, R. G., and Bains, P. S. 2001. Resistance to Entomosporium mespili
among cultivars of saskatoon, Amelanchier alnifolia. Can. J. Plant Pathol. 23:391–402.
Stathis, P. D., and Plakidas, A. G. 1959. Entomosporium leaf spot of Photinia glabra and
Photinia serrulata. Phytopathology 49:361–365.
Stowell, E. A., and Backus, M. P. 1966, 1967. Morphology and cytology of Diplocarpon
maculatum on Crataegus. I. The Entomosporium stage. II. Initiation and development of the
apothecium. Mycologia 58:949–960; 59:623–636.
Sutton, B. C. 1980. The Coelomycetes: Fungi Imperfecti with pycnidia, acervuli, and stromata.
Commonw. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK. 696 pp.
-----------------Black spot of rose and Blumeriella leaf spot of cherry and plum, Plate 39, page 79
39
Black spot of rose
Baker, K. F., and Dimock, A. W. 1969. Black spot. Pages 172–184 in: Roses. J. W. Mastalerz
and R. W. Langhans, eds. Pennsylvania Flower Growers, New York State Flower Growers
Assoc., and Roses, Inc. 329 pp.
Casteldine, P., Grout, B. W. W., and Roberts, A. V. 1981. Cuticular resistance to Diplocarpon
rosae. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 77:665–666.
Cook, R. T. A. 1981. Overwintering of Diplocarpon rosae at Wisley. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc.
77:549–556.
Debener, T., Drewes-Alvarez, R., and Rockstroh, K. 1998. Identification of five physiological
races of blackspot, Diplocarpon rosae Wolf on roses. Plant Breed. 117:267–270.
Dohm, A., Ludwig, C., Schilling, D., Debener, T., Huylenbroeck, J. van, Bockstaele, E. van, and
Debergh, P. 2002. Transformation of roses with genes for antifungal proteins to reduce their
susceptibility to fungal diseases. Acta Hortic. No. 572:105–111.
Drewes-Alvarez, R. 2003. Blackspot. Pages 148–153 in: A. Roberts, T. Debener, and S. Gudin,
eds. Encyclopedia of rose science. Vol. 1. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Horst, R. K. 1983. Compendium of rose diseases. Am. Phytopathol. Soc., St. Paul, MN. 50 pp.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Malek, B. von, and Debener, T. 1998. Genetic analysis of resistance to blackspot (Diplocarpon
rosae) in tetraploid roses. Theor. Appl. Genet. 96:228–231.
Malek, B. von, Weber, W. E., and Debener, T. 2000. Identification of molecular markers linked
to Rdr1, a gene conferring resistance to blackspot in roses. Theor. Appl. Genet. 101:977–
983.
Reddy, S., Spencer, J. A., and Newman, S. E. 1992. Leaflet surfaces of blackspot-resistant and
susceptible roses and their reactions to fungal invasion. HortScience 27:133–135.
Singh, S. N. 1980. Effect of rootstock on growth, flowering, and disease resistance of hybrid tea
roses. Prog. Hortic. 12(3):5–14.
Smith-Fiola, D. 1995. Pest resistant ornamental plants. Rutgers Coop Exten., Toms River, NJ. 29
pp.
Spencer, J. A., and Wood, O. W. 1992. Resistance of selected rose cultivars to variants of
Marssonina rosae in Mississippi. J. Environ. Hortic. 10:235–238.
Sutton, B. C. 1980. The Coelomycetes: Fungi Imperfecti with pycnidia, acervuli, and stromata.
Commonw. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK. 696 pp.
Svejda, F., and Bolton, A. T. 1980. Resistance of rose hybrids to three races of Diplocarpon
rosae blackspot. Can. J. Plant Pathol. 2:23–25.
Wenefrida, I., and Spencer, J. A. 1993. Marssonina rosae variants in Mississippi and their
virulence on selected rose cultivars. Plant Dis. 77:246–248.
Wiggers, R. J., West, J. G., and Taylor, J. 1997. Conidial germination and infection by
Diplocarpon rosae on susceptible and resistant rose species. Mycologia 89:103–108.
Xue, A. G., and Davidson, C. G. 1998. Components of partial resistance to black spot disease
(Diplocarpon rosae Wolf) in garden roses. HortScience 33:96–99.
Yokoya, K., Kandasamy, K. I., Walker, S., Mandegaran, Z., and Roberts, A. V. 2000. Resistance
of roses to pathotypes of Diplocarpon rosae. Ann. Appl. Biol. 136:15–20.
------------------
40
Blumeriella leaf spot of cherry and plum
Arx, J. A. von. 1987. Plant pathogenic fungi. Cramer, Berlin. 288 pp.
Eisensmith, S. P., Sjulin, T. M., Jones, A. L., and Cress, C. E. 1982. Effects of leaf age and
inoculum concentration on infection of sour cherry by Coccomyces hiemalis. Phytopathology
72:574–577.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Garcia, S. M., and Jones, A. L. 1993. Influence of temperature on apothecial development and
ascospore discharge by Blumeriella jaapii. Plant Dis. 77:776–779.
Higgins, B. B. 1914. Contribution to the life history and physiology of Cylindrosporium on stone
fruits. Am. J. Bot. 1:145–173.
Keitt, G. W., Blodgett, E. C., Wilson, E. E., and Magie, R. O. 1937. The epidemiology and
control of cherry leaf spot. Wisc. Agric. Exp. Stn. Res. Bull. 132. 117 pp.
Niederleitner, S., and Knoppik, D. 1997. Effects of the cherry leaf spot pathogen Blumeriella
jaapii on gas exchange before and after expression of symptoms on cherry leaves. Physiol.
Mol. Plant Pathol. 51:145–153.
Ogawa, J. M., and English, H. 1991. Diseases of temperate zone tree fruit and nut crops. Univ.
Calif., Div. Agric. & Nat. Resour. Pub. 3345. 461 pp.
Stanosz, G. R. 1992. Effect of cherry leaf spot on nursery black cherry seedlings and potential
benefits from control. Plant Dis. 76:602–604.
-----------------Marssonina spots and blights, Plate 40, page 81
Leaf spots and blights of aspen and poplar
Callan, B. E. 1998. Diseases of Populus in British Columbia: a diagnostic manual. Can. Forest
Serv. Pac. For. Cent., Victoria, BC. 157 pp.
Funk, A. 1985. Foliar fungi of western trees. Can. For. Serv. Pac. For. Res. Cent. BC-X-265. 159
pp.
Han, Z. M., Yin, T. M., Li, C. D., Huang, M. R., and Wu, R. L. 2000. Host effect on genetic
variation of Marssonina brunnea pathogenic to poplars. Theor. Appl. Genet. 100:614–620.
Harniss, R. O., and Nelson, D. L. 1984. A severe epidemic of Marssonina leaf blight on quaking
aspen in northern Utah. USDA For. Serv. Res. Note INT-339. 6 pp.
Hiratsuka, Y. 1984. New leaf spot fungus, Marssonina balsamiferae, on Populus balsamifera in
Manitoba and Ontario. Mycotaxon 19:133–136.
Jokela, J. J., Paxton, J. D., and Zegar, E. J. 1976. Marssonina leaf spot and rust on eastern
cottonwood. Plant Dis. Rep. 60:1020–1024.
Kam, M. de. 1975. Ascospore discharge in Drepanopeziza punctiformis in relation to infection
of some poplar clones. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 5:304–309.
Mielke, J. L. 1957. Aspen leaf blight in the Intermountain Region. USDA For. Serv. Intermount.
For. Range Exp. Stn. Res. Note 42. 5 pp.
Newcombe, G. 1996. The specificity of fungal pathogens of Populus. Pages 223–246 in: Biology
of Populus and its implications for management and conservation. R. F. Stettler, H. D.
Bradshaw Jr., P. E. Heilman, and T. M. Hinckley, eds. NRC Res. Press, Ottawa.
Pinon, J., and Poissonnier, M. 1975. Étude épidemiologique du Marssonina brunnea (El. et Ev.)
P. Magn. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 5:97–111.
41
Pinon, J., and Valadon, A. 1997. Comportement des cultivars de peupliers commercialisables
dans l’Union européenne vis-à-vis de quelques parasites majeurs. Ann. Sci. For. 54:19–38.
Pirozynski, K. A. 1974. Marssonina brunnea. Fungi Canadenses No. 13. 2 pp.
Pirozynski, K. A. 1974. Marssonina castagnei. Fungi Canadenses No. 14. 2 pp.
Pirozynski, K. A. 1974. Marssonina populi. Fungi Canadenses No. 15. 2 pp.
Spiers, A. G. 1983. Host range and pathogenicity studies of Marssonina brunnea to poplars. Eur.
J. For. Pathol. 13:181–196.
Spiers, A. G. 1983. Host range and pathogenicity studies of Marssonina castagnei to poplars.
Eur. J. For. Pathol. 13:218–227.
Spiers, A. G. 1984. Comparative studies of host specificity and symptoms exhibited by poplars
infected with Marssonina brunnea, Marssonina castagnei, and Marssonina populi. Eur. J.
For. Pathol. 14:202–218.
Spiers, A. G. 1988. Comparative studies of type and herbarium specimens of Marssonina species
pathogenic to poplars. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 18:140–156.
Spiers, A. G. 1990. Influence of environmental, host and cultural factors on conidium
morphology of Marssonina species pathogenic to poplars. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 20:154–166.
Spiers, A. G., and Hopcroft, D. H. 1983. Ultrastructural study of the pathogenesis of Marssonina
species to poplars. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 13:414–427.
Spiers, A. G., and Hopcroft, D. H. 1998. Morphology of Drepanopeziza species pathogenic to
poplars. Mycol. Res. 102:1025–1037.
Spiers, A. G., and Wenham, H. T. 1983. Poplar seed-transmission of Marssonina brunnea. Eur.
J. For. Pathol. 13:305–314.
-----------------Anthracnose of birch
Conners, I. L., compiler. Canadian Plant Disease Survey, Annual Reports 1954, 1955. Vols. 34,
35. Agric. Can., Res. Branch, Ottawa.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
Grove, W. B. 1935, 1937. British stem- and leaf-fungi (Coelomycetes). Vols. 1, 2. Cambridge
Univ. Press, Cambridge, UK. 488 and 407 pp.
Phillips, D. H., and Burdekin, D. A. 1982. Diseases of forest and ornamental trees. Macmillan,
London. 435 pp.
-----------------Anthracnose of bittersweet
Boothroyd, C. W. 1951. A new leaf spot of Celastrus scandens L., the climbing bittersweet.
Mycologia 43:373–375.
Farr, D. F. 1993. Marssonina obclavata sp. nov. with observations on Marssonina and
Septogloeum. Mycologia 85:814–824.
Jenkins, A. E., and Jehle, R. A. 1951. An anthracnose of bittersweet in Maryland. Plant Dis. Rep.
35:413–414.
Shin, H.-D. and Lee, H.-T. 1999. A new species of Marssonina on Celastrus orbiculatus.
Mycotaxon 72:199–203.
Sutton, B. C. 1980. The Coelomycetes: Fungi Imperfecti with pycnidia, acervuli, and stromata.
Commonw. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK. 696 pp.
42
-----------------Alternaria blights and leaf spots, Plate 41, page 83
Alfieri, S. A. J., Langdon, K. R., Kimbrough, J. W., El-Gholl, N. E., and Wehlburg, C. 1994.
Diseases and disorders of plants in Florida. Fla. Dep. Agric. Consum. Serv., Div. Plant
Indus., Gainesville. 1114 pp.
Atilano, R. A. 1983. Alternaria leaf spot of Schefflera arboricola. Plant Dis. 67:64–66.
Atilano, R. A. 1983. A foliar blight of Ming aralia caused by Alternaria panax. Plant Dis.
67:224–226.
Belisario, A., Forti, E., Corazza, L., and Kesteren, H. A. von. 1999. First report of Alternaria
alternata causing leaf spot on English walnut. Plant Dis. 83:696.
Biggs, A. R. 1995. Detection of latent infections in apple fruit with paraquat. Plant Dis.
79:1062–1067.
Chase, A. R., and Poole, R. T. 1986. Effects of fertilizer rate on severity of Alternaria leaf spot
of three plants in the Araliaceae. Plant Dis. 70:1144–1145.
Chelkowski, J, and Visconti, A., eds. 1992. Alternaria: biology, plant diseases and metabolites.
Elsevier, Amsterdam. 573 pp.
Dey, A. N., and Debata, D. K. 2000. Studies on leaf spot disease of Populus deltoides Marsh.
caused by Alternaria raphani. Indian For. 126:1013–1014.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Ellis, M. B. 1971. Dematiaceous hyphomycetes. Commonw. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK. 608
pp.
Florida Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services, Division of Plant Industry. 1962–
present. Plant Pathology Circulars 1– .
Huang, J. W., and Kuhlman, E. G. 1990. Fungi associated with damping-off of slash pine
seedlings in Georgia. Plant Dis. 74:27–30.
Kusaba, M., and Tsuge, T. 1995. Phylogeny of Alternaria fungi known to produce host-specific
toxins on the basis of variation in internal transcribed spacers of ribosomal DNA. Curr.
Genet. 28:491–498.
Lee, H., and Yu, S. 1995. Distribution of mycotoxin-producing isolates in the genus Alternaria.
Korean J. Plant Pathol. 11:151–157.
Palm, M. E., and Civerolo, E. L. 1994. Isolation, pathogenicity, and partial host range of
Alternaria limicola, causal agent of mancha foliar de los cítricos in Mexico. Plant Dis.
78:879–883.
Pryor, B. M., and Michailides, T. J. 2002. Morphological, pathogenic, and molecular
characterization of Alternaria isolates associated with Alternaria late blight of pistachio.
Phytopathology 92:406–416.
Rotem, J. 1994. The genus Alternaria: biology, epidemiology, pathogenicity. APS Press, St.
Paul, MN. 326 pp.
Simmons, E. G. 1995. Alternaria themes and variations (112–144); (150). Mycotaxon 55:55–
163; 59:319–335.
Solel, Z., and Kimchi, M. 1997. Susceptibility and resistance of citrus genotypes to Alternaria
alternata pv. citri. J. Phytopathol. 145:389–391.
43
Solel, Z. and Kimchi, M. 1998. Histopathology of infection of Minneola tangelo by Alternaria
alternata pv. citri and the effect of host and environmental factors on lesion development. J.
Phytopathol. 146:557–561.
Timmer, L. W., Solel, Z., Gottwald, T. R., Ibáñez, A. M., and Zitko, S. E. 1998. Environmental
factors affecting production, release, and field populations of conidia of Alternaria alternata,
the cause of brown spot of citrus. Phytopathology 88:1218–1223.
Uchida, J. Y., Aragaki, M., and Yoshimura, M. A. 1984. Alternaria leaf spots of Brassaia
actinophylla, Dizygotheca elegantissima, and Tupidanthus calyptratus. Plant Dis. 68:447–
449.
-----------------Scab diseases caused by Venturia species, Plate 42, page 85
Overview
Barr, M. E. 1968. The Venturiaceae in North America. Can. J. Bot. 46:799–864.
Barr, M. E. 1989. The Venturiaceae in North America: revisions and additions. Sydowia 41:25–
40.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
National Mycological Herbarium 1973–1993. Fungi Canadenses Nos. 1–330. Agric. Can., Res.
Branch, Biosyst. Res. Inst., Ottawa.
Partridge, E. C., and Morgan-Jones, G. 2003. Notes on Hyphomycetes. XC. Fusicladosporium, a
new genus for Cladosporium-like anamorphs of Venturia, and the pecan scab–inducing
fungus. Mycotaxon 85:357–370.
Schubert, K., Ritschel, A., and Braun, U. 2003. A monograph of Fusicladium s.lat.
(Hyphomycetes). Schlechtendalia 9:1–132.
Sivanesan, A. 1977. The taxonomy and pathology of Venturia species. Bibl. Mycol. 59. 139 pp.
Sivanesan, A. 1984. The bitunicate ascomycetes and their anamorphs. J. Cramer, Vaduz. 701 pp.
-----------------Apple scab
Arx, J. A. von 1987. Plant pathogenic fungi. Cramer, Stuttgart. 288 pp.
Aylor, D. E. 1998. The aerobiology of apple scab. Plant Dis. 82:838–849.
Bagga, H. S., and Boone, D. M. 1968. Inheritance of resistance to Venturia inaequalis in
crabapples. Phytopathology 58:1183–1187.
Becker, C. M., Burr, T. J., and Smith, C. A. 1992. Overwintering of conidia of Venturia
inaequalis in apple buds in New York orchards. Plant Dis. 76:121–126.
Bénaouf, G. and Parisi, L. 2000. Genetics of host-pathogen relationships between Venturia
inaequalis races 6 and 7 and Malus species. Phytopathology 90:236–242.
Biggs, A. R., ed. 1993. Handbook of cytology, histology, and histochemistry of fruit tree
diseases. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. 330 pp.
Cam, B. le, Parisi, L., and Arene, L. 2002. Evidence of two formae speciales in Venturia
inaequalis, responsible for apple and Pyracantha scab. Phytopathology 92:314–320.
Carisse, O., and Dewdney, M. 2002. A review of non-fungicidal approaches for the control of
apple scab. Phytoprotection 83:1–29.
44
Chatfield, J. A., Draper, E. A., Herms, D. A., and Cochran, K. D. 2002. Apple scab on
crabapples at Secrest Arboretum: 2001. Ohio Agric. Res. Devel. Cent. Spec. Circ. No.
186:93–96.
Hill, S. A. 1975. The importance of wood scab caused by Venturia inaequalis (Cke.) Wint. as a
source of infection for apple leaves in the spring. Phytopathol. Z. 82:216–223.
Hrazdina, G., Borejsza, W. W., and Lester, C. 1997. Phytoalexin production in an apple cultivar
resistant to Venturia inaequalis. Phytopathology 87:868–876.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Jacobs, K. A., and Spravka, M. 1996. High- and low-performing crabapples during abnormally
severe apple scab conditions. HortTechnology 6:140.
Kumar, J., Chaube, H. S., Singh, U. S., and Mukhopadhyay, A. N., eds. 1992. Plant diseases of
international importance. Vol. III. Diseases of fruit crops. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs,
NJ. 456 pp.
MacHardy, W. E. 1996. Apple scab: biology, epidemiology, and management. APS Press, St.
Paul, Minn. 545 pp.
MacHardy, W. E., Gadoury, D. M., and Gessler, C. 2001. Parasitic and biological fitness of
Venturia inaequalis: relationship to disease management strategies. Plant Dis. 85:1036–
1051.
Mayr, U., Michalek, S., Treutter, D., and Feucht, W. 1997. Phenolic compounds of apple and
their relationship to scab resistance. J. Phytopathol. 145:69–75.
Menon, R. 1956. Studies on Venturiaceae on rosaceous plants. Phytopathol. Z. 27:117–146.
Meszka, B., Bielenin, A., and Masny, S. 2002. Development and maturation of pseudothecia of
Venturia inaequalis in leaves of different apple cultivars. Phytopathol. Polon. 25:5–11.
Miller, P. M., and Rich, S. 1968. Reducing spring discharge of Venturia inaequalis ascospores
by composting overwintering leaves. Plant Dis. Rep. 52:728–730.
Moulton, G. A., King, J., and Maleike, R. 1996. Crabapples for western Washington landscapes.
Wash. State Univ. Coop. Exten. Bull. 1809. 12 pp.
National Mycological Herbarium (Canada). 1973–present. Fungi Canadenses No. 1– . Agric.
Can., Res. Branch, Biosyst. Res. Inst., Ottawa.
Nichols, L. P., and Peterson, D. H. 1971. Overwintering of Fusicladium dendriticum, the
imperfect stage of the apple scab fungus, on twigs of flowering crab apples. Plant Dis. Rep.
55:509.
Ogawa, J. M., and English, H. 1991. Diseases of temperate zone tree fruit and nut crops. Univ.
Calif. Div. Agric. Nat. Resour. Pub. 3345. 461 pp.
Schnabel, G., Schnabel, E. L., and Jones, A. L. 1999. Characterization of ribosomal DNA from
Venturia inaequalis and its phylogenetic relationship to rDNA from other tree-fruit Venturia
species. Phytopathology 89:100–108
Schubert, K., Ritschel, A., and Braun, U. 2003. A monograph of Fusicladium s.lat.
(Hyphomycetes). Schlechtendalia 9:1–132.
Sierotzki, H., and Gessler, C. 1998. Inheritance of virulence of Venturia inaequalis toward
Malus domestica cultivars. J. Phytopathol. 146:509–514.
Sivanesan, A. 1977. The taxonomy and pathology of Venturia species. Bibl. Mycol. 59. 139 pp.
Smith-Fiola, D. 1995. Pest resistant ornamental plants. Rutgers Coop Exten., Toms River, NJ. 29
pp.
45
Spotts, R. A., Cervantes, L. A., and Niederholzer, F. J. A. 1997. Effect of dolomitic lime on
production of asci and pseudothecia of Venturia inaequalis and V. pirina. Plant Dis. 81:96–
98.
Stensvand, A., Amundsen, T., Semb, L., Gadoury, D. M., and Seem, R. C. 1998. Discharge and
dissemination of ascospores by Venturia inaequalis during dew. Plant Dis. 82:761–764.
-----------------Scab diseases caused by Venturia species, continued, Plate 43, page 87
Scabs of firethorn, loquat, toyon
Arx, J. A. von 1957. Schurft op Pyracantha. Tijdschr. Plantenz. 63:198–199.
Barr, M. E. 1968. The Venturiaceae in North America. Can. J. Bot. 46:799–864.
Cadic, A., Paulin, J. P., and Belin, J. 1990. New Pyracantha resistant to scab (Spilocaea
pyracanthae (Otth.) Rostrup) and to fire blight (Erwinia amylovora (Burr.) Winsl. et al.).
Acta Hortic. No. 273:303–306.
Cam, B. le, Parisi, L., and Arene, L. 2002. Evidence of two formae speciales in Venturia
inaequalis, responsible for apple and Pyracantha scab. Phytopathology 92:314–320.
Egolf, D. R. 1978. Pyracantha 'Navaho' and 'Teton.' HortScience 13:483–484.
Egolf, D. R. 1987. Pyracantha  'Apache.' HortScience 22:173–174.
Egolf, D. R. 1987. Pyracantha  'Pueblo.' HortScience 22:510–511.
McClain, R. L. 1925. Scab of Christmas berry, Photinia arbutifolia Lindl., due to Fusicladium
photinicola n. sp. Phytopathology 15:178–182.
National Mycological Herbarium (Canada). 1973–1993. Fungi Canadenses No. 1– 300. Agric.
Can., Res. Branch, Biosyst. Res. Inst., Ottawa.
Ogawa, J. M., and English, H. 1991. Diseases of temperate zone tree fruit and nut crops. Univ.
Calif. Div. Agric. and Nat. Resour. Pub. 3345. 461 pp.
Raabe, R. D., and Gardner, M. W. 1972. Scab of pyracantha, loquat, toyon, and kageneckia.
Phytopathology 62:914–916.
Schubert, K., Ritschel, A., and Braun, U. 2003. A monograph of Fusicladium s.lat.
(Hyphomycetes). Schlechtendalia 9:1–132.
Smith-Fiola, D. 1995. Pest resistant ornamental plants. Rutgers Coop Exten., Toms River, NJ. 29
pp.
Vassey, W. E., Gould, C. J., and Ryan, G. F. 1977. Disease resistant pyracantha for the Pacific
Northwest. Ornamentals Northwest 1977–78 (Dec–Jan):4–6.
Viennot-Bourgin, G. 1941. Un Fusicladium sur Crataegus pyracantha Medik. Rev. Mycol., n.s.,
6:147–155.
Pear scab
Abe, K., and Kurihara, A. 1993. Species and varietal differences in scab resistance of pear. J.
Jap. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 61:789–794.
Barr, M. E. 1968. The Venturiaceae in North America. Can. J. Bot. 46:799–864.
Carmichael, J. W., Kendrick, W. B., Conners, I. L., and Sigler, L. 1980. Genera of
Hyphomycetes. Univ. Alberta Press, Edmonton. 386 pp.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
46
Ishii, H., Udagawa, H., Nishimoto, S., Tsuda, T., and Nakashima, H. 1992. Scab resistance in
pear species and cultivars. Acta Phytopathol. Entomol. Hung. 27:293–298.
Ishii, H., and Yanase, H. 2000. Venturia nashicola, the scab fungus of Japanese and Chinese
pears: a species distinct from V. pirina. Mycol. Res. 104:755–759.
Langford, M. H., and Keitt, G. W. 1942. Heterothallism and variability in Venturia pyrina.
Phytopathology 32:357–369.
Ogawa, J. M., and English, H. 1991. Diseases of temperate zone tree fruit and nut crops. Univ.
Calif. Div. Agric. and Nat. Resour. Pub. 3345. 461 pp.
Shabi, E., Rotem, J., and Lobenstein, G. 1973. Physiological races of Venturia pyrina on pear.
Phytopathology 63:41–43.
Schubert, K., Ritschel, A., and Braun, U. 2003. A monograph of Fusicladium s.lat.
(Hyphomycetes). Schlechtendalia 9:1–132.
Sivanesan, A. 1977. The taxonomy and pathology of Venturia species. Bibl. Mycol. 59. 139 pp.
Sivanesan, A. 1984. The bitunicate ascomycetes and their anamorphs. Cramer, Vaduz, Austria.
701 pp.
Spotts, R. A., and Cervantes, L. A. 1994. Factors affecting maturation and release of ascospores
of Venturia pyrina in Oregon. Phytopathology 84:260–264.
-----------------Scab diseases caused by Venturia species, continued, Plate 44, page 89
Venturia leaf and shoot blights of aspen and poplar
Barr, M. E. 1968. The Venturiaceae in North America. Can. J. Bot. 46:799–864.
Barr, M. E. 1989. The Venturiaceae in North America: revisions and additions. Sydowia 41:25–
40.
Callan, B. E. 1998. Diseases of Populus in British Columbia: a diagnostic manual. Can. For.
Serv. Pac. For. Cent., Victoria, BC. 157 pp.
Dance, B. W. 1961. Leaf and shoot blight of poplars (Section Tacamahaca Spach) caused by
Venturia populina (Vuill.) Fabric. Can. J. Bot. 39:875–890.
Dance, B. W. 1961. Spore dispersal in Pollaccia radiosa (Lib.) Bald. and Cif. Can. J. Bot.
39:1429–1435.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Funk, A. 1985. Foliar fungi of western trees. Can. For. Serv. Pac. For. Res. Cent. BC-X-265. 159
pp.
Funk, A. 1989. Observations on an aspen leaf spot disease and associated fungus, Pollaccia
borealis. Can. J. Plant Pathol. 11:353–356.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
Gross, H. L., and Basham, J. T. 1981. Diseases of aspen suckers in northern Ontario. Can. For.
Serv., Great Lakes For. Res. Cent. Inf. Rep. O-X-329. 16 pp.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Morelet, M. 1985. Les Venturia des peupliers de la section Leuce I.—Taxinomie. Cryptog.
Mycol. 6:101–117.
47
Morelet, M. 1986. Risks of adaptation of Venturia tremulae to selected aspens. Bull. OEPP
16:589–592.
Newcombe, G. 1996. The specificity of fungal pathogens of Populus. Pages 223–246 in: Biology
of Populus and its implications for management and conservation. R. F. Stettler, H. D.
Bradshaw Jr., P. E. Heilman, and T. M. Hinckley, eds. NRC Res. Press, Ottawa.
Newcombe, G. 2003. Native Venturia inopina sp. nov., specific to Populus trichocarpa and its
hybrids. Mycol. Res. 107:108–116.
Newcombe, G., and Oosten, C. Van. 1997. Variation in resistance to Venturia populina, the
cause of poplar leaf and shoot blight in the Pacific Northwest. Can. J. For. Res. 27:883–889.
Rulamort, M. de. 1986. Remarques taxonomiques et nomenclaturales sur quelques
micromycètes. Bull. Soc. Bot. Centre-Ouest, n.s., 17:191–192.
Schubert, K., Ritschel, A., and Braun, U. 2003. A monograph of Fusicladium s.lat.
(Hyphomycetes). Schlechtendalia 9:1–132.
Sivanesan, A. 1977. The taxonomy and pathology of Venturia species. J. Cramer, Vaduz,
Austria. 139 pp.
Sivanesan, A. 1984. The bitunicate ascomycetes and their anamorphs. J. Cramer, Vaduz, Austria.
701 pp.
-----------------Scab Diseases Caused by Venturia species, continued, Plate 45, page 91
Scab and black canker of willow
Barr, M. E. 1968. The Venturiaceae in North America. Can. J. Bot. 46:799–864.
Barr, M. E. 1989. The Venturiaceae in North America: revisions and additions. Sydowia 41:25–
40.
Clinton, G. P., and McCormick, F. A. 1929. The willow scab fungus. Conn. Agric. Exp. Stn.
Bull. 302:443–469.
Fukushi, T. 1921. A willow-canker disease caused by Physalospora miyabeana and its conidial
form Gloeosporium. Ann. Phytopathol. Soc. Jap. 1(4):1–12.
Harrison, K. A. 1965. Willow blight and the survival of some Salix species in Nova Scotia. Can.
Plant Dis. Surv. 45:94–95.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Johnston, P. R., and Jones, D. 1997. Relationships among Colletotrichum isolates from fruit-rots
assessed using rDNA sequences. Mycologia 89:420–430.
National Mycological Herbarium 1973–1993. Fungi Canadenses Nos. 1–330. Agric. Can., Res.
Branch, Biosyst. Res. Inst., Ottawa.
Nattrass, R. M. 1928. The Physalospora disease of the basket willow. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc.
13:286–304.
Nüesch, J. 1960. Beitrag zur Kenntnis der weidenbewohnenden Venturiaceae. Phytopathol. Z.
39:329–360.
Schubert, K., Ritschel, A., and Braun, U. 2003. A monograph of Fusicladium s.lat.
(Hyphomycetes). Schlechtendalia 9:1–132.
Sivanesan, A. 1977. The taxonomy and pathology of Venturia species. Bibl. Mycol. 59. 139 pp.
Sivanesan, A. 1984. The bitunicate ascomycetes and their anamorphs. Cramer, Vaduz. 701 pp.
48
Spiers, A. G., and Hopcroft, D. H. 1993. Black canker and leaf spot of Salix in New Zealand
caused by Glomerella miyabeana (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides). Eur. J. For. Pathol.
23:92–102.
-----------------Venturia leaf blotch of maple
Barr, M. E. 1968. The Venturiaceae in North America. Can. J. Bot. 46:799–864.
Beig, M. A., and Khan, M. A. 1999. Occurrence of Venturia acerina, the perfect state of
Cladosporium humile, on Populus deltoides in India. Appl. Biol. Res. 1:163–165.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
Partridge, E. C., and Morgan-Jones, G. 2003. Notes on Hyphomycetes. XC. Fusicladosporium, a
new genus for Cladosporium-like anamorphs of Venturia, and the pecan scab–inducing
fungus. Mycotaxon 85:357–370.
Plakidas, A. G. 1942. Venturia acerina, the perfect stage of Cladosporium humile. Mycologia
34:27–37.
Schubert, K., Ritschel, A., and Braun, U. 2003. A monograph of Fusicladium s.lat.
(Hyphomycetes). Schlechtendalia 9:1–132.
Sivanesan, A. 1977. The taxonomy and pathology of Venturia species. Bibl. Mycol. 59. 139 pp.
Sivanesan, A. 1984. The bitunicate ascomycetes and their anamorphs. Cramer, Vaduz, Austria.
701 pp.
-----------------Bronze leaf disease of aspen and poplar and Linospora leaf blight of balsam poplars, Plate
46, page 93
Bronze leaf disease of aspen and poplar
Barr, M. E. 1978. The Diaporthales in North America with emphasis on Gnomonia and its
segregates. Mycologia Mem. No. 7. 232 pp.
Barr, M. E. 1990. Prodromus to nonlichenized, pyrenomycetous members of Class
Hymenoascomycetes. Mycotaxon 39:43–184.
Cash, E. K., and Waterman, A. M. 1957. A new species of Plagiostoma associated with a leaf
disease of hybrid aspens. Mycologia 49:756–760.
Dance, B. W. 1957. A fungus associated with blight and dieback of hybrid aspen. Can. Dep.
Agric., Sci. Serv., For. Biol. Div. Bi-mon. Prog. Rep. 13(6):1–2.
Fröhlich, J., and Hyde, K. D. 1995. Maculatipalma fronsicola gen. et sp. nov. causing leaf spots
on palm species in north Queensland with descriptions of related genera: Apioplagiostoma
and Plagiostoma. Mycol. Res. 99:727–734.
Monod, M. 1983. Monographie taxonomique des Gnomoniaceae. Sydowia Ann. Mycol., Ser. II,
Beih. IX. 315 pp.
Mouchacca, J. 1987. Some interesting micromycetes observed on living or dead leaves of
Carpinus betulus L. Cryptogam. Mycol. 8:141–158.
Northover, P. R., and Desjardins, M. 2003. First report of bronze leaf disease on hybrid poplar
(Populus canescens 'Tower') caused by Apioplagiostoma populi in Manitoba, Canada. Plant
Dis. 87:1538.
49
Smith, J. A., Blanchette, R. A., Ostry, M. E., and Anderson, N. A. 2002. Etiology of bronze leaf
disease of Populus. Plant Dis. 86:462–469.
-----------------Linospora leaf blight of balsam poplars
Barr, M. E. 1990. Prodromus to nonlichenized, pyrenomycetous members of Class
Hymenoascomycetes. Mycotaxon 39:43–184.
Barr, M. E. 1991. Revisions and additions to the Diaporthales. Mycotaxon 41:287–305.
Callan, B. E. 1998. Diseases of Populus in British Columbia: a diagnostic manual. Can. For.
Serv. Pac. For. Cent., Victoria, BC. 157 pp.
Canadian Forest Service, Forest Insect and Disease Survey. Forest insect and disease conditions
in Canada. Issued annually by Natural Resources Canada, Ottawa, or its predecessors
beginning 1980; formerly titled Annual Report.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
Kojwang, H. O., and Kurkela, T. 1984. Linospora ceuthocarpa on aspen (Populus tremula) in
Finland. Karstenia 24:33–40.
Miller, J. H., and Wolf, F. A. 1936. A leaf-spot disease of honey locust caused by a new species
of Linospora. Mycologia 28:171–180.
Monod, M. 1983. Monographie taxonomique des Gnomoniaceae. Sydowia Ann. Mycol., Ser. II,
Beih. IX. 315 pp.
Newcombe, G. 1998. Southerly extension of poplar leaf blight (Linospora tetraspora) in the
Pacific Northwest. Plant Dis. 82:590.
Pinon, J., and Morelet, M. 1975. Le Linospora ceuthocarpa (Fr.) Munk ex Morelet, parasite
foliaire des peupliers. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 5:367–376.
Thompson, G. E. 1939. A leaf blight of Populus tacamahaca Mill. caused by an undescribed
species of Linospora. Can. J. Res. C17:232–238.
-----------------Anthracnose overview and black spot of elm, Plate 47, page 95
Overview
Alfieri, S. A. J., Langdon, K. R., Kimbrough, J. W., El-Gholl, N. E., and Wehlburg, C. 1994.
Diseases and disorders of plants in Florida. Fla. Dep. Agric. Consum. Serv., Div. Plant
Indus., Gainesville. 1114 pp.
Arx, J. A. von 1970. A revision of the fungi classified as Gloeosporium, 2nd ed. Bibl. Mycol.
Vol. 24. 203 pp.
Butin, H. 1992. Effect of endophytic fungi from oak (Quercus robur L.) on mortality of leaf
inhabiting gall insects. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 22:237–246.
Canadian Forest Service, Forest Insect and Disease Survey. Forest insect and disease conditions
in Canada. (Issued annually beginning 1980; formerly titled Annual Report.).
Capretti, P., Heiniger, U., and Stephan, R., eds. 1995. Shoot and foliage diseases in forest trees.
IUFRO Proceedings. Vallombrosa, Firenze, Italy, 1994. Inst. Patol. Zool. For. Agrar., Univ.
Studi di Firenze, Italy. 309 pp.
Castlebury, L. A., Rossman, A. Y., Jaklitsch, W. J., and Vasilyeva, L. N. 2002. A preliminary
overview of the Diaporthales based on large subunit nuclear ribosomal DNA sequences.
Mycologia 94:1017–1031.
50
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
Halmschlager, E., Butin, H., and Donaubauer, E. 1993. Endophytic fungi in leaves and twigs of
Quercus petraea. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 23:51–63.
Nash, B. L., Stanosz, G. R., Taylor, G., and Davis, D. D. 1994. Discula campestris infection of
sugar maple leaves associated with pear thrips injury. Plant Dis. 78:285–289.
-----------------Black spot of elm
Arx, J. A. von 1970. A revision of the fungi classified as Gloeosporium, 2nd ed. Bibl. Mycol.
Vol. 24. 203 pp.
Barr, M. E. 1978. The Diaporthales in North America with emphasis on Gnomonia and its
segregates. Mycologia Mem. No. 7. 232 pp.
Benet, H., Guries, R. P., Boury, S., and Smalley, E. B. 1995. Identification of RAPD markers
linked to a black leaf spot resistance gene in Chinese elm. Theor. Appl. Genet. 90:1068–
1073.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
McGranahan, G. H., and Smalley, E. B. 1984. Influence of moisture, temperature, leaf maturity,
and host genotype on infection of elms by Stegophora ulmea. Phytopathology 74:1296–
1300.
McGranahan, G. H., and Smalley, E. B. 1984. Conidial morphology, axenic growth, and
sporulation of Stegophora ulmea. Phytopathology 74:1300–1303.
Miles, L. E. 1921. Leaf spots of the elm. Bot. Gaz. 71:161–196.
Monod, M. 1983. Monographie taxonomique des Gnomoniaceae. Sydowia Ann. Mycol., Ser. II,
Beih. IX. 315 pp.
Pomerleau, R. 1937–1938. Recherches sur le Gnomonia ulmea (Schw.) Thüm. Nat. Can.
64:261–289, 297–318; 65:23–41, 253–279.
Sutton, B. C. 1980. The Coelomycetes: Fungi Imperfecti with pycnidia, acervuli, and stromata.
Commonw. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK. 696 pp.
Whitcomb, C. E., and Hickman, G. G. 1986. 'Prairie Shade' elm. HortScience 21:162–163.
-----------------Ash anthracnose, Plate 48, page 97
Arx, J. A. von 1970. A revision of the fungi classified as Gloeosporium, 2nd ed. Bibl. Mycol.
Vol. 24. 203 pp.
Castlebury, L. A., Rossman, A. Y., Jaklitsch, W. J., and Vasilyeva, L. N. 2002. A preliminary
overview of the Diaporthales based on large subunit nuclear ribosomal DNA sequences.
Mycologia 94:1017–1031.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
51
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
Gregory, N. F., Mulrooney, R. P., Rossman, A. Y., and Castlebury, L. A. 2004. Anthracnose
caused by Discula fraxinea on the new host Chinese fringetree and white ash in Delaware.
Plant Dis. 88:427.
Jacobs, K., and Danielson, D. 2002. Variation in field susceptibility of native and exotic ash
species to anthracnose. J. Arboric. 28:35–40.
Merrill, W., and Ostry, M. E., eds. 1990. Recent research on foliage diseases. USDA For. Serv.
Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-56. 145 pp.
Ogawa, J. M., Bose, E., Manji, B. T., and Peterson, L. J. 1977. Life cycle and chemical control
of Modesto tree anthracnose. Plant Dis. Rep. 61:792–796.
Redlin, S. C., and Stack, R. W. 1988. Gnomoniella fraxini sp. nov., teleomorph of the ash
anthracnose fungus and its connection to Discula fraxinea comb. nov. Mycotaxon 32:175–
198.
Sutton, B. C. 1980. The Coelomycetes: Fungi Imperfecti with pycnidia, acervuli, and stromata.
Commonw. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK. 696 pp.
-----------------Oak anthracnose, Plate 49, page 99
Arx, J. A. von 1970. A revision of the fungi classified as Gloeosporium, 2nd ed. Bibl. Mycol.
Vol. 24. 203 pp.
Barr, M. E. 1978. The Diaporthales in North America with emphasis on Gnomonia and its
segregates. Mycologia Mem. No. 7. 232 pp.
Barr, M. E. 1991. Revisions and additions to the Diaporthales. Mycotaxon 41:287–305.
Butin, H., and Kehr, R. 1998. Gloeosporidina platani sp. nov., the spermatial state of the
anthracnose fungus Apiognomonia veneta (Sacc. & Speg.) Höhn. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 28:297–
305.
Caetano-Anollés, G., Trigiano, R. N., and Windham, M. T. 2001. Patterns of evolution in
Discula fungi and the origin of dogwood anthracnose in North America, studied using
arbitrarily amplified and ribosomal DNA. Cur. Genet. 39:346–354.
Castlebury, L. A., Rossman, A. Y., Jaklitsch, W. J., and Vasilyeva, L. N. 2002. A preliminary
overview of the Diaporthales based on large subunit nuclear ribosomal DNA sequences.
Mycologia 94:1017–1031.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
Haemmerli, U. A., Brandle, U. E., Petrini, O., and McDermott, J. M. 1992. Differentiation of
isolates of Discula umbrinella (teleomorph: Apiognomonia errabunda) from beech, chestnut,
and oak using randomly amplified polymorphic DNA markers. Mol. Plant-Microbe Interact.
5:479–483.
Heichel, G. H., Turner, N. C., and Walton, G. S. 1972. Anthracnose causes dieback of regrowth
on defoliated oak and maple. Plant Dis. Rep. 56:1046–1047.
Laflamme, G., Bérubé, J. A., and Hamelin, R. C., eds. 1998. Foliage, shoot, and stem diseases of
trees. Can. For. Serv. Laurentian For. Cent. Inf. Rep. LAU-X-122. 272 pp.
Monod, M. 1983. Monographie taxonomique des Gnomoniaceae. Sydowia Ann. Mycol., Ser. II,
Beih. IX. 315 pp.
52
Neely, D., and Himelick, E. B. 1967. Characteristics and nomenclature of the oak anthracnose
fungus. Phytopathology 57:1230–1236.
Parris, G. K., and Byrd, J. 1962. Oak anthracnose in Mississippi. Plant Dis. Rep. 46:677–681.
Ragazzi, A., Moricca, S., Capretti, P., and Dellavalle, I. 1999. Endophytic presence of Discula
quercina on declining Quercus cerris. J. Phytopathol. 147:437–440.
Ragazzi, A., Moricca, S., Capretti, P., and Dellavalle, I. 1999. Infection ability of ascospores and
conidia of Apiognomonia quercina on oaks. Z. Pflanzenkr. Pflanzenschutz 106:490–494.
Ragazzi, A., Moricca, S., Capretti, P., and Dellavalle, I. 2000. Analysis of Discula quercina
isolates from Quercus spp. Z. Pflanzenkr. Pflanzenschutz 107:170–175.
Ragazzi, A., Moricca, S., Capretti, P., Dellavalle, I., Mancini, F., and Turco, E. 2001.
Endophytic fungi in Quercus cerris: isolation frequency in relation to phenological phase,
tree health and the organ affected. Phytopathol. Medit. 40:165–171.
Ragazzi, A., Moricca, S., and Dellavalle, I. 1999. Epidemiological aspects of Discula quercina
on oak: inoculum density and conidia production. Z. Pflanzenkr. Pflanzenschutz 106:501–
506.
Schuldt, P. H. 1955. Comparison of anthracnose fungi on oak, sycamore, and other trees.
Contrib. Boyce Thompson Inst. 18:85–107.
Sutton, B. C. 1980. The Coelomycetes: Fungi Imperfecti with pycnidia, acervuli, and stromata.
Commonw. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK. 696 pp.
Toti, L., Chapela, I. H., and Petrini, O. 1992. Morphometric evidence for host-specific strain
formation in Discula umbrinella. Mycol. Res. 96:420–424.
Wilson, D. 1995. Fungal endophytes which invade insect galls: insect pathogens, benign
saprophytes, or fungal inquilines? Oecologia 103:255–260.
Wilson, D., and Carroll, G. C. 1994. Infection studies of Discula quercina, an endophyte of
Quercus garryana. Mycologia 86:635–647.
-----------------Sycamore anthracnose, Plate 50, page 101
Ammon, V., Graves, B., and Griffin, D. 1990. Influence of environment and inoculum density
on penetration and colonization of sycamore leaves by Apiognomonia veneta. Plant Dis.
74:989–991.
Arx, J. A. von. 1970. A revision of the fungi classified as Gloeosporium, 2nd ed. Bibl. Mycol.
Vol. 24. 203 pp.
Barr, M. E. 1978. The Diaporthales in North America with emphasis on Gnomonia and its
segregates. Mycologia Mem. No. 7. 232 pp.
Butin, H., and Kehr, R. 1998. Gloeosporidina platani sp. nov., the spermatial state of the
anthracnose fungus Apiognomonia veneta (Sacc. & Speg.) Höhn. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 28:297–
305.
Castlebury, L. A., Rossman, A. Y., Jaklitsch, W. J., and Vasilyeva, L. N. 2002. A preliminary
overview of the Diaporthales based on large subunit nuclear ribosomal DNA sequences.
Mycologia 94:1017–1031.
Edgerton, C. W. 1908. The physiology and development of some anthracnoses. Bot. Gaz.
45:367–408.
Gibbs, J. N., and Reffold, T. C. 1982. Gnomonia platani and bark killing of London plane. Eur.
J. For. Pathol. 12:395–398.
Himelick, E. B. 1961. Sycamore anthracnose. Proc. Natl. Shade Tree Conf. 37:136–143.
53
Monod, M. 1983. Monographie taxonomique des Gnomoniaceae. Sydowia Ann. Mycol., Ser. II,
Beih. IX. 315 pp.
Neely, D. 1968. The somatic pressure cushion of Gnomonia platani. Mycologia 60:84–89.
Neely, D., and Himelick, E. B. 1963. Temperature and sycamore anthracnose severity. Plant Dis.
Rep. 47:171–175.
Neely, D., and Himelick, E. B. 1965. Nomenclature of the sycamore anthracnose fungus.
Mycologia 57:834–837.
Santamour, F. S. Jr. 1976. Resistance to sycamore anthracnose disease in hybrid Platanus. Plant
Dis. Rep. 60:161–162.
Santamour, F. S. Jr. 1977. The selection and breeding of pest-resistant landscape trees. J.
Arboric. 3:146–152.
Santamour, F. S. Jr. 1984. 'Columbia' and 'Liberty' planetrees. HortScience 19:901–902.
Schuldt, P. H. 1955. Comparison of anthracnose fungi on oak, sycamore, and other trees.
Contrib. Boyce Thompson Inst. 18:85–107.
Seifers, D., and Ammon, V. 1980. Mode of penetration of sycamore leaves by Gloeosporium
platani. Phytopathology 70:1050–1055.
Sury, R. von, and Flückiger, W. 1991. Effects of air pollution and water stress on leaf blight and
twig cankers of London planes (Platanus acerifolia (Ait.) Willd.) caused by Apiognomonia
veneta (Sacc. & Speg.) Höhn. New Phytol. 118:397–405.
Svihra, P., and McCain, A. H. 1992. Susceptibility of plane trees to anthracnose and powdery
mildew in California. J. Arboric. 18:161–163.
-----------------Walnut anthracnose and Gnomonia leaf spots of hickory and pecan, Plate 51, page 103
Walnut anthracnose
Arx, J. A. von 1970. A revision of the fungi classified as Gloeosporium, 2nd ed. Bibl. Mycol.
Vol. 24. 203 pp.
Barr, M. E. 1978. The Diaporthales in North America with emphasis on Gnomonia and its
segregates. Mycologia Mem. No. 7. 232 pp.
Berry, F. H. 1960. Etiology and control of walnut anthracnose. Md. Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull. A113. 22 pp.
Black, W. M., and Neely, D. 1978. Effects of temperature, free moisture, and relative humidity
on the occurrence of walnut anthracnose. Phytopathology 68:1054–1056.
Black, W. M., and Neely, D. 1978. Relative resistance of Juglans species and hybrids to walnut
anthracnose. Plant Dis. Rep. 62:497–499.
Castlebury, L. A., Rossman, A. Y., Jaklitsch, W. J., and Vasilyeva, L. N. 2002. A preliminary
overview of the Diaporthales based on large subunit nuclear ribosomal DNA sequences.
Mycologia 94:1017–1031.
Cline, S., and Neely, D. 1983. Penetration and infection of leaves of black walnut by Marssonina
juglandis and resulting lesion development. Phytopathology 73:494–497.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Fayret, J. 1967. Action de la température et de la lumière sur la multiplication asexuée et de la
reproduction sexuelle de Gnomonia leptostyla (Fr.) Cesat. et de Not., en culture pure. C. R.
Hebd. Séances Acad. Sci. (Paris) D 265:1897–1900.
54
Matteoni, J. A., and Neely, D. 1979. Gnomonia leptostyla: growth, sporulation, and
heterothallism. Mycologia 71:1034–1042.
Monod, M. 1983. Monographie taxonomique des Gnomoniaceae. Sydowia Ann. Mycol., Ser. II,
Beih. IX. 315 pp.
Neely, D. 1981. Application of nitrogen fertilizer to control anthracnose of black walnut. Plant
Dis. 65:580–581.
Roquebert, M.-F., and Fayret, J. 1982. Marssoniella juglandis: anamorphe de Gnomonia
leptostyla. Can. J. Bot. 60:1320–1329.
Todhunter, M. N., and Beineke, W. F. 1984. Effect of anthracnose on growth of grafted black
walnut. Plant Dis. 68:203–204.
-----------------Gnomonia leaf spots of hickory and pecan
Barr, M. E. 1978. The Diaporthales in North America with emphasis on Gnomonia and its
segregates. Mycologia Mem. No. 7. 232 pp.
Castlebury, L. A., Rossman, A. Y., Jaklitsch, W. J., and Vasilyeva, L. N. 2002. A preliminary
overview of the Diaporthales based on large subunit nuclear ribosomal DNA sequences.
Mycologia 94:1017–1031.
Cole, J. R. 1933. Liver-spot disease of pecan foliage caused by Gnomonia caryae pecanae, nov.
var. J. Agric. Res. 47:869–881.
Cole, J. R. 1935. Gnomonia nerviseda, the perfect stage of the fungus that causes vein spot
disease of pecan foliage. J. Agric. Res. 50:91–96.
Demaree, J. B., and Cole, J. R. 1936. A disporous Gnomonia on pecan. Phytopathology
26:1025–1029.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Monod, M. 1983. Monographie taxonomique des Gnomoniaceae. Sydowia Ann. Mycol., Ser. II,
Beih. IX. 315 pp.
Sanderlin, R. S., and Grauke, L. J. 1987. Vein spot disease caused by Gnomonia nerviseda on
pecan in Illinois. Plant Dis. 71:1146.
Sutton, B. C. 1980. The Coelomycetes: Fungi Imperfecti with pycnidia, acervuli, and stromata.
Commonw. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK. 696 pp.
Wolf, F. A. 1912. A new Gnomonia on hickory leaves. Ann. Mycol. 10:488–491.
-----------------Dogwood anthracnose, Plate 52, page 105
Britton, K. O., Pepper, W. D., Loftis, D. L., and Chellemi, D. O. 1994. Effect of timber harvest
practices on populations of Cornus florida and severity of dogwood anthracnose in western
North Carolina. Plant Dis. 78:398–402.
Brown, D. A., Windham, M. T., and Trigiano, R. N. 1996. Resistance to dogwood anthracnose
among Cornus species. J. Arboric. 22:83–86.
Caetano-Anollés, G., Trigiano, R. N., and Windham, M. T. 1997. Sequence signatures from
DNA amplification fingerprints reveal fine population structure of the dogwood pathogen
Discula destructiva. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 145:377–383.
Cardwell, N. A., and McDaniel, G. L. 1998. Comparison of chitinases from dogwood
anthracnose resistant and susceptible Cornus species. HortScience 33:298–301.
55
Castlebury, L. A., Rossman, A. Y., Jaklitsch, W. J., and Vasilyeva, L. N. 2002. A preliminary
overview of the Diaporthales based on large subunit nuclear ribosomal DNA sequences.
Mycologia 94:1017–1031.
Chellemi, D. O., and Britton, K. O. 1992. Influence of canopy microclimate on incidence and
severity of dogwood anthracnose. Can. J. Bot. 70:1093–1096.
Daughtrey, M. L., and Hibben, C. R. 1994. Dogwood anthracnose: a new disease threatens two
native Cornus species. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 32:61–73.
Daughtrey, M. L., Hibben, C. R., Britton, K. O., Windham, M. T., and Redlin, S. C. 1996.
Dogwood anthracnose: understanding a disease new to North America. Plant Dis. 80:349–
358.
Erbaugh, D. K., Windham, M. T., Stodola, A. J. W., and Auge, R. M. 1995. Light intensity and
drought stress as predisposition factors for dogwood anthracnose. J. Environ. Hortic.
13:186–189.
Holt, H. L., Grant, J. F., and Windham, M. T. 1998. Incidence of arthropods infested with
conidia of the dogwood anthracnose fungus, Discula destructiva Redlin, on flowering
dogwoods in the natural environment. J. Entomol. Sci. 33:329–335.
Ranney, T. G., Grand, L. F., and Knighten, J. L. 1995. Susceptibility of cultivars and hybrids of
kousa dogwood to dogwood anthracnose and powdery mildew. J. Arboric. 21:11–16.
Redlin, S. C. 1991. Discula destructiva sp. nov., cause of dogwood anthracnose. Mycologia
83:633–642.
Redlin, S. C. 1992. Scanning electron microscopy of the conidioma of Discula destructiva
(Coelomycetes). Mycologia 84:257–260.
Sherald, J. L., Stidham, T. M., Hadidian, J. M., and Hoeldtke, J. E. 1996. Progression of the
dogwood anthracnose epidemic and the status of flowering dogwood in Catoctin Mountain
Park. Plant Dis. 80:310–312.
Smith, V. L. 1994. First report of anthracnose caused by Discula destructiva on Cornus florida 
kousa hybrid dogwood. Plant Dis. 78:100.
Smith-Fiola, D. 1995. Pest resistant ornamental plants. Rutgers Coop Exten., Toms River, NJ. 29
pp.
Trigiano, R. N., Caetano-Anollés, G., Bassam, B. J., and Windham, M. T. 1995. DNA
amplification fingerprinting provides evidence that Discula destructiva, the cause of
dogwood anthracnose in North America, is an introduced pathogen. Mycologia 87:490–500.
Zhang, N., and Blackwell, M. 2001. Molecular phylogeny of dogwood anthracnose fungus
(Discula destructiva) and the Diaporthales. Mycologia 93:355–365.
-----------------Anthracnoses of birch, filbert, and redbud, Plate 53, page 107
Birch anthracnoses
Capretti, P., Heiniger, U., and Stephan, R., eds. 1995. Shoot and foliage diseases in forest trees.
IUFRO Proceedings. Vallombrosa, Firenze, Italy, 1994. Inst. Patol. Zool. For. Agrar., Univ.
Studi di Firenze, Italy. 309 pp.
Conners, I. L. 1967. An annotated index of plant diseases in Canada. Can. Dep. Agric. Pub.
1251. 381 pp.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
56
Hook, J. M. Van , and Busteed, R. C. 1935. Anthracnose of Betula nigra. Proc. Indiana Acad.
Sci. 44:81.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
Paavolainen, L., Hantula, J., and Kurkela, T. 2000. Pyrenopeziza betulicola and an anamorphic
fungus occurring in leaf spots of birch. Mycol. Res. 104:611–617.
Phillips, D. H., and Burdekin, D. A. 1982. Diseases of forest and ornamental trees. Macmillan,
London. 435 pp.
-----------------Filbert anthracnose
Arx, J. A. von. 1970. A revision of the fungi classified as Gloeosporium, 2nd ed. Bibl. Mycol.
Vol. 24. 203 pp.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
Grosclaude, G., Germain, E., Simone, J., and Leglise, P. 1976. La nécrose des inflorescences
mâles du noisetier provoquée par Gloeosporium coryli (Desm.) Sacc. Ann. Phytopathol.
8:87–89.
Moore, M. H. 1963. A Gloeosporium bud-rot and twig-canker disease of cultivated hazel. J.
Hortic. Sci. 38:109–118.
Overholts, L. O. 1926. Mycological notes for 1924. Mycologia 18:31–38.
Sutton, B. C. 1980. The Coelomycetes: Fungi Imperfecti with pycnidia, acervuli, and stromata.
Commonw. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK. 696 pp.
-----------------Anthracnoses and Didymosporina leaf spot of maples, Plate 54, page 109
Maple anthracnoses
Alfieri, S. A. J., Langdon, K. R., Kimbrough, J. W., El-Gholl, N. E., and Wehlburg, C. 1994.
Diseases and disorders of plants in Florida. Fla. Dep. Agric. Consum. Serv., Div. Plant
Indus., Gainesville. 1114 pp.
Arx, J. A. von 1970. A revision of the fungi classified as Gloeosporium, 2nd ed. Bibl. Mycol.
Vol. 24. 203 pp.
Canadian Forest Service, Forest Insect and Disease Survey. Forest insect and disease conditions
in Canada. (Issued annually beginning 1980; formerly titled Annual Report.).
Cooke, W. B. 1962. A taxonomic study in the "black yeasts." Mycopathol. Mycol. Appl. 17:1–
43.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
Halmschlager, E., Butin, H., and Donaubauer, E. 1993. Endophytic fungi in leaves and twigs of
Quercus petraea. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 23:51–63.
Heichel, G. H., Turner, N. C., and Walton, G. S. 1972. Anthracnose causes dieback of regrowth
on defoliated oak and maple. Plant Dis. Rep. 56:1046–1047.
57
Hermanides-Nijhof, E. J. 1977. Aureobasidium and allied genera. Stud. Mycol. No. 15:141–177.
May, C. 1961. Diseases of shade and ornamental maples. USDA Agric. Handb. 211. 22 pp.
Nash, B. L., Stanosz, G. R., Taylor, G., and Davis, D. D. 1994. Discula campestris infection of
sugar maple leaves associated with pear thrips injury. Plant Dis. 78:285–289.
Stanosz, G. R. 1993. Symptoms, association and pathogenicity of Discula campestris, a cause of
sugar maple seedling anthracnose. Plant Dis. 77:1022–1026.
Stanosz, G. R. 1994. Benomyl and acephate applications increase survival of sugar maple
seedlings during their first growing season in northern Pennsylvania. Can. J. For. Res.
24:1107–1111.
Vanev, S. G. 1995. Discosia alboferruginea, comb. nov. Mycotaxon 56:85–87.
-----------------Didymosporina leaf spot of maples
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Höhnel, F. von. 1916. Über Cheilaria aceris. Sitzungsb. K. Akad. Wiss., Math-nat. Kl. I,
125:81–84.
Sutton, B. C. 1980. The Coelomycetes: Fungi Imperfecti with pycnidia, acervuli, and stromata.
Commonw. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK. 696 pp.
U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Fungal
Databases. Beltsville, MD. Internet resource.
-----------------Hornbeam anthracnose, Plate 55, page 111
Arx, J. A. von 1970. A revision of the fungi classified as Gloeosporium, 2nd ed. Bibl. Mycol.
Vol. 24. 203 pp.
Barr, M. E. 1978. The Diaporthales in North America with emphasis on Gnomonia and its
segregates. Mycologia Mem. No. 7. 232 pp.
Canadian Forest Service, Forest Insect and Disease Survey. Forest insect and disease conditions
in Canada. (Issued annually beginning 1980; formerly titled Annual Report.).
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Monod, M. 1983. Monographie taxonomique des Gnomoniaceae. Sydowia Ann. Mycol., Ser. II,
Beih. IX. 315 pp.
Potebnia, A. von. 1910. Beiträge zur Micromycetenflora Mittel-Russlands. Ann. Mycol. 8:42–
93.
Reid, J., and Dowsett, J. A. 1990. On Dicarpella, Sphaerognomonia, and Apiosporopsis. Can. J.
Bot. 68:2398–2407.
Schneider, R., and Sauthoff, W. 1972. Absterbeerscheinungen an Carpinus betulus L. (Erreger:
Monostichella robergei [Desm.] v. Höhn.). Nachrichtenbl. Deutsch. Pflanzenschutzd.
24:117–119.
Sinclair, W. A., and Hudler, G. W. 1980. Tree and shrub pathogens new or noteworthy in New
York State. Plant Dis. 64:590–592.
-----------------Anthracnoses and diebacks caused by Glomerella and Colletotrichum, Plate 56, page 113
58
Glomerella and Colletotrichum in general
Adaskaveg, J. E., and Hartin, R. J. 1997. Characterization of Colletotrichum acutatum isolates
causing anthracnose of almond and peach in California. Phytopathology 87:979–987.
Agostini, J. P., and Timmer, L. W. 1994. Population dynamics and survival of strains of
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides on citrus in Florida. Phytopathology 84:420–425.
Bailey, J. A., and Jeger, M. J., eds. 1992. Colletotrichum: biology, pathology, and control. CAB
International. Wallingford, UK. 388 pp.
Barnard, E. L., and Schroeder, R. A. 1984. Anthracnose of acacia in Florida: occurrence and
fungicidal control. Proc. Fla. State Hortic. Soc. 97:244–247.
Bernstein, B., Zehr, E. I., Dean, R. A., and Shabi, E. 1995. Characteristics of Colletotrichum
from peach, apple, pecan, and other hosts. Plant Dis. 79:478–482.
Brenneman, T. B., and Reilly, C. C. 1989. Recent occurrence of pecan anthracnose caused by
Glomerella cingulata. Plant Dis. 73:775.
Britton, K. O., Anderson, R. A., and Redlin, S. C. 1995. Colletotrichum acutatum causes
anthracnose of black gum (Nyssa sylvatica). Plant Dis. 79:1187.
Brown, A. E., Sreenivasaprasad, S., and Timmer, L. W. 1996. Molecular characterization of
slow-growing orange and key lime anthracnose strains of Colletotrichum from citrus as C.
acutatum. Phytopathology 86:523–527.
Chellemi, D. O., Knox, G., and Palm, M. E. 1993. Limb dieback of flowering dogwood caused
by Colletotrichum acutatum. Plant Dis. 77:100.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. St. Paul, MN, APS Press. 1252 pp.
Fernando, T., Jayasinghe, C. K., and Wijesundera, R. L. C. 2001. Cell wall degrading enzyme
secretion by Colletotrichum acutatum, the causative fungus of secondary leaf fall of Hevea
brasiliensis. Mycol. Res. 105:195–201.
Flaishman, M. A., and Kolattukudy, P. E. 1994. Timing of fungal invasion using host's ripening
hormone as a signal. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91:6579–6583.
Fowler, M. E. 1947. Glomerella leaf spot of Magnolia. Plant Dis. Rep. 31:298.
Fowler, M. E., and Berry, F. H. 1958. Blossom-end rot of Chinese chestnuts. Plant Dis. Rep.
42:91–96.
Freeman, S., Minz, D., Maymon, M., and Zveibil, A. 2001. Genetic diversity within
Colletotrichum acutatum sensu Simmonds. Phytopathology 91:586–592.
Funk, A. 1985. Foliar fungi of western trees. Can. For. Serv. Pac. For. Res. Cent. BC-X-265. 159
pp.
Griffin, M. S., Sutherland, J. R., and Dennis, J. J. 1987. Blight of conifer seedlings caused by
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides. New For. 1:81–88.
Guerber, J. C., and Correll, J. C. 2001. Characterization of Glomerella acutata, the teleomorph
of Colletotrichum acutatum. Mycologia 93:216–229.
Guerber, J. C., Liu, B., Correll, J. C., and Johnston, P. R. 2003. Characterization of diversity in
Colletotrichum acutatum sensu lato by sequence analysis of two gene introns, mtDNA and
intron RFLPs, and mating compatibility. Mycologia 95:872–895.
Hartung, J. S., Burton, C. L., and Ramsdell, D. C. 1981. Epidemiological studies of blueberry
anthracnose disease caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides. Phytopathology 71:449–453.
Heald, F. D., and Wolf, F. A. 1911. New species of Texas fungi. Mycologia 3:5–22.
59
Ito, K., and Shibukawa, K. 1956. Studies on some anthracnoses of woody plants—III. A new
anthracnose of acacia with special reference to the life history of the causal fungus. Bull.
Gov. For. Exp. Stn., Tokyo 92:51–64.
Johnston, P. R., and Jones, D. 1997. Relationships among Colletotrichum isolates from fruit-rots
assessed using rDNA sequences. Mycologia 89:420–430.
Jones, R. K., and Benson, D. M., eds. 2001. Diseases of woody ornamentals and trees in
nurseries. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 482 pp.
Luttrell, E. S. 1949. Horse chestnut anthracnose in Missouri. Plant Dis. Rep. 33:324–327.
Mahoney, M. J., and Tattar, T. A. 1980. Identification, etiology, and control of Euonymus
fortunei anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides. Plant Dis. 64:854–856.
Marks, G. C., Berbee, J. G., and Riker, A. J. 1965. Colletotrichum shoot blight of poplars. For.
Sci. 11:204–215.
Mix, A. J. 1925. Anthracnose of European privet. Phytopathology 15:261–272.
Prusky, D., Freeman, S., and Dickman, M. B., eds. 2000. Colletotrichum: host specificity,
pathology, and host-pathogen interaction. APS Press, St. Paul., MN. 393 pp.
Smith, V. L. 1993. Canker of Japanese maple caused by Colletotrichum acutatum. Plant Dis.
77:197–198.
Sreenivasaprasad, S., Mills, P. R., Meehan, B. M., and Brown, A. E. 1996. Phylogeny and
systematics of 18 Colletotrichum species based on ribosomal DNA spacer sequences.
Genome 39:499–512.
Stathis, P. D., and Plakidas, A. G. 1958. Anthracnose of azaleas. Phytopathology 48:256–260.
Strandberg, J. O. 2001. A new disease of flowering dogwood caused by Colletotrichum
acutatum. Plant Dis. 85:229.
Sutton, T. B., and Shane, W. W. 1983. Epidemiology of the perfect stage of Glomerella
cingulata on apples. Phytopathology 73:1179–1183.
Terashita, T. 1963. Studies on the diseases of Acacia dealbata. III. Taxonomic opinion on the
anthracnose fungus. Bull. Gov. For. Exp. Stn., Tokyo No. 155. 22 pp.
Terashita, T. 1973. Studies of an anthracnose fungus on broad leaved trees in Japan, with special
reference to the latency of the fungus. Bull. Gov. For. Exp. Stn., Tokyo No. 252. 85 pp.
Teviotdale, B. L., Michailides, T. J., and Pscheidt, J. W., eds. 2002. Compendium of nut crop
diseases in temperate zones. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 89 pp.
Timmer, L. W., Agostini, J. P., Zitko, S. E., and Zulfiqar, M. 1994. Postbloom fruit drop, an
increasingly prevalent disease of citrus in the Americas. Plant Dis. 78:329–334.
Vineet, K., Gupta, V. P., Babu, A. M., Mishra, R. K., Thiagarajan, V., Datta, R. K., and Kumar,
V. 2001. Surface ultrastructural studies on penetration and infection process of
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides on mulberry leaf causing black spot disease. J. Phytopathol.
149:629–633.
Wattad, C., Kobiler, D., Dinoor, A., and Prusky, D. 1997. Pectate lyase of Colletotrichum
gloeosporioides attacking avocado fruits: cDNA cloning and involvement in pathogenicity.
Physiol. Mol. Plant Pathol. 50:197–212.
Whiting, E. C., Roncadori, R. W., Bongarten, B. C., and Reynolds, K. L. 1997. Relationship
between environmental factors, effects of fungicide applications, and premature defoliation
of black locust trees (Robinia pseudoacacia L.). Int. J. Pest Manag. 43:213–219.
Zulfiqar, M., Brlansky, R. H., and Timmer, L. W. 1996. Infection of flower and vegetative
tissues of citrus by Colletotrichum acutatum and C. gloeosporioides. Mycologia 88:121–128.
------------------
60
Glomerella canker and dieback of camellia
Baxter, L. W., and Plakidas, A. G. 1954. Dieback and canker of camellias caused by Glomerella
cingulata. Phytopathology 44:129–133.
Baxter, L. W. Jr., and Fagan, S. G. 1974. A comparison of the relative susceptibility of seedlings
of Camellia japonica and C. sasanqua to dieback and canker caused by a strain of
Glomerella cingulata pathogenic to camellias. Plant Dis. Rep. 58:139–141.
Baxter, L. W. Jr., Fagan, S. G., and Owen, M. G. 1982. Response of selected Camellia reticulata
cultivars to Glomerella cingulata, cause of contagious camellia dieback and canker. Plant
Dis. 66:1023–1024.
Dickens, J. S. W., and Cook, R. T. A. 1989. Glomerella cingulata on camellia. Plant Pathol.
38:75–85.
Ngo, H. C., Baxter, L. W. Jr., and Fagan, S. G. 1978. The status of our knowledge in 1978 of
twig blight, canker, and dieback of camellias caused by a strain of Glomerella cingulata.
Pages 75–91 in: American camellia yearbook 1978. Am. Camellia Society, Fort Valley, GA.
256 pp.
-----------------Butternut canker, Plate 57, page 115
Furnier, G. R., Stolz, A. M., Mustaph, R. M., and Ostry, M. E. 1999. Genetic evidence that
butternut canker was recently introduced into North America. Can. J. Bot. 77:783–785.
Graves, A. H. 1923. The Melanconis disease of the butternut (Juglans cinerea L.).
Phytopathology 13:411–435.
Halik, S., and Bergdahl, D. R. 2002. Potential beetle vectors of Sirococcus clavigignentijuglandacearum on butternut. Plant Dis. 86:521–527.
Katovich, S. A., and Ostry, M. E. 1998. Insects associated with butternut and butternut canker in
Minnesota and Wisconsin. Great Lakes Entomol. 31:97–108.
Kessler, K. J. Jr., and Weber, B. C., coords. 1979. Walnut diseases and insects. USDA For. Serv.
Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-52. 100 pp.
Laflamme, G., Bérubé J. A., and Hamelin, R. C., eds. 1998. Foliage, shoot, and stem diseases of
trees. Proceedings of the IUFRO WP 7.02.02 Meeting, Quebec City, May 25–31, 1997. Can.
For. Serv. Laurentian For. Cent. Inf. Rep. LAU-X-122. 272 pp.
Nair, V. M. G. 1999. Butternut canker—an international concern. Pages 239–252 in:
Biotechnology and plant protection in forestry science. S. P. Raychaudhuri and K.
Maramorosch, eds. Oxford & IBH, New Delhi.
Nair, V. M. G., Kostichka, C. J., and Kuntz, J. E. 1979. Sirococcus clavigignentijuglandacearum: an undescribed species causing canker on butternut. Mycologia 71:641–
646.
Ostry, M. E., Mielke, M. E., and Skilling, D. D. 1994. Butternut—strategies for managing a
threatened tree. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-165. 7 pp.
Stewart, J. E., Halik, S., and Bergdahl, D. R. 2004. Viability of Sirococcus clavigignentijuglandacearum conidia on exoskeletons of three coleopteran species. Plant Dis. 88:1085–
1091.
Tisserat, N., and Kuntz, J. E. 1983. Dispersal gradients of conidia of the butternut canker fungus
in a forest during rain. Can. J. For. Res. 13:1139–1144.
61
Tisserat, N., and Kuntz, J. E. 1983. Longevity of conidia of Sirococcus clavigignentijuglandacearum in a simulated airborne state. Phytopathology 73:1628–1631.
Tisserat, N., and Kuntz, J. E. 1984. Butternut canker: development on individual trees and
increase within a plantation. Plant Dis. 68:613–616.
-----------------Sirococcus blight of conifers, Plate 58, page 117
Bahnweg, G., Schubert, R., Kehr, R. D., Muller-Starck, G., Heller, W., Langebartels, C., and
Sandermann, H. Jr. 2000. Controlled inoculation of Norway spruce (Picea abies) with
Sirococcus conigenus: PCR-based quantification of the pathogen in host tissue and infectionrelated increase of phenolic metabolites. Trees Struct. Funct. 14:435–441.
Cordell, C. E., Anderson, R. L., Hoffard, W. H., Landis, T. D., Smith, R. S. Jr., and Toko, H. V.,
tech. coords. 1989. Forest nursery pests. USDA Agric. Handb. 680. 184 pp.
Funk, A. 1972. Sirococcus shoot-blight of western hemlock in British Columbia and Alaska.
Plant Dis. Rep. 56:645–647.
Funk, A. 1985. Foliar fungi of western trees. Can. For. Serv. Pac. For. Res. Cent. BC-X-265. 159
pp.
Hamelin, R. C., and Sutherland, J. R. 1991. Variation in the susceptibility of lodgepole pine
provenances to Sirococcus shoot blight: results from artificial inoculations. Eur. J. For.
Pathol. 21:189–192.
Illingworth, K. 1973. Variation in the susceptibility of lodgepole pine provenances to Sirococcus
blight. Can. J. For. Res. 3:585–589.
Jandl, R., Anglberger, H., Reh, M., and Halmschlager, E. 2000. Effect of fertilization of a
secondary spruce stand in the Kobernausserwald with shoot blight symptoms. Bodenkultur
51:247–258.
Laflamme, G., Bérubé, J. A., and Hamelin, R. C., eds. 1998. Foliage, shoot, and stem diseases of
trees. Can. For. Serv. Laurentian For. Cent. Inf. Rep. LAU-X-122. 272 pp.
O'Brien, J. T. 1973. Sirococcus shoot blight of red pine. Plant Dis. Rep. 57:246–247.
Schnell, G. R. 1987. Investigations of plant diseases in reforestations of the subalpine region in
the central Swiss Alps. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 17:19–33.
Shahin, E. A., and Claflin, L. E. 1978. The occurrence and distribution of Sirococcus shoot
blight of spruce in Kansas. Plant Dis. Rep. 62:648–650.
Smith, D. R., Bronson, J. J., and Stanosz, G. R. 2003. Host-related variation among isolates of
the Sirococcus shoot blight pathogen from conifers. For. Pathol. 33:141–156.
Smith, R. S. Jr. 1973. Sirococcus tip dieback of Pinus spp. in California forest nurseries. Plant
Dis. Rep. 57:69–73.
Sutherland, J. R., Lock, W., and Farris, S. H. 1981. Sirococcus blight: a seed-borne disease of
container-grown spruce seedlings in coastal British Columbia forest nurseries. Can. J. Bot.
59:559–562.
Sutton, B. C. 1980. The Coelomycetes: Fungi Imperfecti with pycnidia, acervuli, and stromata.
Commonw. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK. 696 pp.
Wall, R. E., and Magasi, L. P. 1976. Environmental factors affecting Sirococcus shoot blight of
black spruce. Can. J. For. Res. 6:448–452.
Wicker, E. F., Laurent, T. H., and Israelson, S. 1978. Sirococcus shoot blight damage to western
hemlock regeneration at Thomas Bay, Alaska. USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. INT-198. 11 pp.
------------------
62
Botryosphaeria cankers and diebacks, Plates 59–60, pages 119–121
Botryosphaeria dothidea and B. ribis
Arx, J. A. von, and Müller, E. 1954. Die Gattungen der amerosporen Pyrenomyceten. Beitr.
Kryptogamenfl. Schweiz. Vol. 11. 434 pp.
Barr, M. E. 1972. Preliminary studies on the Dothideales in temperate North America. Contrib.
Univ. Mich. Herb. 9:523–638.
Barr, M. E. 1987. Prodromus to Class Loculoascomycetes. Pub. by author, Univ. Mass.,
Amherst. 168 pp. Distrib. by Luprecht & Cramer, Ltd., Forestburgh, NY.
Biggs, A. R., ed. 1993. Handbook of cytology, histology, and histochemistry of fruit tree
diseases. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. 330 pp.
Biggs, A. R., and Britton, K. O. 1988. Presymptom histopathology of peach trees inoculated with
Botryosphaeria obtusa and B. dothidea. Phytopathology 78:1109–1118.
Britton, K. O., and Hendrix, F. F. 1982. Three species of Botryosphaeria cause peach tree
gummosis in Georgia. Plant Dis. 66:1120–1121.
Brooks, F. E., and Ferrin, D. M. 1994. Branch dieback of southern California chaparral
vegetation caused by Botryosphaeria dothidea. Phytopathology 84:78–83.
Brown, E. A., and Hendrix, F. F. 1981. Pathogenicity and histopathology of Botryosphaeria
dothidea on apple stems. Phytopathology 71:375–379.
Brown, E. A. II, and Britton, K. O. 1986. Botryosphaeria diseases of apple and peach in the
southeastern United States. Plant Dis. 70:480–484.
Crous, P. W., and Palm, M. E. 1999. Reassessment of the anamorph genera Botryodiplodia,
Dothiorella and Fusicoccum. Sydowia 51:167–175.
Denman, S., Crous, P. W., Taylor, J. E., Kang, J. C., Pascoe, I., and Wingfield, M. J. 2000. An
overview of the taxonomic history of Botryosphaeria, and a re-evaluation of its anamorphs
based on morphology and ITS rDNA phylogeny. Stud. Mycol. No. 45:129–140.
English, H., Davis, J. R., and DeVay, J. E. 1975. Relationship of Botryosphaeria dothidea and
Hendersonula toruloidea to a canker disease of almond. Phytopathology 65:114–122.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Gerlach, W. W. P., Hoitink, H. A. J., and Ellett, C. W. 1974. Shoot blight and stem dieback of
Pieris japonica caused by Phytophthora citricola, P. citrophthora, and Botryosphaeria
dothidea. Phytopathology 64:1368–1370.
Hodges, C. S. 1983. Pine mortality in Hawaii associated with Botryosphaeria dothidea. Plant
Dis. 67:555–556.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Jacobs, K. A., and Rehner, S. A. 1998. Comparison of cultural and morphological characters and
ITS sequences in anamorphs of Botryosphaeria and related taxa. Mycologia 90:601–610.
Luttrell, E. S. 1950. Botryosphaeria stem canker of elm. Plant Dis. Rep. 34:138–139.
Ma, Z., and Michailides, T. J. 2002. Characterization of Botryosphaeria dothidea isolates
collected from pistachio and other plant hosts in California. Phytopathology 92:519–526.
Ma, Z., Morgan, D. P., and Michailides, T. J. 2001. Effects of water stress on Botryosphaeria
blight of pistachio caused by Botryosphaeria dothidea. Plant Dis. 85:745–749.
63
McPartland, J. M., and Schoeneweiss, D. F. 1984. Hyphal morphology of Botryosphaeria
dothidea in vessels of unstressed and drought-stressed stems of Betula alba. Phytopathology
74:358–362.
Michailides, T. J. 1991. Pathogenicity, distribution, sources of inoculum, and infection courts of
Botryosphaeria dothidea on pistachio. Phytopathology 81:566–573.
Milholland, R. D. 1972. Histopathology and pathogenicity of Botryosphaeria dothidea on
blueberry stems. Phytopathology 62:654–660.
Morgan-Jones, G., and White, J. F. 1987. Notes on Coelomycetes. II. Concerning the
Fusicoccum anamorph of Botryosphaeria ribis. Mycotaxon 30:117–125.
Neely, D. 1968. Bleeding necrosis of sweet gum in Illinois and Indiana. Plant Dis. Rep. 52:223–
225.
Old, K. M., Gibbs, R., Craig, I., Myers, B. J., and Yuan, Z. Q. 1990. Effect of drought and
defoliation on the susceptibility of eucalypts to cankers caused by Endothia gyrosa and
Botryosphaeria ribis. Austral. J. Bot. 38:571–581.
Phillips, A. J. L. 2000. Botryosphaeria populi sp. nov. and its Fusicoccum anamorph from poplar
trees in Portugal. Mycotaxon 76:135–140.
Phillips, A. J. L., Fonseca, F., Povoa, V., Castilho, R., and Nolasco, G. 2002. A reassessment of
the anamorphic fungus Fusicoccum luteum and description of its teleomorph Botryosphaeria
lutea sp. nov. Sydowia 54:59–77.
Pooler, M. R., Jacobs, K. A., and Kramer, M. 2002. Differential resistance to Botryosphaeria
ribis among Cercis taxa. Plant Dis. 86:880–882.
Pusey, P. L. 1989. Influence of water stress on susceptibility of nonwounded peach bark to
Botryosphaeria dothidea. Plant Dis. 73:1000–1003.
Pusey, P. L. 1993. Role of Botryosphaeria species in peach tree gummosis on the basis of
differential isolation from outer and inner bark. Plant Dis. 77:170–174.
Pusey, P. L., and Bertrand, P. F. 1993. Seasonal infection of nonwounded peach bark by
Botryosphaeria dothidea. Phytopathology 83:825–829.
Schoeneweiss, D. F. 1981. Infectious diseases of trees associated with water and freezing stress.
J. Arboric. 7:13–18.
Schoeneweiss, D. F. 1981. The role of environmental stress in diseases of woody plants. Plant
Dis. 65:308–314.
Slippers, B., Crous, P. W., Denman, S., Coutinho, T. A., Wingfield, B. D., and Wingfield, M. J.
2004. Combined multiple gene genealogy and phenotypic characters differentiate several
species previously identified as Botryosphaeria dothidea. Mycologia 96:83–101.
Smith, D. R., and Stanosz, G. R. 2001. Molecular and morphological differentiation of
Botryosphaeria dothidea (anamorph Fusicoccum aesculi) from some other fungi with
Fusicoccum anamorphs. Mycologia 93:505–515.
Smith, H., Crous, P. W., Wingfield, M. J., Coutinho, T., and Wingfield, B. D. 2001.
Botryosphaeria eucalyptorum sp. nov., a new species in the B. dothidea–complex on
Eucalyptus in South Africa. Mycologia 93:277–285.
Smith, H., Wingfield, M. J., Crous, P. W., and Coutinho, T. A. 1996. Sphaeropsis sapinea and
Botryosphaeria dothidea endophytic in Pinus spp. and Eucalyptus spp. in South Africa.
S.Afr. J. Bot. 62:86–88.
Smith, H., Wingfield, M. J., and Petrini, O. 1996. Botryosphaeria dothidea endophytic in
Eucalyptus grandis and Eucalyptus nitens in South Africa. For. Ecol. Manag. 89:189–195.
64
Sutton, B. C. 1980. The Coelomycetes: Fungi Imperfecti with pycnidia, acervuli, and stromata.
Commonw. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK. 696 pp.
Sutton, T. B. 1981. Production and dispersal of ascospores and conidia by Physalospora obtusa
and Botryosphaeria dothidea in apple orchards. Phytopathology 71:584–589.
Watson, A. J. 1941. Studies of Botryosphaeria ribis on Cercis and Benzoin. Plant Dis. Rep.
25:29–31.
Weaver, D. J. 1979. Role of conidia of Botryosphaeria dothidea in the natural spread of peach
tree gummosis. Phytopathology 69:330–334.
Wester, H. V., Davidson, R. W., and Fowler, M. E. 1950. Cankers of linden and redbud. Plant
Dis. Rep. 34:219–223.
Wolf, F. T., and Wolf, F. A. 1939. A study of Botryosphaeria ribis on willow. Mycologia
31:217–227.
Worrall, J. J., Correll, J. C., and McCain, A. H. 1986. Pathogenicity and teleomorph-anamorph
connection of Botryosphaeria dothidea on Sequoiadendron giganteum and Sequoia
sempervirens. Plant Dis. 70:757–759.
Zhou, S., Smith, D. R., Stanosz, G. R., and Zhou, S. 2001. Differentiation of Botryosphaeria
species and related anamorphic fungi using Inter Simple or Short Sequence Repeat (ISSR)
fingerprinting. Mycol. Res. 105:919–926.
Zhou, S., and Stanosz, G. R. 2001. Relationships among Botryosphaeria species and associated
anamorphic fungi inferred from the analyses of ITS and 5.8S rDNA sequences. Mycologia
93:515–527.
-----------------Botryosphaeria cankers and diebacks, continued, Plate 61, page 123
Cankers and dieback caused by Botryosphaeria stevensii, Diplodia. pinea f.sp. cupressi, and
Diplodia quercina
Denman, S., Crous, P. W., Taylor, J. E., Kang, J. C., Pascoe, I., and Wingfield, M. J. 2000. An
overview of the taxonomic history of Botryosphaeria, and a re-evaluation of its anamorphs
based on morphology and ITS rDNA phylogeny. Stud. Mycol. No. 45:129–140.
Evidente, A., Sparapano, L., Fierro, O., Bruno, G., Giordano, F., and Motta, A. 1997.
Sphaeropsidins B and C, phytotoxic pimarane diterpenes from Sphaeropsis sapinea f.sp.
cupressi and Diplodia mutila. Phytochemistry 45:705–713.
Evidente, A., Sparapano, L., Motta, A., Giordano, F., Fierro, O., and Frisullo, S. 1996. A
phytotoxic pimarane diterpene of Sphaeropsis sapinea f.sp. cupressi , the pathogen of a
canker disease of cypress. Phytochemistry 42:1541–1546.
Flynn, P. H., and Gleason, M. L. 1993. Isolation of Botryosphaeria stevensii, cause of
Botryosphaeria canker, from Rocky Mountain juniper in Iowa. Plant Dis. 77:210.
Frisullo, S., Camele, I., Carlucci, A., and Lops, F. 2000. Botryosphaeria and Botryosphaeria-like
micromycetes on declining oaks in Apulia and Basilicata. Petria 10:1–10.
Linde, C., Kemp, G. H. J., and Wingfield, M. J. 1997. First report of Sphaeropsis canker on
cypress in South Africa. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 27:173–177.
Luisi, N., Lerario, P., and Bianco, M. C. 1996. Botryosphaeria stevensii: pathogenicity on oaks
and phytotoxic effects. Ital. For. Mont. 51:250–263.
Luisi, N., Manicone, R. P., Trombetta, N. M., and Cusano, G. 1995. Predisposition to forest
decline of some Mediterranean oaks in relation to drought resistance. Ital. For. Mont. 50:44–
59.
65
Luque, J., and Girbal, J. 1988. Dieback of cork oak (Quercus suber) in Catalonia (NE Spain)
caused by Botryosphaeria stevensii. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 19:7–13.
Moret, B. A., and Nadal, P. M. 1991. Distribución de Diplodia mutila Fr. apud Mont. en
Catalunya. Acta Bot. Malacitana 16:93–96.
Proffer, T. J. 1996. First report of Diplodia mutila on golden-chain tree (Laburnum watereri).
Plant Dis. 80:1303.
Ragazzi, A., Fedi, I. D., and Moricca, S. 1990. Colonization pattern of Quercus cerris by
Diplodia mutila and Phomopsis quercina. Phytopathol. Medit. 29:209–212.
Ragazzi, A., Moricca, S., and Dellavalle, I. 1999. Interactions between Quercus spp. and
Diplodia mutila under water stress conditions. Z. Pflanzenkr. Pflanzenschutz 106:495–500.
Ragazzi, A., Moricca, S., and Dellavalle, I. 1999. Water stress and the development of cankers
by Diplodia mutila on Quercus robur. J. Phytopathol. 147:425–428.
Schmidt, R. A., and Fergus, C. L. 1965. Branch canker and dieback of Quercus prinus L. caused
by a species of Botryodiplodia. Can. J. Bot. 43:731–737.
Sivanesan, A. 1984. The bitunicate ascomycetes and their anamorphs. Cramer, Vaduz, Austria.
701 pp.
Solel, Z., Madar, Z., Kimchi, M., and Golan, Y. 1987. Diplodia canker of cypress. Can. J. Plant
Pathol. 9:115–118.
Stanosz, G. R., Swart, W. J., and Smith, D. R. 1998. Similarity between fungi identified as
Sphaeropsis sapinea f.sp. cupressi in Israel and Botryosphaeria stevensii or Diplodia mutila
on Juniperus in the United States. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 28:33–42.
Sutton, B. C. 1980. The Coelomycetes: Fungi Imperfecti with pycnidia, acervuli, and stromata.
Commonw. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK. 696 pp.
Swart, W. J., Wingfield, M. J., and Grant, W. S. 1993. Comparison of Sphaeropsis sapinea and
Sphaeropsis sapinea f.sp. cupressi. Mycol. Res. 97:1253–1260.
Tisserat, N. A., Rossman, A. Y., and Nus, A. 1988. A canker disease of Rocky Mountain juniper
caused by Botryosphaeria stevensii. Plant Dis. 72:699–701.
Vajna, L. 1986. Branch canker and dieback of sessile oak (Quercus petraea) in Hungary caused
by Diplodia mutila. I. Identification of the pathogen. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 16:223–229.
Zhou, S., and Stanosz, G. R. 2001. Relationships among Botryosphaeria species and associated
anamorphic fungi inferred from the analyses of ITS and 5.8S rDNA sequences. Mycologia
93:515–527.
-----------------Cankers and dieback caused by Botryosphaeria quercuum and related fungi on oak
Alfieri, S. A. J., Langdon, K. R., Kimbrough, J. W., El-Gholl, N. E., and Wehlburg, C. 1994.
Diseases and disorders of plants in Florida. Fla. Dep. Agric. Consum. Serv., Div. Plant
Indus., Gainesville. 1114 pp.
Arx, J. A. von, and Müller, E. 1954. Die Gattungen der amerosporen Pyrenomyceten. Beitr.
Kryptogamenfl. Schweiz. Vol. 11. 434 pp.
Boyce, J. S. 1961. Forest pathology. 3rd ed. McGraw-Hill, New York. 572 pp.
Carter, J. C. 1941. Preliminary investigation of oak diseases in Illinois. Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bull.
21:195–230.
Croghan, C. F., and Robbins, K. 1986. Cankers caused by Botryodiplodia gallae associated with
oak sprout mortality in Michigan. Plant Dis. 70:76–77.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
66
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
Hepting, G. H. 1971. Diseases of forest and shade trees of the United States. USDA Agric.
Handb. 386. 658 pp.
Ingram, D. E. 1914. A twig blight of Quercus prinus and related species. J. Agric. Res. 1:339–
346.
Shoemaker, R. A. 1964. Conidial states of some Botryosphaeria species on Vitis and Quercus.
Can. J. Bot. 42:1297–1301.
Sivanesan, A. 1984. The bitunicate ascomycetes and their anamorphs. Cramer, Vaduz, Austria.
701 pp.
Stevens, N. E. 1933. Life history and synonymy of Physalospora gladiola. Mycologia 25:504–
508.
Vajna, L. 1999. Pathogenic Botryosphaeria species in Hungary. II. Botryosphaeria melanops
(Tul. et C. Tul.) G. Winter. Novenyvedelem 35:195–198.
Zhou, S., and Stanosz, G. R. 2001. Relationships among Botryosphaeria species and associated
anamorphic fungi inferred from the analyses of ITS and 5.8S rDNA sequences. Mycologia
93:515–527.
-----------------Botryosphaeria cankers and diebacks, continued, Plate 62, page 125
Cankers and dieback caused by Botryosphaeria obtusa
Arauz, L. F., and Sutton, T. B. 1989. Temperature and wetness duration requirements for apple
infection by Botryosphaeria obtusa. Phytopathology 79:440–444.
Arauz, L. F., and Sutton, T. B. 1989. Influence of temperature and moisture on germination of
ascospores and conidia of Botryosphaeria obtusa. Phytopathology 79:667–674.
Biggs, A. R., ed. 1993. Handbook of cytology, histology, and histochemistry of fruit tree
diseases. CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, FL. 330 pp.
Britton, K. O., and Hendrix, F. F. 1989. Infection of peach buds by Botryosphaeria obtusa. Plant
Dis. 73:65–68.
Brown, E. A. II, and Britton, K. O. 1986. Botryosphaeria diseases of apple and peach in the
southeastern United States. Plant Dis. 70:480–484.
Denman, S., Crous, P. W., Taylor, J. E., Kang, J. C., Pascoe, I., and Wingfield, M. J. 2000. An
overview of the taxonomic history of Botryosphaeria, and a re-evaluation of its anamorphs
based on morphology and ITS rDNA phylogeny. Stud. Mycol. No. 45:129–140.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Frisullo, S., Camele, I., Carlucci, A., and Lops, F. 2000. Botryosphaeria and Botryosphaeria-like
micromycetes on declining oaks in Apulia and Basilicata. Petria 10:1–10.
Hesler, L. R. 1916. Black rot, leaf spot, and canker of pomaceous fruits. Cornell Univ. Agric.
Exp. Stn. Bull. 379:49–148.
Holmes, J., and Rich, A. E. 1970. Factors affecting release and dissemination of Physalospora
obtusa spores in a New Hampshire apple orchard. Phytopathology 60:1052–1054.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
67
Jacobs, K. A., and Rehner, S. A. 1998. Comparison of cultural and morphological characters and
ITS sequences in anamorphs of Botryosphaeria and related taxa. Mycologia 90:601–610.
Landis, W. R., and Hart, J. H. 1967. Cankers of ornamental crabapples. Plant Dis. Rep. 51:230–
234.
Pusey, P. L. 1989. Availability and dispersal of ascospores and conidia of Botryosphaeria in
peach orchards. Phytopathology 79:635–639.
Pusey, P. L. 1993. Role of Botryosphaeria species in peach tree gummosis on the basis of
differential isolation from outer and inner bark. Plant Dis. 77:170–174.
Shear, C. L., Stevens, N. E., and Wilcox, M. S. 1925. Botryosphaeria and Physalospora in the
eastern United States. Mycologia 17:98–107.
Shoemaker, R. A. 1964. Conidial states of some Botryosphaeria species on Vitis and Quercus.
Can. J. Bot. 42:1297–1301.
Sivanesan, A. 1984. The bitunicate ascomycetes and their anamorphs. Cramer, Vaduz, Austria.
701 pp.
Smith-Fiola, D. 1995. Pest resistant ornamental plants. Rutgers Coop Exten., Toms River, NJ. 29
pp.
Stevens, N. E. 1933. Two apple black rot fungi in the United States. Mycologia 25:536–548.
Stevens, N. E. 1936. Two species of Physalospora in England. Mycologia 28:331–336.
Sutton, T. B. 1981. Production and dispersal of ascospores and conidia by Physalospora obtusa
and Botryosphaeria dothidea in apple orchards. Phytopathology 71:584–589.
Venkatasubbaiah, P., Sutton, T. B., and Chilton, W. S. 1991. Effect of phytotoxins produced by
Botryosphaeria obtusa, the cause of black rot of apple fruit and frogeye leaf spot.
Phytopathology 81:243–247.
Zhou, S., and Stanosz, G. R. 2001. Relationships among Botryosphaeria species and associated
anamorphic fungi inferred from the analyses of ITS and 5.8S rDNA sequences. Mycologia
93:515–527.
-----------------Botryosphaeria cankers and diebacks, continued, Plate 63, page 127
Cankers and diebacks caused by Botryosphaeria rhodina
Alfieri, S. A. J., Langdon, K. R., Kimbrough, J. W., El-Gholl, N. E., and Wehlburg, C. 1994.
Diseases and disorders of plants in Florida. Fla. Dep. Agric. Consum. Serv., Div. Plant
Indus., Gainesville. 1114 pp.
Ash, C. L., ed. 2001. Shade tree wilt diseases. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 257 pp.
Brown, E. A. II, and Britton, K. O. 1986. Botryosphaeria diseases of apple and peach in the
southeastern United States. Plant Dis. 70:480–484.
Brown, G. E. 1971. Pycnidial release and survival of Diplodia natalensis spores. Phytopathology
61:559–561.
Cilliers, A. J., Swart, W. J., and Wingfield, M. J. 1994. Selective medium for isolating
Lasiodiplodia theobromae. Plant Dis. 78:1052–1055.
Davis, R. M., Farrald, C. J., and Davila, D. 1987. Botryodiplodia trunk lesions in Texas citrus.
Plant Dis. 71:848–849.
Denman, S., Crous, P. W., Taylor, J. E., Kang, J. C., Pascoe, I., and Wingfield, M. J. 2000. An
overview of the taxonomic history of Botryosphaeria, and a re-evaluation of its anamorphs
based on morphology and ITS rDNA phylogeny. Stud. Mycol. No. 45:129–140.
68
Encinas, O., and Daniel, G. 1995. Wood cell biodegradation by the blue stain fungus
Botryodiplodia theobromae Pat. Mater. Org. (Berl.) 29:255–272.
Encinas, O., Henningsson, B., and Daniel, G. 1998. Changes in toughness and fracture
characteristics of wood attacked by the blue stain fungus Lasiodiplodia theobromae.
Holzforschung 52:82–88.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Filer, T. H. Jr. 1969. Sycamore canker caused by Botryodiplodia theobromae. Phytopathology
59:76–78.
Fraedrich, S. W., Miller, T., and Zarnoch, S. J. 1994. Factors affecting the incidence of black
seed rot in slash pine. Can. J. For. Res. 24:1717–1725.
Jacobs, K. A., and Rehner, S. A. 1998. Comparison of cultural and morphological characters and
ITS sequences in anamorphs of Botryosphaeria and related taxa. Mycologia 90:601–610.
Large, J. R. 1948. Canker of tung trees caused by Physalospora rhodina. Phytopathology
38:359–363.
Leininger, T. D., Solomon, J. D., Wilson, A. D., and Schiff, N. M. 1999. A guide to major
insects, diseases, air pollution injury, and chemical injury of sycamore. USDA For. Serv.
Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS 28. 44 pp.
Lewis, R. Jr. 1985. Temperature tolerance and survival of Ceratocystis fagacearum in Texas.
Plant Dis. 69:443–444.
Lewis, R. Jr., and Van Arsdel, E. P. 1978. Development of Botryodiplodia cankers in sycamore
at controlled temperatures. Plant Dis. Rep. 62:125–126.
Lewis, R. Jr., and Van Arsdel, E. P. 1978. Vulnerability of water-stressed sycamores to strains of
Botryodiplodia theobromae. Plant Dis. Rep. 62:62–63.
Michailides, T. J., Morgan, D. P., Felts, D., and Phillimore, J. 2002. First report of
Botryosphaeria rhodina causing shoot blight of pistachio in California. Plant Dis. 86:1273.
Mullen, J. M., Gilliam, C. H., Hagan, A. K., and Morgan, J. G. 1991. Canker of dogwood caused
by Lasiodiplodia theobromae, a disease influenced by drought stress or cultivar selection.
Plant Dis. 75:886–889.
Peterson, G. W. 1976. Disease of Russian-olive caused by Botryodiplodia theobromae. Plant
Dis. Rep. 60:490–494.
Punithalingam, E. 1976. Botryodiplodia theobromae. C.M.I. Descr. Pathogenic Fungi Bact. No.
519. 3 pp.
Pusey, P. L. 1993. Role of Botryosphaeria species in peach tree gummosis on the basis of
differential isolation from outer and inner bark. Plant Dis. 77:170–174.
Ram, C. 1993. Cultural characteristics, sporulation and virulence of Botryodiplodia theobromae
"strain," causal agent of leaf blight of coconut palm (Cocos nucifera). Fitopatol. Brasil.
18:143–146.
Riffle, J. W., and Peterson, G. W., tech. coords. 1986. Diseases of trees in the Great Plains.
USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-129. 149 pp.
Silveira, R. L. V. A., Krugner, T. L., Silveira, R. I., and Gonçalves, A. N. 1996. Effect of boron
on the susceptibility of Eucalyptus citriodora to Botryosphaeria ribis and Lasiodiplodia
theobromae. Fitopatol. Brasil. 21:482–485.
Stevens, N. E. 1926. Two species of Physalospora on citrus and other hosts. Mycologia 18:206–
217.
69
Sutton, B. C. 1980. The Coelomycetes: Fungi Imperfecti with pycnidia, acervuli, and stromata.
Commonw. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK. 696 pp.
Voorhees, R. K. 1942. Life history and taxonomy of the fungus Physalospora rhodina. Fla.
Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull. 371. 91 pp.
Wright, J. G., Johnson, G. I., and Hyde, K. D. 1998. Studies on the endophytic mycota of Citrus
spp. ACIAR (Austral. Cent. Int. Agric. Res.) Proc. Ser. 80:167–173.
-----------------Diplodia (Sphaeropsis) blight of pines and other conifers, Plate 64, page 129
Bachi, P. R., and Peterson, J. L. 1985. Enhancement of Sphaeropsis sapinea stem invasion of
pines by water deficits. Plant Dis. 69:798–799.
Blodgett, J. T., Kruger, E. L., and Stanosz, G. R. 1997. Effects of moderate water stress on
disease development by Sphaeropsis sapinea on red pine. Phytopathology 87:422–428.
Blodgett, J. T., Kruger, E. L., and Stanosz, G. R. 1997. Sphaeropsis sapinea and water stress in a
red pine plantation in central Wisconsin. Phytopathology 87:429–434.
Blodgett, J. T., and Stanosz, G. R. 1999. Differences in aggressiveness of Sphaeropsis sapinea
RAPD marker group isolates on several conifers. Plant Dis. 83:853–856.
Brookhouser, L. W., and Peterson, G. W. 1971. Infection of Austrian, Scots, and ponderosa
pines by Diplodia pinea. Phytopathology 61:409–414.
Chou, C. K. S. 1978. Penetration of young stems of Pinus radiata by Diplodia pinea. Physiol.
Plant Pathol. 13:189–192.
Cordell, C. E., Anderson, R. L., Hoffard, W. H., Landis, T. D., Smith, R. S. Jr., and Toko, H. V.,
tech. coords. 1989. Forest nursery pests. USDA Agric. Handb. 680. 184 pp.
Davis, C., and Meyer, T. 1997. Field guide to tree diseases of Ontario. NODA/NFP Tech. Rep.
TR-46. Can. For. Serv. Great Lakes For. Cent. and Ontario Minist. Nat. Resour., Sault Ste.
Marie. 135 pp.
Denman, S., Crous, P. W., Taylor, J. E., Kang, J. C., Pascoe, I., and Wingfield, M. J. 2000. An
overview of the taxonomic history of Botryosphaeria, and a re-evaluation of its anamorphs
based on morphology and ITS rDNA phylogeny. Stud. Mycol. 45:129–140.
Evidente, A., Sparapano, L., Fierro, O., Bruno, G., Giordano, F., and Motta, A. 1997.
Sphaeropsidins B and C, phytotoxic pimarane diterpenes from Sphaeropsis sapinea f.sp.
cupressi and Diplodia mutila. Phytochemistry 45:705–713.
Haddow, W. R., and Newman, F. S. 1942. A disease of the Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.)
caused by the fungus Diplodia pinea Kickx associated with the pine spittle-bug (Aphrophora
parallela Say.). I. Symptoms and etiology. Trans. R. Can. Inst. 24:1–17.
Johnson, J. W., Gleason, M. L., Parker, S. K., Provin, E. B., Iles, J. K., and Flynn, P. H. 1997.
Duration of water stress affects development of Sphaeropsis canker on Scots pine. J. Arboric.
23:73–76.
Marks, G. C., and Minko, G. 1969. The pathogenicity of Diplodia pinea to Pinus radiata D.
Don. Austral. J. Bot. 17:1–12.
Peterson, G. W. 1977. Infection, epidemiology, and control of Diplodia blight of Austrian,
ponderosa, and Scots pines. Phytopathology 67:511–514.
Peterson, G. W. 1981. Pine and juniper diseases in the Great Plains. USDA For. Serv. Gen.
Tech. Rep. RM-86. 47 pp.
Punithalingam, E., and Waterston, J. M. 1970. Diplodia pinea. C.M.I. Descr. Pathogenic Fungi
Bact. No. 273. 2 pp.
70
Slagg, C. M., and Wright, E. 1943. Diplodia blight in coniferous seedbeds. Phytopathology
33:390–393.
Smith, H., Wingfield, M. J., Crous, P. W., and Coutinho, T. A. 1996. Sphaeropsis sapinea and
Botryosphaeria dothidea endophytic in Pinus spp. and Eucalyptus spp. in South Africa.
S.Afr. J. Bot. 62:86–88.
Smith, H., Wingfield, M. J., and Coutinho, T. A. 2002. The role of latent Sphaeropsis sapinea
infections in post-hail associated die-back of Pinus patula. For. Ecol. Manag. 164:177–184.
Stanosz, G. R., Blodgett, J. T., Smith, D. R., and Kruger, E. L. 2001. Water stress and
Sphaeropsis sapinea as a latent pathogen of red pine seedlings. New Phytol. 149:531–538.
Stanosz, G. R., and Carlson, J. C. 1996. Association of mortality of recently planted seedlings
and established saplings in red pine plantations with Sphaeropsis collar rot. Plant Dis.
80:750–753.
Stanosz, G. R., Smith, D. R., Guthmiller, M. A., and Stanosz, J. C. 1997. Persistence of
Sphaeropsis sapinea on or in asymptomatic shoots of red and jack pines. Mycologia 89:525–
530.
Stanosz, G. R., Swart, W. J., and Smith, D. R. 1998. Similarity between fungi identified as
Diplodia pinea f.sp. cupressi in Israel and Botryosphaeria stevensii or Diplodia mutila on
Juniperus in the United States. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 28:33–42.
Stanosz, G. R., Swart, W. J., and Smith, D. R. 1999. RAPD marker and isozyme characterization
of Sphaeropsis sapinea from diverse coniferous hosts and locations. Mycol. Res. 103:1193–
1202.
Sutton, B. C. 1980. The Coelomycetes: Fungi Imperfecti with pycnidia, acervuli, and stromata.
Commonw. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK. 696 pp.
Swart, W. J., Wingfield, M. J., and Grant, W. S. 1993. Comparison of Sphaeropsis sapinea and
Sphaeropsis sapinea f.sp. cupressi. Mycol. Res. 97:1253–1260.
Swart, W. J., Wingfield, M. J., and Wyk, P. van 1993. Variation in conidial morphology among
geographic isolates of Sphaeropsis sapinea. Mycol. Res. 97:832–838.
Waterman, A. M. 1943. Diplodia pinea, the cause of a disease of hard pines. Phytopathology
33:1018–1031.
Wet, J. de, Burgess, T., Slippers, B., Preisig, O., Wingfield, B. D., and Wingfield, M. J. 2003.
Multiple gene genealogies and microsatellite markers reflect relationships between
morphotypes of Sphaeropsis sapinea and distinguish a new species of Diplodia. Mycol. Res.
107:557–566.
Wet, J. de, Wingfield, M. J., Coutinho, T., and Wingfield, B. D. 2002. Characterisation of the 'C'
morphotype of the pine pathogen Sphaeropsis sapinea. For. Ecol. Manag. 161:181–188.
Wingfield, M. J., and Knox-Davies, P. S. 1980. Association of Diplodia pinea with a root
disease of pines in South Africa. Plant Dis. 64:221–223
Zhou, S., Smith, D. R., and Stanosz, G. R. 2001. Differentiation of Botryosphaeria species and
related anamorphic fungi using Inter Simple or Short Sequence Repeat (ISSR) fingerprinting.
Mycol. Res. 105:919–926.
Zwolinski, J. B., Swart, W. J., and Wingfield, M. J. 1995. Association of Sphaeropsis sapinea
with insect infestation following hail damage of Pinus radiata. For. Ecol. Manag. 72:293–
298.
-----------------Sphaeropsis canker and dieback of elm, Plate 65, page 131
71
Buisman, C. 1931. Three species of Botryodiplodia (Sacc.) on elm trees in the United States. J.
Arnold Arbor. 12:289–296.
Crous, P. W., and Palm, M. E. 1999. Reassessment of the anamorph genera Botryodiplodia,
Dothiorella and Fusicoccum. Sydowia 51:167–175.
Denman, S., Crous, P. W., Taylor, J. E., Kang, J. C., Pascoe, I., and Wingfield, M. J. 2000. An
overview of the taxonomic history of Botryosphaeria, and a re-evaluation of its anamorphs
based on morphology and ITS rDNA phylogeny. Stud. Mycol. 45:129–140.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
Hubert, E. E. 1931. An outline of forest pathology. Wiley, New York. 543 pp.
Hubert, E. E., and Humphrey, C. J. 1920. A canker of the elm in Wisconsin. Wisc. Dep. Agric.
Biennial Rep., Bull. 33:158–163.
Krupinsky, J. M. 1981. Botryodiplodia hypodermia and Tubercularia ulmea in cankers on
Siberian elm in northern Great Plains windbreaks. Plant Dis. 65:677–678.
Krupinsky, J. M. 1983. Variation in virulence of Botryodiplodia hypodermia to Ulmus pumila.
Phytopathology 73:108–110.
Krupinsky, J. M., and Cunningham, R. A. 1993. Response of Siberian elm to inoculations with
Sphaeropsis ulmicola. Plant Dis. 77:678–681.
Ouellette, G. B., Rioux, D., Bussières, G., Simard, M., and Bernier, L. 2000. Extracellular sheath
formation by Sphaeropsis hypodermia and association with its infection in elm trees.
Phytoprotection 81:69–86.
Petrak, F. and Sydow, H. 1926–1927. Die Gattungen der Pyrenomyceten, Sphaeropsideen und
Melanconieen. Verlag des Reportoriums (Feddes Reportorium), Berlin-Dahlem. Heft 42. 551
pp.
Riffle, J. W. 1978. Development of cankers on Ulmus pumila related to month of inoculation
with Botryodiplodia hypodermia. Phytopathology 68:1115–1119.
Riffle, J. W., and Peterson, G. W., tech. coords. 1986. Diseases of trees in the Great Plains.
USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-129. 149 pp.
Stack, R. W., and Ash, C. L. 1979. Botryodiplodia canker of American elm. (Abstr.) J. Arboric.
5:163–164.
Stipes, R. J., and Campana, R. J., eds. 1981. Compendium of elm diseases. Am. Phytopathol.
Soc., St. Paul, MN. 96 pp.
Zhou, S., Smith, D. R., and Stanosz, G. R. 2001. Differentiation of Botryosphaeria species and
related anamorphic fungi using Inter Simple or Short Sequence Repeat (ISSR) fingerprinting.
Mycol. Res. 105:919–926.
-----------------Sphaeropsis knot and Diplodia gall, Plate 66, page 133
Alfieri, S. A. J., Langdon, K. R., Kimbrough, J. W., El-Gholl, N. E., and Wehlburg, C. 1994.
Diseases and disorders of plants in Florida. Fla. Dep. Agric. Consum. Serv., Div. Plant
Indus., Gainesville. 1114 pp.
Callan, B. E. 1998. Diseases of Populus in British Columbia: a diagnostic manual. Can. For.
Serv. Pac. For. Cent., Victoria, BC. 157 pp.
72
Denman, S., Crous, P. W., Taylor, J. E., Kang, J. C., Pascoe, I., and Wingfield, M. J. 2000. An
overview of the taxonomic history of Botryosphaeria, and a re-evaluation of its anamorphs
based on morphology and ITS rDNA phylogeny. Stud. Mycol. 45:129–140.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Florida Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services, Division of Plant Industry. 1962–
present. Plant Pathology Circulars 1– .
Fucikovsky, L. 1994. Tumour caused by Sphaeropsis tumefaciens on avocado. Rev. Mex. Micol.
10:81–185.
Funk, A. 1981. Parasitic microfungi of western trees. Can. For. Serv. Pac. For. Res. Cent. BC-X222. 190 pp.
Hedges, F., and Tenny, L. S. 1912. A knot of citrus trees caused by Sphaeropsis tumefaciens.
U.S. Dep. Agric Bull. 247. 74 pp.
Hiratsuka, Y. 1987. Forest tree diseases of the prairie provinces. Can. For. Serv. Inf. Rep. NorX-286. 142 pp.
Holliday, P., and Punithalingam, E. 1970. Sphaeropsis tumefaciens. C.M.I. Descr. Pathogenic
Fungi Bact. No. 278. 2 pp.
Marlatt, R. B., and Ridings, W. H. 1976. Sphaeropsis disease of Carissa grandiflora. Plant Dis.
Rep. 60:842–843.
Marlatt, R. B., and Ridings, W. H. 1979. Sphaeropsis gall of Schinus terebinthifolius, a new host.
Plant Dis. Rep. 63:786–787.
Ridings, W. H., and Marlatt, R. B. 1976. Sphaeropsis witches' broom of Nerium oleander. Proc.
Fla. State Hortic. Soc. 89:302–303.
Zalasky, H. 1964. Nomenclature and description of Diplodia tumefaciens (Shear) Zalasky
[Macrophoma tumefaciens Shear apud Hubert]. Can. J. Bot. 42:1049–1055.
Zalasky, H. 1964. The histopathology of Macrophoma tumefaciens infections in black poplar.
Can. J. Bot. 42:385–391.
Zalasky, H. 1974. Keissleriella emergens, a perfect state of Diplodia tumefaciens in roots of
poplar. Can. J. Bot. 52:11–13.
-----------------Melanconis diebacks and sooty canker, Plate 67, page 135
Melanconis diebacks
Belisario, A. 1999. Cultural characteristics and pathogenicity of Melanconium juglandinum. Eur.
J. For. Pathol. 29:317–322.
Belisario, A., and Onofri, S. 1995. Conidiogenesis and morphology of Melanconium
juglandinum. Mycol. Res. 99:1059–1062.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
Graves, A. H. 1923. The Melanconis disease of the butternut (Juglans cinerea L.).
Phytopathology 13:411–435.
Kobayashi, T. 1968. Notes on Japanese species of the genus Melanconium. J. Mycol. Soc. Jap.
9:1–11.
73
Kobayashi, T. 1974. Pathogenicity of Melanconis spp. causing dieback diseases of broad-leaved
trees. J. Jap. For. Soc. 56:332–336.
Sieber, T. N., Sieber, C. F., Petrini, O., Ekramoddoullah, A. K. M., and Dorworth, C. E. 1991.
Characterization of Canadian and European Melanconium from some Alnus species by
morphological, cultural, and biochemical studies. Can. J. Bot. 69:2170–2176.
Wehmeyer, L. E. 1941. A revision of Melanconis, Pseudovalsa, Prosthecium, and Titania. Univ.
Mich. Press, Ann Arbor. 161 pp.
-----------------Sooty canker
Calavan, E. C., and Wallace, J. M. 1954. Hendersonula toruloidea Nattrass on citrus in
California. Phytopathology 44:635–639.
Davison, A. D. 1972. Factors affecting development of madrone canker. Plant Dis. Rep. 56:50–
52.
English, H., Davis, J. R., and DeVay, J. E. 1975. Relationship of Botryosphaeria dothidea and
Hendersonula toruloidea to a canker disease of almond. Phytopathology 65:114–122.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Matheron, M. E., and Sigler, L. 1994. First report of eucalyptus dieback caused by Nattrassia
mangiferae in North America. Plant Dis. 78:432.
Mirzaee, M. R., Mohammadi, M., and Rahimian, H. 2002. Nattrassia mangiferae, the cause of
die-back and trunk cankers of Ficus religiosa and branch wilt of Psidium guajava in Iran. J.
Phytopathol. 150:244–247.
Nattrass, R. M. 1933. A new species of Hendersonula (H. toruloidea) on deciduous trees in
Egypt. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 18:189–198.
Ogawa, J. M., and English, H. 1991. Diseases of temperate zone tree fruit and nut crops. Univ.
Calif., Div. Agric. & Nat. Resour. Pub. 3345. 461 pp.
Paxton, J. D., and Wilson, E. E. 1965. Anatomical and physiological aspects of branch wilt
disease of Persian walnut. Phytopathology 55:21–26.
Slippers, B., Johnson, G. I., Crous, P. W., Coutinho, T. A., Wingfield, B. D., and Wingfield, M.
J. 2005. Phylogenetic and morphological re-evaluation of the Botryosphaeria species causing
diseases of Mangifera indica. Mycologia (in press).
Sommer, N. F. 1955. Sunburn predisposes walnut trees to branch wilt. Phytopathology 45:607–
613.
Sutton, B. C., and Dyko, B. J. 1989. Revision of Hendersonula. Mycol. Res. 93:466–488
Tsahouridou, P. C., and Thanassoulopoulos, C. C. 2000. First report of Hendersonula toruloidea
as a foliar pathogen of strawberry-tree (Arbutus unedo) in Europe. Plant Dis. 84:487.
Wilson, E. E. 1947. The branch wilt of Persian walnut trees and its cause. Hilgardia 17:413–436.
-----------------Diaporthe and Phomopsis cankers and diebacks, Plate 68, page 137
Overview
Arx, J. A. von. 1981. The genera of fungi sporulating in pure culture. 3rd ed. J. Cramer, Lehre,
Germany. 424 pp.
Barr, M. E. 1990. Prodromus to nonlichenized, pyrenomycetous members of Class
74
Hymenoascomycetes. Mycotaxon 39:43–184.
Castlebury, L. A., Rossman, A. Y., Jaklitsch, W. J., and Vasilyeva, L. N. 2002. A preliminary
overview of the Diaporthales based on large subunit nuclear ribosomal DNA sequences.
Mycologia 94:1017–1031.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Ragazzi, A., Moricca, S., Capretti, P., Dellavalle, I., Mancini, F., and Turco, E. 2001.
Endophytic fungi in Quercus cerris: isolation frequency in relation to phenological phase,
tree health and the organ affected. Phytopathol. Medit. 40:165–171.
Rehner, S. A., and Uecker, F. A. 1994. Nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer phylogeny
and host diversity in the coelomycete Phomopsis. Can. J. Bot. 72:1666–1674.
Sutton, B. C. 1980. The Coelomycetes: Fungi Imperfecti with pycnidia, acervuli, and stromata.
Commonw. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK. 696 pp.
Uecker, F. A. 1988. A world list of Phomopsis names with notes on nomenclature, morphology
and biology. Cramer, Berlin. 231 pp.
Wehmeyer, L. E. 1933. The genus Diaporthe Nitschke and its segregates. Univ. Mich. Press,
Ann Arbor. 349 pp.
-----------------Diaporthe and Phomopsis cankers and diebacks, continued, Plate 69, page 139
Phomopsis canker of Russian olive
Arnold, R. H., and Carter, J. C. 1974. Fusicoccum elaeagni, the cause of canker and dieback of
Russian olive, redescribed and redisposed to the genus Phomopsis. Mycologia 66:191–197.
Arnold, R. H., and Straby, A. E. 1973. Phomopsis elaeagni on Russian olive (Elaeagnus
angustifolia) in Canada. Can. Plant Dis. Surv. 53:183–186.
Carter, J. C., and Sacamano, C. M. 1967. Fusicoccum canker, a new disease of Russian olive.
Mycologia 59:535–537.
Green, R. J. Jr. 1977. Dieback of black walnut seedlings caused by Phomopsis elaeagni. Plant
Dis. Rep. 61:582–584.
Morehart, A. L., Carroll, R. B., and Stuart, M. 1980. Phomopsis canker and dieback of
Elaeagnus angustifolia. Plant Dis. 64:66–69.
Sutton, B. C. 1980. The Coelomycetes: Fungi Imperfecti with pycnidia, acervuli, and stromata.
Commonw. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK. 696 pp.
-----------------Phomopsis diseases of Rhododendron.
Farr, D. F., Castlebury, L. A., and Rossman, A. Y. 2002. Morphological and molecular
characterization of Phomopsis vaccinii and additional isolates of Phomopsis from blueberry
and cranberry in the eastern United States. Mycologia 94:494–504.
Miller, S. B., and Baxter, L. W. Jr. 1970. Dieback in azaleas caused by Phomopsis species.
Phytopathology 60:387–388.
75
U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Fungal
Databases. Beltsville, MD. Internet resource.
-----------------Phomopsis cankers and diebacks of almond, peach, and other fruit trees
Aducci, P., Ballio, A., Federico, R., Marra, M., Graniti, A., and Frisullo, S. 1983. Translocation
of fusicoccin in almond plants infected by Fusicoccum amygdali Del. Phytopathol. Medit.
22:100–102.
Ballio, A. 1978. Fusicoccin, the vivotoxin of Fusicoccum amygdali Del. Chemical properties and
biological activity. Ann. Phytopathol. 10:145–156.
Britton-Jones, H. R. 1925. On the diseases known as "bark canker" and "die-back" in fruit trees.
J. Pomol. Hortic. Sci. 4:162–183.
Cayley, D. M. 1923. Fungi associated with "die back" in stone fruit trees. I. Ann. Appl. Biol.
10:253–275.
Farr, D. F., Castlebury, L. A., and Pardo-Schultheiss, R. A. 1999. Phomopsis amygdali causes
peach shoot blight of cultivated peach trees in the southeastern United States. Mycologia
91:1008–1015.
Lalancette, N., and Robison, D. M. 2001. Seasonal availability of inoculum for constriction
canker of peach in New Jersey. Phytopathology 91:1109–1115.
Ogawa, J. M., and English, H. 1991. Diseases of temperate zone tree fruit and nut crops. Univ.
Cal. Div. Agric. Nat. Resour. Pub. 3345. 461 pp.
Ogawa, J. M., Zehr, E. I., Bird, G. W., Ritchie, D. F., Uriu, K., and Uyemoto, J. K., eds. 1995.
Compendium of stone fruit diseases. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 98 pp.
Smit, W. A., Viljoen, C. D., Wingfield, B. D., Wingfield, M. J., and Calitz, F. J. 1996. A new
canker disease of apple, pear, and plum rootstocks caused by Diaporthe ambigua in South
Africa. Plant Dis. 80:1331–1335.
Tuset, J. J., and Portilla, M. T. 1989. Taxonomic status of Fusicoccum amygdali and Phomopsis
amygdalina. Can. J. Bot. 67:1275–1280.
Uddin, W., Stevenson, K. L., and Pardo, S. R. A. 1997. Pathogenicity of a species of Phomopsis
causing a shoot blight on peach in Georgia and evaluation of possible infection courts. Plant
Dis. 81:983–989.
-----------------Diaporthe and Phomopsis cankers and diebacks, continued, Plate 70, page 141
Cankers and diebacks associated with the Diaporthe eres complex
Castlebury, L. A., Rossman, A. Y., Jaklitsch, W. J., and Vasilyeva, L. N. 2002. A preliminary
overview of the Diaporthales based on large subunit nuclear ribosomal DNA sequences.
Mycologia 94:1017–1031.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P. and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. St. Paul, MN, APS Press. 1252 pp.
Funk, A. 1981. Parasitic microfungi of western trees. Can. For. Serv. Pac. For. Res. Cent. BC-X222. 190 pp.
Gilman, J. C., and McNew, G. L. 1940. Fungi associated with tree cankers in Iowa. II.
Diaporthe, Apioporthe, Cryptodiaporthe, Pseudovalsa and their related conidial forms. Iowa
State Coll. J. Sci. 14:129–153.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
76
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
Kobayashi, T., and Ito, K. 1957. Phomopsis and its perfect stage Diaporthe causing a die-back of
the pawlonia tree. Bull. Gov. For. Exp. Stn., Meguro No. 103:57–68.
Quaroni, S., Sardi, P., and Locci, R. 1980. Disseccamenti apicali in Acer pseudoplatanus
associati a Diaporthe eres Nits. Riv. Patol. Veg. 16:109–115.
Richmond, B. G. 1932. A Diaporthe canker of American elm. Science 75:110–111.
Smit, W. A., Viljoen, C. D., Wingfield, B. D., Wingfield, M. J., and Calitz, F. J. 1996. A new
canker disease of apple, pear, and plum rootstocks caused by Diaporthe ambigua in South
Africa. Plant Dis 80:1331-1335.
Smit, W. A., Wingfield, B. D., and Wingfield, M. J. 1997. Vegetative incompatibility in
Diaporthe ambigua. Plant Pathol. 46:366–372.
-----------------Phomopsis dieback of poplar
Filer, T. H. Jr. 1967. Pathogenicity of Cytospora, Phomopsis, and Hypomyces on Populus
deltoides. Phytopathology 57:978–980.
French, D. W., and Bergdahl, D. R. 1983. Phomopsis canker of 'Robusta' poplar. J. Arboric.
9:151–152.
Kobayashi, T. 1970. Taxonomic studies of Japanese Diaporthaceae with special reference to
their life-histories. Bull. Gov. For. Exp. Stn., Tokyo No. 226:1–242
Kobayashi, T., and Chiba, O. 1961. Fungi inhabiting poplars in Japan I. Bull. Gov. For. Exp.
Stn., Tokyo. No. 130. 43 pp.
-----------------Diaporthe canker and dieback of sycamore
Ammon, V., Vann, S., and McCracken, F. 1991. Incidence of anthracnose and twig canker in
two Mississippi sycamore plantations. Can. J. For. Res. 21:1253–1256.
Leininger, T. D., Solomon, J. D., Wilson, A. D., and Schiff, N. M. 1999. A guide to major
insects, diseases, air pollution injury, and chemical injury of sycamore. USDA For. Serv.
Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS 28. 44 pp.
-----------------Phomopsis canker and dieback of fig trees
Hampson, M. C. 1981. Phomopsis canker on weeping fig in Newfoundland. Can. Plant Dis.
Surv. 61:1–4.
Ogawa, J. M., and English, H. 1990. Diseases of temperate zone tree fruit and nut crops. Univ.
Cal. Div. Agric. Nat. Resour. Pub. 3345. 461 pp.
-----------------Other cankers and diebacks caused by Diaporthe and Phomopsis
Arnold, R. H. 1967. A canker and foliage disease of yellow birch. I. Description of the causal
fungus, Diaporthe alleghaniensis sp. nov., and the symptoms on the host. Can. J. Bot.
45:783–801.
Britton-Jones, H. R. 1925. On the diseases known as "bark canker" and "die-back" in fruit trees.
J. Pomol. Hortic. Sci. 4:162–183.
77
Caruso, F. L., and Ramsdell, D. C., eds. 1995. Compendium of blueberry and cranberry diseases.
APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 87 pp.
Cayley, D. M. 1923. Fungi associated with "die back" in stone fruit trees. I. Ann. Appl. Biol.
10:253–275.
Daykin, M. E., and Milholland, R. D. 1990. Histopathology of blueberry twig blight caused by
Phomopsis vaccinii. Phytopathology 80:736–740.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Farr, D. F., Castlebury, L. A., and Rossman, A. Y. 2002. Morphological and molecular
characterization of Phomopsis vaccinii and additional isolates of Phomopsis from blueberry
and cranberry in the eastern United States. Mycologia 94:494–504.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
Grasso, S., and La Rosa, R. 1982. Cancri da Phomopsis incarcerata su rosa. Riv. Patol. Veg.
18:143–148.
Michalopoulos-Skarmoutsos, H., and Skarmoutsos, G. 1999. Pathogenicity of fungi affecting
black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia) in Greece. Phytoparasitica 27:239–240.
National Mycological Herbarium (Canada). 1973–1993. Fungi Canadenses Nos. 1–330. Agric.
Can. Res. Branch, Biosyst. Res. Inst., Ottawa.
Richmond, B. G. 1932. A Diaporthe canker of American elm. Science 75:110–111.
Smit, W. A., Viljoen, C. D., Wingfield, B. D., Wingfield, M. J., and Calitz, F. J. 1996. A new
canker disease of apple, pear, and plum rootstocks caused by Diaporthe ambigua in South
Africa. Plant Dis. 80:1331–1335.
U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Fungal
Databases. Beltsville, MD. Internet resource.
Vajna, L. 2002. Diaporthe oncostoma causing stem canker of black locust in Hungary. Plant
Pathol. 51:393.
Wehmeyer, L. E. 1933. The genus Diaporthe Nitschke and its segregates. Univ. Mich. Press,
Ann Arbor. 349 pp.
Weingartner, D. P., and Klos, E. J. 1975. Etiology and symptomatology of canker and dieback
diseases on highbush blueberries caused by Godronia (Fusicoccum) cassandrae and
Diaporthe (Phomopsis) vaccinii. Phytopathology 65:105–110.
Whiteside, J. O., Garnsey, S. M., and Timmer, L. W., eds. 1988. Compendium of citrus diseases.
St. Paul, MN, APS Press. 80 pp.
-----------------Diaporthe and Phomopsis cankers and diebacks, continued, Plate 71, page 143
Diaporthe and Phomopsis cankers of conifers
Audley, D. E., and Skelly, J. M. 1994. A Phomopsis species associated with nonlethal adelgid
galls on upper crown branchlets of red spruce in West Virginia. Plant Dis. 78:569–571.
Bega, R. V. 1978. Phomopsis lokoyae outbreak in a California forest nursery. Plant Dis. Rep.
62:567–569.
Boyce, J. S. 1933. A canker of Douglas fir associated with Phomopsis lokoyae. J. For. 31:664–
672.
Cordell, C. E., Anderson, R. L., Hoffard, W. H., Landis, T. D., Smith, R. S. Jr., and Toko, H. V.,
tech. coords. 1989. Forest nursery pests. USDA Agric. Handb. 680. 184 pp.
78
Donaubauer, E. 1995. Über die Phomopsis-Krankheit bei Fichten (Picea abies [L.] Karst.).
Forstliche Bundesversuchsanstalt Wien Berichte No. 88:29–32.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Funk, A. 1968. Diaporthe lokoyae n. sp., the perfect state of Phomopsis lokoyae. Can. J. Bot.
46:601–603.
Funk, A. 1981. Parasitic microfungi of western trees. Can. For. Serv. Pac. For. Res. Cent. BC-X222. 190 pp.
Funk, A. 1985. Foliar fungi of western trees. Can. For. Serv. Pac. For. Res. Cent. BC-X-265. 159
pp.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
Hahn, G. G. 1928. Phomopsis conorum (Sacc.) Died.––an old fungus of the Douglas fir and
other conifers. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 13:278–286.
Hahn, G. G. 1930. Life-history studies of the species of Phomopsis occurring on conifers. Part I.
Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 15:32–93.
Hahn, G. G. 1943. Taxonomy, distribution, and pathology of Phomopsis occulta and P.
juniperovora. Mycologia 35:112–129.
Igoe, M. J., Peterson, N. C., and Roberts, D. L. 1995. A Phomopsis canker associated with
branch dieback of Colorado blue spruce in Michigan. Plant Dis. 79:202–205.
Kobayashi, T. 1958. Phomopsis disease on Japanese cedar, Cryptomeria japonica D. Don, with
special reference to the life-history and taxonomy of the causal fungus. Bull. Gov. For. Exp.
Stn., Tokyo No. 107:3–25.
Merrill, W., Wenner, N. G., and Peplinski, J. D. 1993. New host and distribution records from
Pennsylvania conifers. Plant Dis. 77:430–432.
Sanderson, P. G., and Worf, G. L. 1986. Phomopsis shoot blight of Colorado blue spruce. J.
Environ. Hortic. 4:134–138.
Sieber, T. N. 1989. Endophytic fungi in twigs of healthy and diseased Norway spruce and white
fir. Mycol. Res. 92:322–326.
Uecker, F. A. 1988. A world list of Phomopsis names with notes on nomenclature, morphology
and biology. Cramer, Berlin. 231 pp.
Wehmeyer, L. E. 1933. The genus Diaporthe Nitschke and its segregates. Univ. Mich. Press,
Ann Arbor. 349 pp.
-----------------Pathogens confused with Phomopsis
DiCosmo, F., Nag Raj, T. R., and Kendrick, W. B. 1984. A revision of the Phacidiaceae and
related anamorphs. Mycotaxon 21:1–234.
Funk, A. 1969. Potebniamyces (Phacidiella) disease of true firs in British Columbia. Can. J. Bot.
47:751–753.
Funk, A. 1970. Taxonomy of Phomopsis boycei and its relationship to Potebniamyces
balsamicola. Can. J. Bot. 48:1023–1025.
Funk, A. 1981. Parasitic microfungi of western trees. Can. For. Serv. Pac. For. Res. Cent. BC-X222. 190 pp.
Hahn, G. G. 1928. Phomopsis conorum (Sacc.) Died.––an old fungus of the Douglas fir and
other conifers. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 13:278–286.
79
Hahn, G. G. 1930. Life-history studies of the species of Phomopsis occurring on conifers. Part I.
Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 15:32–93.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Smerlis, E. 1962. Taxonomy and morphology of Potebniamyces balsamicola sp. nov. associated
with a twig and branch blight of balsam fir in Quebec. Can. J. Bot. 40:351–359.
Smerlis, E. 1973. Pathogenicity tests of some discomycetes occurring on conifers. Can. J. For.
Res. 3:7–16.
Uotila, A. 1990. Infection of pruning wounds in Scots pine by Phacidium coniferarum and
selection of pruning season. Acta Forestal. Fenn. No. 215. 36 pp.
Wicker, E. F. 1965. A Phomopsis canker on western larch. Plant Dis. Rep. 49:102–105.
-----------------Phomopsis, Kabatina, and Sclerophoma blights of juniper and other gymnosperms, Plate
72, page 145
Phomopsis blight
Cordell, C. E., Anderson, R. L., Hoffard, W. H., Landis, T. D., Smith, R. S. Jr., and Toko, H. V.,
tech. coords. 1989. Forest nursery pests. USDA Agric. Handb. 680. 184 pp.
Hahn, G. G. 1920. Phomopsis juniperovora, a new species causing blight of nursery cedars.
Phytopathology 10:249–253.
Hahn, G. G. 1943. Taxonomy, distribution, and pathology of Phomopsis occulta and P.
juniperovora. Mycologia 35:112–129.
Hahn, G. G., Hartley, C., and Pierce, R. G. 1917. A nursery blight of cedars. J. Agric. Res.
10:533–539.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Pero, R. W., and Howard, F. L. 1970. Activity of juniper diffusates on spores of Phomopsis
juniperovora. Phytopathology 60:491–495.
Peterson, G. W. 1973. Infection of Juniperus virginiana and J. scopulorum by Phomopsis
juniperovora. Phytopathology 63:246–251.
Peterson, G. W. 1981. Pine and juniper diseases in the Great Plains. USDA For. Serv. Gen.
Tech. Rep. RM-86. 47 pp.
Peterson, G. W., tech. coord. 1986. Recent research on conifer needle diseases. USDA For. Serv.
Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-50. 106 pp.
Punithalingam, E., and Gibson, I. A. S. 1973. Phomopsis juniperovora. C.M.I. Descr. Pathogenic
Fungi Bact. No. 370. 2 pp.
Riffle, J. W., and Peterson, G. W., tech. coords. 1986. Diseases of trees in the Great Plains.
USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-129. 149 pp.
Schoeneweiss, D. F. 1969. Susceptibility of evergreen hosts to the juniper blight fungus,
Phomopsis juniperovora, under epidemic conditions. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 94:609–611.
Smith-Fiola, D. 1995. Pest resistant ornamental plants. Rutgers Coop Exten., Toms River, NJ. 29
pp.
------------------
80
Kabatina and Sclerophoma blights
Brener, W. D., Setliff, E. C., and Norgren, R. L. 1974. Sclerophoma pythiophila associated with
a tip dieback of juniper in Wisconsin. Plant Dis. Rep. 58:653–657.
Capretti, P., Heiniger, U., and Stephan, R., eds. 1995. Shoot and foliage diseases in forest trees.
IUFRO Proceedings. Vallombrosa, Firenze, Italy, 1994. Inst. Patol. Zool. For. Agrar., Univ.
Studi di Firenze, Italy. 309 pp.
Funk, A. 1981. Parasitic microfungi of western trees. Can. For. Serv. Pac. For. Res. Cent. BC-X222. 190 pp.
Funk, A. 1985. Foliar fungi of western trees. Can. For. Serv. Pac. For. Res. Cent. BC-X-265. 159
pp.
Hoffman, G. M., and Fliege, F. 1967. Kabatina juniperi als Ursache eines Zweigsterbens an
verschiedenen Juniperusarten. Z. Pflanzenkr. Pflanzenschutz 74:587–593.
Hoog, G. S. de, and Hermanides-Nijhof, E. J. 1977. The black yeasts and allied Hyphomycetes.
Stud. Mycol. No. 15. 222 pp.
Hsiang, T., Huang, J., Yang, L., Cook, S., Shen, Y., and Richter, K. J. 2000. Occurrence of
Kabatina juniperi in Ontario and genetic analysis using RAPD markers. Can. J. Plant Pathol.
22:79–88.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Ostrofsky, A., and Peterson, G. W. 1981. Etiologic and cultural studies of Kabatina juniperi.
Plant Dis. 65:908–910.
Perry, R. G., and Peterson, J. L. 1982. Susceptibility and response of juniper species to Kabatina
juniperi infection in New Jersey. Plant Dis. 66:1189–1191.
Peterson, G. W. 1981. Pine and juniper diseases in the Great Plains. USDA For. Serv. Gen.
Tech. Rep. RM-86. 47 pp.
Riffle, J. W., and Peterson, G. W., tech. coords. 1986. Diseases of trees in the Great Plains.
USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-129. 149 pp.
Schneider, R., and Arx, J. A. von. 1966. Zwei neue, als Erreger von Zweigsterben
nachgewiesene Pilze: Kabatina thujae n.g., n.sp., und K. juniperi n. sp. Phytopathol. Z.
57:176–182.
Smith-Fiola, D. 1995. Pest resistant ornamental plants. Rutgers Coop Exten., Toms River, NJ. 29
pp.
Sutton, B. C. 1980. The Coelomycetes: Fungi Imperfecti with pycnidia, acervuli, and stromata.
Commonw. Mycol. Ins., Kew, Surrey, UK. 696 pp.
Tisserat, N. A., and Pair, J. C. 1997. Susceptibility of selected juniper cultivars to cedar-apple
rust, Kabatina tip blight, Cercospora needle blight and Botryosphaeria canker. J. Environ.
Hortic. 15:160–163.
Zhang, J. W., Klopfenstein, N. B., and Peterson, G. W. 1997. Genetic variation in disease
resistance of Juniperus virginiana and J. scopulorum grown in eastern Nebraska. Silvae
Genet. 46:11–16.
-----------------Phomopsis galls, Plate 73, page 147
Brown, N. A. 1938. The tumor disease of oak and hickory trees. Phytopathology 28:401–411.
Brown, N. A. 1941. Tumors on elm and maple trees. Phytopathology 31:541–548.
81
Davidson, R. W., and Campbell, W. A. 1944. Observations on a gall of sugar maple.
Phytopathology 34:132–135.
-----------------Phomopsis canker of Gardenia and Nectriella gall of ornamental plants, Plate 74, page 149
Phomopsis canker of gardenia
Daughtrey, M. L., Wick, R. L., and Peterson, J. L. 1995. Compendium of flowering potted plant
diseases. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 90 pp.
Florida Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services, Division of Plant Industry. 1962–
present. Plant Pathology Circulars 1– .
Hansen, H. N., and Barrett, J. T. 1938. Gardenia canker. Mycologia 30:15–19.
Hansen, H. N., and Scott, C. E. 1934. A canker and gall disease of Gardenia. Science 79:18.
McKenzie, M. A., Jones, L. H., and Gilgut, C. J. 1940. Phomopsis gardeniae in relation to
gardenia culture. Plant Dis. Rep. 24:58–62.
Miller, H. N. 1961. Cause and control of diseases of potted plants. Fla. Agric. Exp. Stn. Annu.
Rep. 1961:157–158.
-----------------Nectriella gall
Alfieri, S. A. Jr. 1979. Kutilakesa pironii sp. nov., a stem gall- and canker-inciting fungus new to
the United States. Mycotaxon 10:217–218.
Alfieri, S. A. Jr., Knauss, J. F., and Wehlburg, C. 1979. A stem gall- and canker-inciting fungus
new to the United States. Plant Dis. Rep. 63:1016–1020.
Alfieri, S. A. J., Langdon, K. R., Kimbrough, J. W., El-Gholl, N. E., and Wehlburg, C. 1994.
Diseases and disorders of plants in Florida. Fla. Dep. Agric. Consum. Serv., Div. Plant
Indus., Gainesville. 1114 pp.
Alfieri, S. A. Jr., and Samuels, G. J. 1979. Nectriella pironii and its Kutilakesa-like anamorph, a
parasite of ornamental shrubs. Mycologia 71:1178–1185.
El-Gholl, N. E., Schubert, T. S., and Coile, N. C. 1997. Diseases and disorders of plants in
Florida. Fla. Dep. Agric. Consum. Serv., Div. Plant Indus. Bull. 14. Supplement No. 1. 138
pp.
Rossman, A. Y., Samuels, G. J., Rogerson, C. T. and Lowen, R. 1999. Genera of Bionectriaceae,
Hypocreaceae and Nectriaceae (Hypocreales, Ascomycetes). Stud. Mycol. No. 42. 248 pp.
-----------------Black knot of Prunus, Plate 75, page 151
Arx, J. A. von. 1987. Plant pathogenic fungi. Cramer, Berlin. 288 pp.
Barr, M. E. 1989. The Venturiaceae in North America revisions and additions. Sydowia 41:25–
40.
Corlett, M. 1976. Apiosporina morbosa. Fungi Canadenses No. 84. 2 pp.
Greene, G. L. 1962. Physiological basis of gall formation in black-knot disease of Prunus.
Phytopathology 52:880–884.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
82
Koch, L. W. 1933–1935. Investigations on black knot of plums and cherries. I. Development and
discharge of spores and experiments in control. II. The occurrence and significance of certain
fungi found in association with Dibotryon morbosum (Sch.) T. & S. III. Symptomatology,
life history, and cultural studies of Dibotryon morbosum (Sch.) T. & S. IV. Studies in
pathogenicity and pathological histology. Sci. Agric. 13:576–590; 15:80–95, 411–423, 729–
744.
Koch, L. W. 1934. Studies on the overwintering of certain fungi parasitic and saprophytic on
fruit trees. Can. J. Res. 11:190–206.
McFadden-Smith, W., Northover, J., and Sears, W. 2000. Dynamics of ascospore release by
Apiosporina morbosa from sour cherry black knots. Plant Dis. 84:45–48.
National Mycological Herbarium (Canada). 1973–1993. Fungi Canadenses Nos. 1–330. Agric.
Can., Res. Branch, Biosyst. Res. Inst., Ottawa.
Northover, J., and McFadden-Smith, W. 1995. Control and epidemiology of Apiosporina
morbosa of plum and sour cherry. Can. J. Plant Pathol. 17:57–68.
Norton, J. D., and Boyhan, G. E. 1991. Inheritance of resistance to black knot in plums.
HortScience 26:1540.
Sivanesan, A. 1984. The bitunicate ascomycetes and their anamorphs. Cramer, Vaduz, Austria.
701 pp.
Smith, D. H., Lewis, F. H., and Wainwright, S. H. 1970. Epidemiology of the black knot disease
of plums. Phytopathology 60:1441–1444.
Wainwright, S. H., and Lewis, F. H. 1970. Developmental morphology of the black knot
pathogen on plum. Phytopathology 60:1238–1244.
Wall, R. E. 1986. Effects of black knot disease on pin cherry. Can. J. Plant Pathol. 8:71–77.
-----------------Cryptodiaporthe cankers, Plate 76, page 153
Cryptodiaporthe canker of poplar
Anselmi, N. 1986. Resurgence of Cryptodiaporthe populea in Italy. Bull. OEPP 16:571–583.
Barr, M. E. 1990. Prodromus to nonlichenized, pyrenomycetous members of Class
Hymenoascomycetes. Mycotaxon 39:43–184.
Booth, C., Gibson, I. A. S., and Sutton, B. C. 1973. Cryptodiaporthe populea. C.M.I. Descr.
Pathogenic Fungi Bact. No. 364. 2 pp.
Butin, H. 1958. Untersuchungen über ein Toxin in Kulturfiltraten von Dothichiza populea Sacc.
et. Br. Phytopathol. Z. 33:135–146.
Gremmen, J. 1978. Research on Dothichiza-bark necrosis (Cryptodiaporthe populea) in poplar.
Eur. J. For. Pathol. 8:362–368.
Hubbes, M. 1959. Untersuchungen über Dothichiza populea Sacc. et Briard, den Erreger des
Rindenbrandes der Pappel. Phytopathol. Z. 35:58–96.
Phillips, D. H., and Burdekin, D. A. 1982. Diseases of forest and ornamental trees. Macmillan,
London. 435 pp.
Pinon, J., and Valadon, A. 1997. Behaviour of commercial poplar cultivars registered in the
European Union towards major plant pathogens. Ann. Sci. For. 54:19–38.
Riffle, J. W., and Peterson, G. W., tech. coords. 1986. Diseases of trees in the Great Plains.
USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-129. 149 pp.
Sutton, B. C. 1980. The Coelomycetes: Fungi Imperfecti with pycnidia, acervuli, and stromata.
Commonw. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK. 696 pp.
83
Waterman, A. M. 1957. Canker and dieback of poplars caused by Dothichiza populea. For. Sci.
3:175–183.
Werner, A., and Siwecki, R. 1978. Histological studies of infection processes by Dothichiza
populea Sacc. et Briard in susceptible and resistant poplar clones. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 8:217–
226.
-----------------Cryptodiaporthe cankers, continued, Plate 77, page 155
Cryptodiaporthe canker of willow
Astrom, B., and Ramstedt, M. 1994. Stem cankers on Swedish biomass willows caused by
Cryptodiaporthe salicella and other fungi. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 24:264–276.
Barr, M. E. 1978. The Diaporthales in North America with emphasis on Gnomonia and its
segregates. Mycologia Mem. No. 7. 232 pp.
Barr, M. E. 1990. Prodromus to nonlichenized, pyrenomycetous members of Class
Hymenoascomycetes. Mycotaxon 39:43–184.
Bier, J. E. 1959–1961. The relation of bark moisture content to the development of canker
diseases caused by native, facultative parasites. I. Cryptodiaporthe canker on willow. II.
Fusarium canker of black cottonwood. VI. Pathogenicity studies of Hypoxylon pruinatum
(Klotzsch) Cke. and Septoria musiva Pk. on species of Acer, Populus, and Salix. Can. J. Bot.
37:229–238; 37:781–788; 39:1555–1561.
Castlebury, L. A., Rossman, A. Y., Jaklitsch, W. J., and Vasilyeva, L. N. 2002. A preliminary
overview of the Diaporthales based on large subunit nuclear ribosomal DNA sequences.
Mycologia 94:1017–1031.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Hepting, G. H. 1971. Diseases of forest and shade trees of the United States. USDA Agric.
Handb. 386. 658 pp.
Phillips, D. H., and Burdekin, D. A. 1982. Diseases of forest and ornamental trees. Macmillan,
London. 435 pp.
Sutton, B. C. 1980. The Coelomycetes: Fungi Imperfecti with pycnidia, acervuli, and stromata.
Commonw. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK. 696 pp.
Wehmeyer, L. E. 1933. The genus Diaporthe Nitschke and its segregates. Univ. Mich. Press,
Ann Arbor. 349 pp.
-----------------Golden canker of alternate-leaf dogwood
Barr, M. E. 1978. The Diaporthales in North America with emphasis on Gnomonia and its
segregates. Mycologia Mem. No. 7. 232 pp.
Barr, M. E. 1990. Prodromus to nonlichenized, pyrenomycetous members of Class
Hymenoascomycetes. Mycotaxon 39:43–184.
Castlebury, L. A., Rossman, A. Y., Jaklitsch, W. J., and Vasilyeva, L. N. 2002. A preliminary
overview of the Diaporthales based on large subunit nuclear ribosomal DNA sequences.
Mycologia 94:1017–1031.
Conners, I. L. 1967. An annotated index of plant diseases in Canada. Can. Dep. Agric. Pub.
1251. 381 pp.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
84
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
Redlin, S. C., and Rossman, A. Y. 1991. Cryptodiaporthe corni (Diaporthales), cause of
Cryptodiaporthe canker of pagoda dogwood. Mycologia 83:200–209.
Redlin, S. C., and Stack, R. W. 2001. Cryptodiaporthe canker of pagoda dogwood in North
Dakota. Plant Dis. 85:1290.
Wehmeyer, L. E. 1933. The genus Diaporthe Nitschke and its segregates. Univ. Mich. Press,
Ann Arbor. 349 pp.
-----------------Eastern filbert blight, Plate 78, page 157
Barr, M. E. 1990. Prodromus to nonlichenized, pyrenomycetous members of Class
Hymenoascomycetes. Mycotaxon 39:43–184.
Conners, I. L. 1967. An annotated index of plant diseases in Canada. Can. Dep. Agric. Pub.
1251. 381 pp.
Coyne, C. J., Mehlenbacher, S. A., and Smith, D. C. 1998. Sources of resistance to eastern filbert
blight in hazelnut. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 123:253–257.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Froidevaux, L., and Müller, E. 1972. Anisogramma virgultorum (Fr.) Theiss. & Syd., a
pathogenic ascomycete on Betula pubescens Ehrhart. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 2:185–187.
Gottwald, T. R., and Cameron, H. R. 1979. Studies in the morphology and life history of
Anisogramma anomala. Mycologia 71:1107–1126.
Johnson, K. B., Mehlenbacher, S. A., Stone, J. K., Pscheidt, J. W., and Pinkerton, J. N. 1996.
Eastern filbert blight of European hazelnut: it's becoming a manageable disease. Plant Dis.
80:1308–1316.
Johnson, K. B., Pinkerton, J. N., Gauderault, S. M., and Stone, J. K. 1994. Infection of European
hazelnut by Anisogramma anomala: site of infection and effect of host developmental stage.
Phytopathology 84:1465–1470.
Mehlenbacher, S. A., Azarenko, A. N., Smith, D. C., and McCluskey, R. 2000. 'Lewis' hazelnut.
HortScience 35:314–315.
Mehlenbacher, S. A., Azarenko, A. N., Smith, D. C., and McCluskey, R. 2001. 'Clark' hazelnut.
HortScience 36:995–996.
Osterbauer, N. K., Johnson, K. B., Mehlenbacher, S. A., and Sawyer, T. L. 1997. Analysis of
resistance to eastern filbert blight in Corylus avellana. Plant Dis. 81:388–394.
Pinkerton, J. N., Johnson, K. B., Aylor, D. E., and Stone, J. K. 2001. Spatial and temporal
increase of eastern filbert blight in European hazelnut orchards in the Pacific Northwest.
Phytopathology 91:1214–1223.
Pinkerton, J. N., Johnson, K. B., Mehlenbacher, S. A., and Pscheidt, J. W. 1993. Susceptibility of
European hazelnut clones to eastern filbert blight. Plant Dis. 77:261–266.
Pinkerton, J. N., Johnson, K. B., Stone, J. K., and Ivors, K. L. 1998. Factors affecting the release
of ascospores of Anisogramma anomala. Phytopathology 88:122–128.
Pinkerton, J. N., Johnson, K. B., Stone, J. K., and Ivors, K. L. 1998. Maturation and seasonal
discharge pattern of ascospores of Anisogramma anomala. Phytopathology 88:1165–1173.
Pinkerton, J. N., Stone, J. K., Nelson, S. J., and Johnson, K. B. 1995. Infection of European
85
hazelnut by Anisogramma anomala: ascospore adhesion, mode of penetration of immature
shoots, and host response. Phytopathology 85:1260–1268.
Teviotdale, B. L., Michailides, T. J., and Pscheidt, J. W., eds. 2002. Compendium of nut crop
diseases in temperate zones. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 89 pp.
Wehmeyer, L. E. 1933. The genus Diaporthe Nitschke and its segregates. Univ. Mich. Press,
Ann Arbor. 349 pp.
Witzell, J., and Karlsson, A. 2002. Anisogramma virgultorum on saplings of Betula pendula and
Betula pubescens in a district of northern Sweden. For. Pathol. 32:207–212.
-----------------Chestnut blight, Plate 79, pages 159–161
Anagnostakis, S. L., and Hillman, B. 1992. Evolution of the chestnut tree and its blight. Arnoldia
52:2–10.
Anderson, P. J. 1914. The morphology and life history of the chestnut blight fungus. Penn.
Chestnut Tree Blight Comm. Bull. 7. 44 pp.
Anderson, P. J., and Rankin, W. H. 1914. Endothia canker of chestnut. Cornell Univ. Agric. Exp.
Stn. Bull. 347:529–618.
Baidyaroy, D., and Bertrand, H. 2001. Biological control of the chestnut blight pathogen using
mitochondrial agents. Rec. Res. Devel. Genet. 1:93–104.
Bernatzky, R., and Mulcahy, D. L. 1992. Marker-aided selection in a backcross breeding
program for resistance to chestnut blight in the American chestnut. Can. J. For. Res.
22:1031–1035.
Biella, S., Smith, M. L., Aist, J. R., Cortesi, P., and Milgroom, M. G. 2002. Programmed cell
death correlates with virus transmission in a filamentous fungus. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. B,
Biol. Sci. 269:2269–2276.
Burnham, C. R. 1988. The restoration of the American chestnut. Am. Scientist 76:478–487.
Burnham, C. R., Rutter, P. A., and French, D. W. 1986. Breeding blight-resistant chestnuts. Plant
Breed. Rev. 4:347–397.
Corsaro, M. M., Castro, C. de, Evidente, A., Lanzetta, R., Molinaro, A., Parrilli, M., and
Sparapano, L. 1998. Phytotoxic extracellular polysaccharide fractions from Cryphonectria
parasitica (Murr.) Barr strains. Carbohydrate Polymers 37:167–172.
Cortesi, P., McCulloch, C. E., Song, H. Y., Lin, H. Q., and Milgroom, M. G. 2001. Genetic
control of horizontal virus transmission in the chestnut blight fungus, Cryphonectria
parasitica. Genetics 159:107–118.
Cortesi, P., and Milgroom, M. G. 1998. Genetics of vegetative incompatibility in Cryphonectria
parasitica. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 64:2988–2994.
Dawe, A. L., and Nuss, D. L. 2001. Hypoviruses and chestnut blight: exploiting viruses to
understand and modulate fungal pathogenesis. Annu. Rev. Genet. 35:1–29.
Ewers, F. W., McManus, P. S., Goldman, A., Gucci, R., and Fulbright, D. W. 1989. The effect of
virulent and hypovirulent strains of Endothia parasitica on hydraulic conductance in
American chestnut. Can. J. Bot. 67:1402–1407.
Fulbright, D. 1999. Chestnut blight and hypovirulence. Plant-Microbe Interact. 4:57–79.
Gao, S., and Shain, L. 1995. Activity of polygalacturonase produced by Cryphonectria
parasitica in chestnut bark and its inhibition by extracts from American and Chinese
chestnut. Physiol. Mol. Plant Pathol. 46:199–213.
86
Gao, S., and Shain, L. 1995. Effects of water stress on chestnut blight. Can. J. For. Res.
25:1030–1035.
Griffin, G. J. 1986. Chestnut blight and its control. Hortic. Rev. 8:291–336.
Griffin, G. J., Smith, H. C., Dietz, A., and Elkins, J. R. 1991. Importance of hardwood
competition to American chestnut survival, growth, and blight development in forest
clearcuts. Can. J. Bot. 69:1804–1809.
Havir, E. A., and Anagnostakis, S. L. 1983. Oxalate production by virulent but not by
hypovirulent strains of Endothia parasitica. Physiol. Plant Pathol. 23:369–376.
Headland, J. K., Griffin, G. J., Stipes, R. J., and Elkins, J. R. 1976. Severity of natural Endothia
parasitica infection of Chinese chestnut. Plant Dis. Rep. 60:426–429.
Heald, F. D. 1913. The symptoms of chestnut tree blight and a brief description of the blight
fungus. Penn. Chestnut Tree Blight Commiss. Bull. 5. 15 pp. + illus.
Hebard, F. V., Griffin, G. J., and Elkins, J. R. 1984. Developmental histopathology of cankers
incited by hypovirulent and virulent isolates of Endothia parasitica on susceptible and
resistant chestnut trees. Phytopathology 74:140–149.
Heiniger, U., ed. 2001. Castanea sativa: pathology, genetic resources, ecology, and
management. For. Snow Landscape Res. 76:327–517.
Heiniger, U., and Rigling, D. 1994. Biological control of chestnut blight in Europe. Annu. Rev.
Phytopathol. 32:581–599.
Hogan, E. P., and Griffin, G. J. 2002. Spread of Cryphonectria hypovirus 1 into 45 vegetative
compatibility types of Cryphonectria parasitica on grafted American chestnut trees. For.
Pathol. 32:73–85.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Jones, C., Griffin, G. J., and Elkins, J. R. 1980. Association of climatic stress with blight on
Chinese chestnut in the eastern United States. Plant Dis. 64:1001–1004.
Kubisiak, T. L., Hebard, F. V., Nelson, C. D., Zhang, J., Bernatzky, R., Huang, H.,
Anagnostakis, S. L., and Doudrick, R. L. 1997. Molecular mapping of resistance to blight in
an interspecific cross in the genus Castanea. Phytopathology 87:751–759.
Laflamme, G., Bérubé, J. A., and Hamelin, R. C., eds. 1998. Foliage, shoot, and stem diseases of
trees. Can. For. Serv. Laurentian For. Cent. Inf. Rep. LAU-X-122. 272 pp.
Liebhold, A. M., MacDonald, W. L., Bergdahl, D., and Mastro, V. C. 1995. Invasion by exotic
forest pests: a threat to forest ecosystems. For. Sci. Monogr. 30. 49 pp.
Liu, Y. C., Double, M. L., MacDonald, W. L., and Milgroom, M. G. 2002. Persistence of
Cryphonectria hypoviruses after their release for biological control of chestnut blight in
West Virginia forests. For. Pathol. 32:345–356.
MacDonald, W. L., Cech, F. C., Luchok, J., and Smith, C. 1979. Proceedings of the American
Chestnut Symposium. West Va. Univ. Books, Morgantown. 122 pp.
MacDonald, W. L., and Fulbright, D. W. 1991. Biological control of chestnut blight: use and
limitations of transmissible hypovirulence. Plant Dis. 75:656–661.
McCarroll, D. R., and Thor, E. 1985. Pectolytic, cellulytic and proteolytic activities expressed by
cultures of Endothia parasitica, and inhibition of these activities by components extracted
from Chinese and American chestnut inner bark. Physiol. Plant Pathol. 26:367–378.
87
McManus, P. S., Ewers, F. W., and Fulbright, D. W. 1989. Characterization of the chestnut
blight canker and the localization and isolation of the pathogen Cryphonectria parasitica.
Can. J. Bot. 67:3600–3607.
Micales, J. A., and Stipes, R. J. 1986. The differentiation of Endothia and Cryphonectria species
by exposure to selected fungitoxicants. Mycotaxon 26:99–117.
Micales, J. A., and Stipes, R. J. 1987. A reexamination of the fungal genera Cryphonectria and
Endothia. Phytopathology 77:650–654.
Milgroom, M. G., and Cortesi, P. 1999. Analysis of population structure of the chestnut blight
fungus based on vegetative incompatibility genotypes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA
96:10518–10523.
Milgroom, M. G., Wang, K., Zhou, Y., Lipari, S. E., and Kaneko, S. 1996. Intercontinental
population structure of the chestnut blight fungus, Cryphonectria parasitica. Mycologia
88:179–190.
Old, K. M., and Kobayashi, T. 1988. Eucalypts are susceptible to the chestnut blight fungus,
Cryphonectria parasitica. Austral. J. Bot. 36:599–603.
Phelps, W. R. 1974. Live oak in North Carolina and Florida infected by Endothia parasitica.
Plant Dis. Rep. 58:596–598.
Roane, M. K., Griffin, G. J., and Elkins, J. R. 1986. Chestnut blight, other Endothia diseases, and
the genus Endothia. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 53 pp.
Schafleitner, R., and Wilhelm, E. 1997. Effect of virulent and hypovirulent Cryphonectria
parasitica (Murr.) Barr on the intercellular pathogen related proteins and on total protein
pattern of chestnut (Castanea sativa Mill.). Physiol. Mol. Plant Pathol. 51:323–332.
Shear, C. L., Stevens, N. E., and Tiller, R. J. 1917. Endothia parasitica and related species.
USDA Bull. 380. 77 pp.
Smith, H. C., and MacDonald, W. L., eds. 1982. Proceedings of the USDA Forest Service
American chestnut cooperators' meeting. West Va. Univ. Books, Morgantown. 229 pp.
Torsello, M. L., Davis, D. D., and Nash, B. L. 1994. Incidence of Cryphonectria parasitica
cankers on scarlet oak (Quercus coccinea) in Pennsylvania. Plant Dis. 78:313–315.
Vannini, A., Caruso, C., Leonardi, L., Rugini, E., Chiarot, E., Caporale, C., and Buonocore, V.
1999. Antifungal properties of chitinases from Castanea sativa against hypovirulent and
virulent strains of the chestnut blight fungus Cryphonectria parasitica. Physiol. Mol. Plant
Pathol. 55:29–35.
-----------------Chrysoporthe canker of Eucalyptus, Plate 80, page 161
Alfenas, A. C., Jeng, R., and Hubbes, M. 1983. Virulence of Cryphonectria cubensis on
Eucalyptus species differing in resistance. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 13:197–205.
Barnard, E. L., Geary, T., English, J. T., and Gilly, S. P. 1987. Basal cankers and coppice failure
of Eucalyptus grandis in Florida. Plant Dis. 71:358–361.
Barr, M. E. 1978. The Diaporthales in North America with emphasis on Gnomonia and its
segregates. Mycologia Mem. No. 7. 232 pp.
Barr, M. E. 1990. Prodromus to nonlichenized, pyrenomycetous members of Class
Hymenoascomycetes. Mycotaxon 39:43–184.
Conradie, E., Swart, W. J., and Wingfield, M. J. 1992. Susceptibility of Eucalyptus grandis to
Cryphonectria cubensis. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 22:312–315.
88
Gryzenhout, M., Eisenberg, B. E., Coutinho, T. A., Wingfield, B. D., and Wingfield, M. J. 2003.
Pathogenicity of Cryphonectria eucalypti to Eucalyptus clones in South Africa. For. Ecol.
Manag. 176:427–437.
Gryzenhout, M., Myburg, H., Merwe, N. A. van der, Wingfield, B. D., and Wingfield, M. J.
Chrysoporthe, a new genus to accommodate Cryphonectria cubensis. Stud. Mycol. 50:119142.
Hodges, C. S. Jr., Alfenas, A. C., and Ferreira, F. A. 1986. The conspecificity of Cryphonectria
cubensis and Endothia eugeniae. Mycologia 78:343–350.
Hodges, C. S., Geary, T. F., and Cordell, C. E. 1979. The occurrence of Diaporthe cubensis in
eucalypts in Florida, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico. Plant Dis. Rep. 63:216–220.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Micales, J. A., and Stipes, R. J. 1986. The differentiation of Endothia and Cryphonectria species
by exposure to selected fungitoxicants. Mycotaxon 26:99–117.
Micales, J. A., and Stipes, R. J. 1987. A reexamination of the fungal genera Cryphonectria and
Endothia. Phytopathology 77:650–654.
Myburg, H., Gryzenhout, M., Wingfield, B. D., Stipes, R. J., and Wingfield, M. J. 2004.
Phylogenetic relationships of Cryphonectria and Endothia species, based on DNA sequence
data and morphology. Mycologia 96:988–999.
Myburg, H., Gryzenhout, M., Wingfield, B. D., and Wingfield, M. J. 2002. -tubulin and histone
H3 gene sequences distinguish Cryphonectria cubensis from South Africa, Asia, and South
America. Can. J. Bot. 80:590–596.
Myburg, H., Gryzenhout, M., Wingfield, B. D., and Wingfield, M. J. 2003. Conspecificity of
Endothia eugeniae and Cryphonectria cubensis: a re-evaluation based on morphology and
DNA sequence data. Mycoscience 44:187–196.
Myburg, H., Wingfield, B. D., and Wingfield, M. J. 1999. Phylogeny of Cryphonectria cubensis
and allied species inferred from DNA analysis. Mycologia 91:243–250.
Old, K. M., Wingfield, M. J., and Yuan, Z. K. 2003. A manual of diseases of eucalypts in SouthEast Asia. Center for International Forestry Research, Jakarta, Indonesia. 98 pp.
Roux, J., Myburg, H., Wingfield, B. D., and Wingfield, M. J. 2003. Biological and phylogenetic
analyses suggest that two Cryphonectria spp. cause cankers of Eucalyptus in Africa. Plant
Dis. 87:1329–1332.
Venter, M., Myburg, H., Wingfield, B. D., Coutinho, A., and Wingfield, M. J. 2002. A new
species of Cryphonectria from South Africa and Australia, pathogenic to Eucalyptus.
Sydowia 54:98–117.
Wingfield, M. J., Zyl, L. M. van, Heerden, S. van, Myburg, H., and Wingfield, B. D. 1999.
Virulence and the genetic composition of the Cryphonectria cubensis Bruner population in
South Africa. Pages 163–172 in: Physiology and genetics of tree phytophage interactions. F.
Leutier, W. J. Mattson, and M. R. Wagner, eds. Inst. Natl. Recher. Agron., Paris.
Zyl, L. M. van, and Wingfield, M. J. 1999. Wound response of Eucalyptus clones after
inoculation with Cryphonectria cubensis. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 29:161–167.
Zyl, L. M. van, Wingfield, M. J., Alfenas, A. C., and Crous, P. W. 1999. Hypovirulence detected
in Brazilian isolates of Cryphonectria cubensis. Plant Pathol. 48:267–272.
------------------
89
Endothia canker, Plate 81, page 163
Appel, D. N., and Stipes, R. J. 1984. Canker expansion on water-stressed pin oaks colonized by
Endothia gyrosa. Plant Dis. 68:851–853.
Appel, D. N., and Stipes, R. J. 1986. A description of declining and blighted pin oaks in eastern
Virginia. J. Arboric. 12:155–158.
Arsdel, E. P. van. 1972. Some cankers on oaks in Texas. Plant Dis. Rep. 56:300–304.
Barr, M. E. 1978. The Diaporthales in North America with emphasis on Gnomonia and its
segregates. Mycologia Mem. No. 7. 232 pp.
Barr, M. E. 1990. Prodromus to nonlichenized, pyrenomycetous members of Class
Hymenoascomycetes. Mycotaxon 39:43–184.
Ellis, J. B., and Everhart, B. M. 1892. The North American Pyrenomycetes. Ellis & Everhart,
Newfield, NJ. 793 pp. + illus.
Gryzenhout, M., Eisenberg, B. E., Coutinho, T. A., Wingfield, B. D., and Wingfield, M. J. 2003.
Pathogenicity of Cryphonectria eucalypti to Eucalyptus clones in South Africa. For. Ecol.
Manag. 176:427–437.
Hunter, P. P., and Stipes, R. J. 1978. The effect of month of inoculation with Endothia gyrosa on
development of pruned branch canker of pin oak (Quercus palustris). Plant Dis. Rep.
62:940–944.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Micales, J. A., and Stipes, R. J. 1986. The differentiation of Endothia and Cryphonectria species
by exposure to selected fungitoxicants. Mycotaxon 26:99–117.
Micales, J. A., and Stipes, R. J. 1987. A reexamination of the fungal genera Cryphonectria and
Endothia. Phytopathology 77:650–654.
Myburg, H., Gryzenhout, M., Wingfield, B. D., Stipes, R. J., and Wingfield, M. J. 2004.
Phylogenetic relationships of Cryphonectria and Endothia species, based on DNA sequence
data and morphology. Mycologia 96:988–999.
Old, K. M., Gibbs, R., Craig, I., Myers, B. J., and Yuan, Z. Q. 1990. Effect of drought and
defoliation on the susceptibility of eucalypts to cankers caused by Endothia gyrosa and
Botryosphaeria ribis. Austral. J. Bot. 38:571–581.
Roane, M. K., Griffin, G. J., and Elkins, J. R. 1986. Chestnut blight, other Endothia diseases, and
the genus Endothia. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 53 pp.
Roane, M. K., Stipes, R. J., Phipps, P. M., and Miller, O. K. Jr. 1974. Endothia gyrosa, causal
pathogen of pin oak blight. Mycologia 66:1042–1047.
Shear, C. L., Stevens, N. E., and Tiller, R. J. 1917. Endothia parasitica and related species.
USDA Bull. 380. 77 pp.
Snow, G. A., Beland, J. W., and Czabator, F. J. 1974. Formosan sweetgum susceptible to North
American Endothia gyrosa. Phytopathology 64:602–605.
Stipes, R. J., and Phipps, P. M. 1971. A species of Endothia associated with a canker disease of
pin oak (Quercus palustris) in Virginia. Plant Dis. Rep. 55:467–469.
Venter, M., Myburg, H., Wingfield, B. D., Coutinho, A., and Wingfield, M. J. 2002. A new
species of Cryphonectria from South Africa and Australia, pathogenic to Eucalyptus.
Sydowia 54:98–117.
90
Venter, M., Wingfield, M. J., Coutinho, T. A., and Wingfield, B. D. 2001. Molecular
characterization of Endothia gyrosa isolates from Eucalyptus in South Africa and Australia.
Plant Pathol. 50:211–217.
Wardlaw, T. J. 1999. Endothia gyrosa associated with severe stem cankers on plantation grown
Eucalyptus nitens in Tasmania, Australia. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 29:199–208.
Weir, J. R. 1925. Notes on the parasitism of Endothia gyrosa (Schw.) Fr. Phytopathology
15:489–491.
Yuan, Z., and Mohammed, C. 1998. Infection of wounds in young Eucalyptus nitens by
ascospores and conidia of Endothia gyrosa. N.Z. J. For. Sci. 28:316–324.
-----------------Leucostoma and Valsa cankers, Plate 82, page 165
Overview
Barr, M. E. 1978. The Diaporthales in North America with emphasis on Gnomonia and its
segregates. Mycologia Mem. No. 7. 232 pp.
Dearness, J., and Hansbrough, J. R. 1934. Cytospora infection following fire injury in western
British Columbia. Can. J. Res. 10:125–128.
Défago, G. 1942. Seconde contribution à la connaissance des Valsées v. Höhnel. Phytopathol. Z.
14:103–147.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Funk, A. 1981. Parasitic microfungi of western trees. Can. For. Serv. Pac. For. Res. Cent. BC-X222. 190 pp.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
Kepley, J. B., and Jacobi, W. R. 2000. Pathogenicity of Cytospora fungi on six hardwood
species. J. Arboric. 26:326–333.
Kern, H. 1955. Taxonomic studies in the genus Leucostoma. Mich. Acad. Sci. Pap. 40:9–22.
Kern, H. 1957. Untersuchungen über die Umgrenzung der Arten in der Ascomycetengattung
Leucostoma. Phytopathol. Z. 30:149–180.
Saito, I., Tamura, O., and Takakuwa, M. 1972. Ascospore dispersal in Valsa ceratosperma, the
causal fungus of Japanese apple canker. Ann. Phytopathol. Soc. Jap. 38:367–374.
Spielman, L. J. 1985. A monograph of Valsa on hardwoods in North America. Can. J. Bot.
63:1355–1378.
Sutton, B. C. 1980. The Coelomycetes: Fungi Imperfecti with pycnidia, acervuli, and stromata.
Commonw. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK. 696 pp.
-----------------Valsa cankers and dieback of conifers
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Filip, G. M., Hadfield, J. S., and Schmitt, C. 1979. Branch mortality of true firs in west-central
Oregon associated with dwarf mistletoe and canker fungi. Plant Dis. Rep. 63:189–193.
Funk, A. 1981. Parasitic microfungi of western trees. Can. For. Serv. Pac. For. Res. Cent. BC-X222. 190 pp.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
91
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
Raymond, F. L., and Reid, J. 1961. Dieback of balsam fir in Ontario. Can. J. Bot. 39:233–251.
Reich, R. W., and Kamp, B. J. van der. 1993. Frost, canker, and dieback of Douglas-fir in the
central interior of British Columbia. Can. J. For. Res. 23:373–379.
Scharpf, R. F., and Bynum, H. H. 1975. Cytospora canker of true firs. USDA For. Serv. For. Pest
Leafl. 146. 5 pp.
Smerlis, E. 1971. Pathogenicity tests of Valsa species occurring on conifers in Québec.
Phytoprotection 52:28–31.
Wright, E. 1942. Cytospora abietis, the cause of a canker of true firs in California and Nevada. J.
Agric. Res. 65:143–153.
-----------------Leucostoma and Valsa cankers, continued, Plate 83, page 167
Leucostoma canker of spruce and other conifers
Barr, M. E. 1978. The Diaporthales in North America with emphasis on Gnomonia and its
segregates. Mycologia Mem. No. 7. 232 pp.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
Griffin, G. D., and Epstein, A. H. 1964. Association of dagger nematode, Xiphinema
americanum, with stunting and winterkill of ornamental spruce. Phytopathology 54:177–180.
Jorgensen, E., and Cafley, J. D. 1961. Branch and stem cankers of white and Norway spruces in
Ontario. For. Chron. 37:394–404.
Kamiri, L. K., and Laemmlen, F. F. 1981. Epidemiology of Cytospora canker caused in
Colorado blue spruce by Valsa kunzei. Phytopathology 71:941–947.
Kern, H. 1955. Taxonomic studies in the genus Leucostoma. Mich. Acad. Sci. Pap. 40:9–22.
Lavallée, A. 1964. A larch canker caused by Leucostoma kunzei (Fr.) Munk ex Kern. Can. J.
Bot. 42:1495–1502.
Proffer, T. J., and Hart, J. H. 1988. Vegetative compatibility groups in Leucocytospora kunzei.
Phytopathology 78:256–260.
Proffer, T. J., and Hart, J. H. 1994. Wound inoculations of Colorado blue spruce with isolates of
Leucostoma (Cytospora) kunzei and other Cytospora species. J. Arboric. 20:215–221.
Reich, R. W., and Kamp, B. J. van der. 1993. Frost, canker, and dieback of Douglas-fir in the
central interior of British Columbia. Can. J. For. Res. 23:373–379.
Schoeneweiss, D. F. 1983. Drought predisposition to Cytospora canker in blue spruce. Plant Dis.
67:383–385.
Waterman, A. M. 1955. The relation of Valsa kunzei to cankers on conifers. Phytopathology
45:686–692.
Wright, E. 1957. Cytospora canker of Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir. Plant Dis. Rep. 41:811–813.
-----------------Leucostoma and Valsa cankers, continued, Plate 84, page 169
Leucostoma cankers of Prunus
Adams, G., Hammer, S., and Proffer, T. 1990. Vegetative compatibility in Leucostoma
persoonii. Phytopathology 80:287–291.
92
Barakat, R. M., Johnson, D. A., and Grove, G. G. 1995. Factors affecting conidial exudation and
survival, and ascospore germination of Leucostoma cincta. Plant Dis. 79:1245–1248.
Bertrand, P. F., and English, H. 1976. Release and dispersal of conidia and ascospores of Valsa
leucostoma. Phytopathology 66:987–991.
Bertrand, P. F., and English, H. 1976. Virulence and seasonal activity of Cytospora leucostoma
and C. cincta in French prune trees in California. Plant Dis. Rep. 60:106–110.
Bertrand, P. F., English, H., and Carlson, R. M. 1976. Relation of soil physical and fertility
properties to the occurrence of Cytospora canker in French prune orchards. Phytopathology
66:1321–1324.
Biggs, A. R. 1984. Boundary-zone formation in peach bark in response to wounds and
Cytospora leucostoma infection. Can. J. Bot. 62:2814–2821.
Biggs, A. R. 1990. Managing wound-associated diseases by understanding wound healing in the
bark of woody plants. J. Arboric. 16:108–112.
Biggs, A. R. 1992. A review of pruning techniques for peach trees in relation to the incidence of
dieback and infection by Leucostoma spp. Acta Hortic. No. 322:127–134.
Biggs, A. R., ed. 1993. Handbook of cytology, histology, and histochemistry of fruit tree
diseases. CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, FL. 330 pp.
Chang, L. S., Iezzoni, A., and Adams, G. 1991. Heritability of Leucostoma persoonii canker
resistance among diverse peach genotypes. HortScience 26:60–62.
Chang, L. S., Iezzoni, A. F., Adams, G. C., and Ewers, F. W. 1991. Hydraulic conductance in
susceptible versus tolerant peach seedlings infected with Leucostoma persoonii. J. Am. Soc.
Hortic. Sci. 116:831–834.
Dhanvantari, B. N. 1978. Cold predisposition of dormant peach twigs to nodal cankers caused by
Leucostoma spp. Phytopathology 68:1779–1783.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Gross, H. L. 1967. Cytospora canker of black cherry. Plant Dis. Rep. 51:941–944.
Hampson, M. C., and Sinclair, W. A. 1973. Xylem dysfunction in peach caused by Cytospora
leucostoma. Phytopathology 63:676–681.
Helton, A. W., Johnson, J. B., and Dilbeck, R. D. 1988. Arthropod carriers of Cytospora
propagules in stone-fruit orchards. Plant Dis. 72:734.
Hildebrand, E. M. 1947. Perennial peach canker and the canker complex in New York, with
methods of control. Cornell Univ. Agric. Exp. Stn. Mem. 276. 61 pp.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Kern, H. 1955. Taxonomic studies in the genus Leucostoma. Mich. Acad. Sci. Pap. 40:9–22.
Kern, H. 1957. Untersuchungen über die Umgrenzung der Arten in der Ascomycetengattung
Leucostoma. Phytopathol. Z. 30:149–180.
Ogawa, J. M., and English, H. 1991. Diseases of temperate zone tree fruit and nut crops. Univ.
Calif. Div. Agric. Nat. Resour. Pub. 3345. 461 pp.
Puterka, G. J., Scorza, R., and Brown, M. W. 1993. Reduced incidence of lesser peachtree borer
and Leucostoma canker in peach-almond hybrids. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 118:864–867.
Schulz, U. 1981. Histologische Untersuchungen der Eintrittspforten von Cytospora-Arten.
Angew. Bot. 55:441–455.
93
Schulz, U. 1981. Untersuchungen zur biologischen Bekämpfung von Cytospora-Arten. Z.
Pflanzenkr. Pflanzenschutz 88:132–141.
Snyder, B. A., Adams, G. C., and Fulbright, D. W. 1989. Association of a virus-like particle with
a diseased isolate of Leucostoma persoonii. Mycologia 81:241–247.
Svircev, A. M., Biggs, A. R., and Miles, N. W. 1991. Isolation and partial purification of
phytotoxins from liquid cultures of Leucostoma cincta and Leucostoma persoonii. Can. J.
Bot. 69:1998–2003.
Tekauz, A., and Patrick, Z. A. 1974. The role of twig infections on the incidence of perennial
canker of peach. Phytopathology 64:683–688.
Traquair, J. A. 1988. Oxalic acid and calcium oxalate produced by Leucostoma cincta and L.
persoonii in culture and in peach bark tissues. Can. J. Bot. 65:1952–1956.
Wang, D., Iezzoni, A., and Adams, G. 1998. Genetic heterogeneity of Leucostoma species in
Michigan peach orchards. Phytopathology 88:376–381.
Wensley, R. N. 1964. Occurrence and pathogenicity of Valsa (Cytospora) species and other
fungi associated with peach canker in southern Ontario. Can. J. Bot. 42:841–857.
Wisniewski, M., Bogle, A. L., and Wilson, C. L. 1984. Histopathology of canker development
on peach trees after inoculation with Cytospora leucostoma. Can. J. Bot. 62:2804–2813.
-----------------Leucostoma and Valsa cankers, continued, Plate 85, page 171
Leucostoma and Valsa cankers of poplar and willow
Biggs, A. R., Davis, D. D., and Merrill, W. 1983. Histopathology of cankers on Populus caused
by Cytospora chrysosperma. Can. J. Bot. 61:563–574.
Bloomberg, W. J. 1962. Cytospora canker of poplars: factors influencing the development of the
disease. Can. J. Bot. 40:1272–1280.
Bloomberg, W. J., and Farris, S. H. 1963. Cytospora canker of poplars: bark wounding in
relation to canker development. Can. J. Bot. 41:303–310.
Burks, S., Jacobi, W. R., and McIntyre, G. A. 1998. Cytospora canker development on aspen in
response to nitrogen fertilization. J. Arboric. 24:28–34.
Callan, B. E. 1998. Diseases of Populus in British Columbia: a diagnostic manual. Can. For.
Serv. Pac. For. Cent., Victoria, BC. 157 pp.
Christensen, C. M. 1940. Studies on the biology of Valsa sordida and Cytospora chrysosperma.
Phytopathology 30:459–475.
Filer, T. H. Jr. 1967. Pathogenicity of Cytospora, Phomopsis, and Hypomyces on Populus
deltoides. Phytopathology 57:978–980.
Guyon, J. C., Jacobi, W. R., and McIntyre, G. A. 1996. Effects of environmental stress on the
development of Cytospora canker of aspen. Plant Dis. 80:1320–1326.
Hinds, T. E. 1985. Diseases. Pages 87–106 in: Aspen: ecology and management in the western
United States. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-119. 283 pp.
Hubbes, M. 1960. Systematische und physiologische Untersuchungen an Valsaceen auf Weiden.
Phytopathol. Z. 39:65–93.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Johnson, D. W., Beatty, J. S., and Hinds, T. E. 1995. Cankers on western quaking aspen. USDA
For. Serv. For. Insect Dis. Leafl. 152. Internet pub.
94
Kepley, J. B., and Jacobi, W. R. 2000. Pathogenicity of Cytospora fungi on six hardwood
species. J. Arboric. 26:326–333.
Kern, H. 1955. Taxonomic studies in the genus Leucostoma. Mich. Acad. Sci. Pap. 40:9–22.
Kern, H. 1957. Untersuchungen über die Umgrenzung der Arten in der Ascomycetengattung
Leucostoma. Phytopathol. Z. 30:149–180.
McIntyre, G. A., Jacobi, W. R., and Ramaley, A. W. 1996. Factors affecting Cytospora canker
occurrence on aspen. J. Arboric. 22:229–233.
Schoeneweiss, D. F. 1967. Susceptibility of weakened cottonwood stems to fungi associated
with blackstem. Plant Dis. Rep. 51:933–935.
Schreiner, E. J. 1931. Two species of Valsa causing disease in Populus. Am. J. Bot. 18:1–29.
Spielman, L. J. 1985. A monograph of Valsa on hardwoods in North America. Can. J. Bot.
63:1355–1378.
Walla, J. A., and Stack, R. W. 1980. Dip treatment for control of blackstem on Populus cuttings.
Plant Dis. 64:1092–1095.
-----------------Leucostoma and Valsa Cankers, continued, Plate 86, page 173
Valsa cankers of maples
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, No. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, No. 1011–1030. International Mycological Institute, Kew,
Surrey, UK.
Jones, A. L., and Aldwinckle, H. S., eds. 1990. Compendium of apple and pear diseases. APS
Press, St. Paul, MN. 100 pp.
Smiley, E. T., Kielbaso, J. J., and Proffer, T. J. 1986. Maple disease epidemic in southeastern
Michigan. J. Arboric. 12:126–128.
Spielman, L. J. 1985. A monograph of Valsa on hardwoods in North America. Can. J. Bot.
63:1355–1378.
Sproston, T. Jr., and Scott, W. W. 1954. Valsa leucostomoides, the cause of decay and
discoloration in tapped sugar maples. Phytopathology 44:12–13.
-----------------Cryptosporiopsis canker of red maple, Plate 86, page 173
Jong, S. N. de, Levesque, C. A., Verkley, G. J. M., Abeln, E. C. A., Rahe, J. E., and Braun, P. G.
2001. Phylogenetic relationships among Neofabraea species causing tree cankers and bull'seye rot of apple based on DNA sequencing of ITS nuclear rDNA, mitochondrial rDNA, and
the -tubulin gene. Mycol. Res. 105:658–669.
Kehr, R. D. 1992. Pezicula canker of Quercus rubra L., caused by Pezicula cinnamomea (DC.)
Sacc. II. Morphology and biology of the causal agent. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 22:29–40.
Rossman, A. Y., Castlebury, L. A., Adams, G. C., and Putnam, M. L. 2002. Phlyctema
vagabunda isolated from coin canker of ash trees in Michigan. Plant Dis. 86:442.
95
Sutton, B. C. 1980. The Coelomycetes: Fungi Imperfecti with pycnidia, acervuli, and stromata.
Commonw. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK 696 pp.
Taylor, G. S. 1983. Cryptosporiopsis canker of Acer rubrum: some relationships among host,
pathogen, and vector. Plant Dis. 67:984–986.
Taylor, G. S., and Moore, R. E. B. 1979. A canker of red maples associated with oviposition by
the narrow-winged tree cricket. Phytopathology 69:236–239.
Verkley, G. J. M. 1999. A monograph of the genus Pezicula and its anamorphs. Stud. Mycol.
No. 44. 180 pp.
-----------------Nectria cankers and diebacks, Plates 87–88, pages 175–177
Coral-spot Nectria canker
Arx, J. A. von. 1987. Plant pathogenic fungi. Cramer, Berlin. 288 pp.
Bedker, P. J., and Blanchette, R. A. 1983. Development of cankers caused by Nectria
cinnabarina on honey locusts after root pruning. Plant Dis. 67:1010–1013.
Bedker, P. J., Blanchette, R. A., and French, D. W. 1982. Nectria cinnabarina: the cause of a
canker disease of honey locust in Minnesota. Plant Dis. 66:1067–1070.
Bedker, P. J., and Wingfield, M. J. 1983. Taxonomy of three canker-causing fungi of honey
locust in the United States. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 81:179–183.
Booth, C. 1959. Studies of Pyrenomycetes IV. Nectria (Part 1). Commonw. Mycol. Inst. Mycol.
Pap. No. 73. 115 pp.
Calkins, J. B., and Swanson, B. T. 1997. Susceptiblity of 'Skyline' honeylocust to cankers caused
by Nectria cinnabarina influenced by nursery field management system. J. Environ. Hortic.
15:6–11.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P. and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN, 1252 pp.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Kessler, K. J. 1990. A canker disease of autumn olive caused by Tubercularia vulgaris. Eur. J.
For. Pathol. 20:148–153.
Rossman, A. Y. 1989. A synopsis of the Nectria cinnabarina–group. Mem. N.Y. Bot. Gard.
49:253–265.
Rossman, A. Y., Samuels, G. J., Rogerson, C. T. and Lowen, R. 1999. Genera of Bionectriaceae,
Hypocreaceae and Nectriaceae (Hypocreales, Ascomycetes). Stud. Mycol. No. 42. 248 pp.
Schoeneweiss, D. F. 1981. Infectious diseases of trees associated with water and freezing stress.
J. Arboric. 7:13–18.
Schoeneweiss, D. F. 1981. The role of environmental stress in diseases of woody plants. Plant
Dis. 65:308–314.
Schoeneweiss, D. F., and Wene, E. G. 1977. Freezing stress predisposes Euonymus alatus stems
to attack by Nectria cinnabarina. Plant Dis. Rep. 61:921–925.
Sickle, G. A. Van.1974. Nectria canker: a problem on black locust in New Brunswick. Plant Dis.
Rep. 58:872–874.
-----------------Tubercularia canker and dieback
96
Carter, J. C. 1947. Tubercularia canker and dieback of Siberian elm (Ulmus pumila L.).
Phytopathology 37:243–246.
Riffle, J. W., and Peterson, G. W., tech. coords. 1986. Diseases of trees in the Great Plains.
USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-129. 149 pp.
Schoeneweiss, D. F. 1974. Tubercularia ulmea canker of tallhedge: influence of freezing stress
on disease susceptibility. Plant Dis. Rep. 58:937–941.
Schoeneweiss, D. F. 1981. Infectious diseases of trees associated with water and freezing stress.
J. Arboric. 7:13–18.
Stipes, R. J., and Campana, R. J., eds. 1981. Compendium of elm diseases. Am. Phytopathol.
Soc., St. Paul, MN. 96 pp.
Walla, J. A., and Stack, R. W. 1988. Tubercularia canker of honeylocust in North Dakota. Plant
Dis. 72:734.
-----------------Nectria cankers and diebacks, continued, Plate 89, page 179
Thyronectria canker of honeylocust
Bedker, P. J., and Wingfield, M. J. 1983. Taxonomy of three canker-causing fungi of honey
locust in the United States. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 81:179–183.
Born, G. L., and Crane, J. L. 1972. Kaskaskia gleditsiae gen. et sp. nov. parasitic on thornless
honey locust in Illinois. Phytopathology 62:926–930.
Crowe, F., Starkey, D., and Lengleek, V. 1982. Honeylocust canker in Kansas caused by
Thyronectria austro-americana. Plant Dis. 66:155–158.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Hudler, G. W., and Oshima, N. 1976. The occurrence and distribution of Thyronectria austroamericana on honeylocust in Colorado. Plant Dis. Rep. 60:920–922.
Jacobi, W. R. 1984. Optimal conditions for in vitro growth, asexual spore release, and
germination of Thyronectria austro-americana. Phytopathology 74:566–569.
Jacobi, W. R. 1989. Resistance of honeylocust cultivars to Thyronectria austro-americana. Plant
Dis. 73:805–807.
Jacobi, W. R. 1992. Seasonal effects on wound susceptibility and canker expansion in
honeylocusts inoculated with Thyronectria austro-americana. J. Arboric. 18:288–293.
Jacobi, W. R., and Riffle, J. W. 1989. Effects of water stress on Thyronectria canker of
honeylocusts. Phytopathology 79:1333–1337.
Koski, R., and Jacobi, W. R. 2004. Tree pathogen survival in chipped wood mulch. J. Arboric.
30:165–171.
Neely, D., and Himelick, E. B. 1989. Susceptibility of honeylocust cultivars to Thyronectria
canker. J. Arboric. 15:189–191.
Potter, D. A., and Hartman, J. R. 1993. Susceptibility of honeylocust cultivars to Thyronectria
austro-americana and response of Agrilus borers and bagworms to infected and non-infected
trees. J. Environ. Hortic. 11:176–181.
Riffle, J. W., and Peterson, G. W. 1986. Thyronectria canker of honeylocust: influence of
temperature and wound age on disease development. Phytopathology 76:313–316.
Riffle, J. W., and Peterson, G. W., tech. coords. 1986. Diseases of trees in the Great Plains.
USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-129. 149 pp.
97
Rossman, A. Y. 1989. A synopsis of the Nectria cinnabarina-group. Mem. New York Bot. Gard.
49:253–265.
Seeler, E. V. Jr. 1940. Two diseases of Gleditsia caused by a species of Thyronectria. J. Arnold
Arbor. 21:405–427.
Seeler, E. V. Jr. 1940. A monographic study of the genus Thyronectria. J. Arnold Arbor.
21:429–460.
-----------------Nectria cankers and diebacks, continued, Plate 90, page 181
Perennial Nectria canker
Alfieri, S. A. Jr., Langdon, K. R., Kimbrough, J. W., El-Gholl, N. E., and Wehlburg, C. 1994.
Diseases and disorders of plants in Florida. Fla. Dep. Agric. Consum. Serv., Div. Plant
Indus., Gainesville. 1114 pp.
Ashcroft, J. M. 1934. European canker of black walnut and other trees. W. Va. Agric. Exp. Stn.
Bull. 261. 52 pp.
Barnard, E. L., El-Gholl, N. E., and Gilly, S. P. 1988. Comparative spore morphology and
pathogenicity of four Florida isolates of Nectria galligena. Plant Dis. 72:973–976.
Booth, C. 1959. Studies of Pyrenomycetes IV. Nectria (Part 1). Commonw. Mycol. Inst. Mycol.
Pap. No. 73. 115 pp.
Booth, C. 1967. Nectria galligena. C.M.I. Descr. Pathogenic Fungi Bact. No. 147. 2 pp.
Boyce, J. S. 1961. Forest pathology. 3rd ed. McGraw-Hill, New York. 572 pp.
Dubin, H. J., and English, H. 1975. Epidemiology of European apple canker in California.
Phytopathology 65:542–550.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Flack, N. J., and Swinburne, T. R. 1977. Host range of Nectria galligena Bres. and the
pathogenicity of some Northern Ireland isolates. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 68:185–192.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
Graves, A. H. 1919. Some diseases of trees in greater New York. Mycologia 11:111–124.
Laflamme, G., Bérubé, J. A., and Hamelin, R. C., eds. 1998. Foliage, shoot, and stem diseases of
trees. Can. For. Serv. Laurentian For. Cent. Inf. Rep. LAU-X-122. 272 pp.
Lohman, M. L., and Watson, A. J. 1943. Identity and host relations of Nectria species associated
with diseases of hardwoods in the eastern states. Lloydia 6:77–108.
Lortie, M. 1964. Pathogenesis in cankers caused by Nectria galligena. Phytopathology 54:261–
263.
Lortie, M., and Kuntz, J. E. 1963. Ascospore discharge and conidium release by Nectria
galligena Bres. under field and laboratory conditions. Can. J. Bot. 41:1203–1210.
Manion, P. D., and French, D. W. 1967. Nectria galligena and Ceratocystis fimbriata cankers of
aspen in Minnesota. For. Sci. 13:23–28.
Ogawa, J. M., and English, H. 1991. Diseases of temperate zone tree fruit and nut crops. Univ.
Calif. Div. Agric. Nat. Resour. Pub. 3345. 461 pp.
Plante, F., and Bernier, L. 1997. Variability of virulence of Nectria galligena towards northern
hardwoods. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 27:261–272.
98
Plante, F., Hamelin, R. C., and Bernier, L. 2002. A comparative study of genetic diversity of
populations of Nectria galligena and N. coccinea var. faginata in North America. Mycol.
Res. 106:183–193.
Rossman, A. Y., Samuels, G. J., Rogerson, C. T. and Lowen, R. 1999. Genera of Bionectriaceae,
Hypocreaceae and Nectriaceae (Hypocreales, Ascomycetes). Stud. Mycol. No. 42. 248 pp.
Thomas, C. S., and Hart, J. H. 1986. Site factors associated with Nectria canker on black walnut
in Michigan. Plant Dis. 70:1117–1121.
Welch, D. S. 1934. The range and importance of Nectria canker on hardwoods in the Northeast.
J. For. 32:997–1002.
Xu, X., Butt, D. J., and Ridout, M. S. 1998. The effects of inoculum dose, duration of wet
period, temperature and wound age on infection by Nectria galligena of pruning wounds on
apple. Eur. J. Plant Pathol. 104:511–519.
Zalasky, H. 1968. Penetration and initial establishment of Nectria galligena in aspen and
peachleaf willow. Can. J. Bot. 46:57–60.
-----------------Beech bark disease, Plate 91, page 183
Booth, C. 1959. Studies of Pyrenomycetes IV. Nectria (Part 1). Commonw. Mycol. Inst. Mycol.
Pap. No. 73. 115 pp.
Braun, H. J. 1976. Beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) bark disease, caused by Cryptococcus fagi Baer. I.
Anatomy of bark of Fagus sylvatica L. as a basic factor. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 6:136–146.
Chapela, I. H., and Boddy, L. 1988. Fungal colonization of attached beech branches. II. Spatial
and temporal organization of communities arising from latent invaders in bark and functional
sapwood, under different moisture regimes. New Phytol. 110:47–57.
Ehrlich, J. 1934. The beech bark disease: a Nectria disease of Fagus following Cryptococcus
fagi (Baer). Can. J. Res. 10:593–692.
Houston, D. B., and Houston, D. R. 2000. Allozyme genetic diversity among Fagus grandifolia
trees resistant or susceptible to beech bark disease in natural populations. Can. J. For. Res.
30:778–789.
Houston, D. R. 1994. Major new tree disease epidemics: beech bark disease. Annu. Rev.
Phytopathol. 32:75–87.
Houston, D. R. 1994. Temporal and spatial shift within the Nectria pathogen complex associated
with beech bark disease of Fagus grandifolia. Can. J. For. Res. 24:960–968.
Houston, D. R., and O'Brien, J. T. 1983. Beech bark disease. USDA For. Serv. For. Insect Dis.
Leafl. 75. Internet pub.
Houston, D. R., Parker, E. J., and Lonsdale, D. 1979. Beech bark disease: patterns of spread and
development of the inciting agent Cryptococcus fagisuga. Can. J. For. Res. 9:336–344.
Houston, D. R., Parker, E. J., Perrin, R., and Lang, K. J. 1979. Beech bark disease: a comparison
of the disease in North America, Great Britain, France, and Germany. Eur. J. For. Pathol.
9:199–211.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (Paris). 1980. Colloque sur la maladie de l'écorce
du hêtre. Ann. Sci. For. 37:269–392.
99
International Union of Forest Research Organizations [IUFRO]. 1983. Proceedings of beech
bark disease working party conference. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-37. 140 pp.
Lohman, M. L., and Watson, A. J. 1943. Identity and host relations of Nectria species associated
with diseases of hardwoods in the eastern states. Lloydia 6:77–108.
Lonsdale, D. 1980. Nectria infection of beech bark in relation to infestation by Cryptococcus
fagisuga Lindiger. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 10:161–168.
Mahoney, E. M., Milgroom, M. G., Sinclair, W. A., and Houston, D. R. 1999. Origin, genetic
diversity, and population structure of Nectria coccinea var. faginata in North America.
Mycologia 91:583–592.
Perrin, R. 1984. Variability of the susceptibility of beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) to Nectria
coccinea, one of the pathogens of bark disease. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 14:321–325.
Rossman, A. Y., Samuels, G. J., Rogerson, C. T. and Lowen, R. 1999. Genera of Bionectriaceae,
Hypocreaceae and Nectriaceae (Hypocreales, Ascomycetes). Stud. Mycol. No. 42. 248 pp.
Wainhouse, D. 1980. Dispersal of first instar larvae of the felted beech scale, Cryptococcus
fagisuga. J. Appl. Ecol. 17:523–532.
Wargo, P. M. 1988. Amino nitrogen and phenolic constituents of bark of American beech, Fagus
grandifolia, and infestation by beech scale, Cryptococcus fagisuga. Eur. J. For. Pathol.
18:279–290.
-----------------Fusarium cankers, Plate 92, page 185
Overview and cankers caused by Fusarium solani or F. lateritium
Anderson, R. L., and Hoffard, W. H. 1978. Fusarium canker–ambrosia beetle complex on tulip
poplar in Ohio. Plant Dis. Rep. 62:751.
Arnett, J. D., and Witcher, W. 1974. Histochemical studies of yellow poplar infected with
Fusarium solani. Phytopathology 64:414–418.
Belisario, A., Forti, E., and Corazza, L. 1999. Collar and root rot of walnut trees, associated with
Fusarium solani. Petria 9:277–282.
Bergdahl, D. R., Sendak, P. E., Tobi, D. R., Bove, J. R., and Tritton, L. M. 2002. Incidence of
annual canker of sugar maple studied with the aid of a geographic information system. North.
J. Appl. For. 19:73–79.
Bier, J. E. 1959–1961. The relation of bark moisture content to the development of canker
diseases caused by native, facultative parasites. I. Cryptodiaporthe canker on willow. II.
Fusarium canker of black cottonwood. VI. Pathogenicity studies of Hypoxylon pruinatum
(Klotzsch) Cke. and Septoria musiva Pk. on species of Acer, Populus, and Salix. Can. J. Bot.
37:229–238; 37:781–788; 39:1555–1561.
Booth, C. 1971. The genus Fusarium. Commonwealth Mycological Institute, Kew, Surrey, UK.
237 pp.
Boyer, M. G. 1961. A Fusarium canker disease of Populus deltoides Marsh. Can. J. Bot.
39:1195–1204.
Cummings Carlson, J. E., and Kuntz, J. E. 1986. Stem canker on black walnut caused by
Fusarium sporotrichioides. Annu. Rep. North. Nut Growers Assoc. 77:85–92.
Cummings Carlson, J. E., Mielke, M. E., Appleby, J. E., Hatcher, R., Hayes, E. M., Luley, C. J.,
O'Brien, J. G., and Rugg, D. J. 1993. Survey of black walnut canker in plantations in five
central states. North. J. Appl. For. 10:10–13.
100
Dochinger, L. S. 1967. Occurrence of poplar cankers caused by Fusarium solani in Iowa. Plant
Dis. Rep. 51:900–903.
Dochinger, L. S., and Seliskar, C. E. 1962. Fusarium canker found on yellow-poplar. J. For.
60:331–333.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Filer, T. H. Jr. 1967. Pathogenicity of Cytospora, Phomopsis, and Hypomyces on Populus
deltoides. Phytopathology 57:978–980.
Hayes, E. M., and Ocamb, C. M. 1997. Fusarium canker and freeze injury of black walnut.
USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-191:184–191.
Heimann, M. F., and Worf, G. L. 1987. Basal stem canker of poinsettia caused by Fusarium
solani in Wisconsin. Plant Dis. 71:469.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Kessler, K. J. Jr. 1974. An apparent symbiosis between Fusarium fungi and ambrosia beetles
causes canker on black walnut trees. Plant Dis. Rep. 58:1044–1047.
Kessler, K. J. Jr. 1974. Annual canker of sugar maple in northeastern Minnesota. Plant Dis. Rep.
58:1042–1043.
Madar, Z., Kimchi, M., and Solel, Z. 1996. Fusarium canker in Italian cypress. Eur. J. For.
Pathol. 26:107–112.
Massie, L. B., and Peterson, J. L. 1968. Factors affecting the initiation and development of
Fusarium canker on Sophora japonica in relation to growth and sporulation of Fusarium
lateritium. Phytopathology 58:1620–1623.
Montealegre, A. J. R. 1992. Asian pear twig canker in Chile caused by Fusarium lateritium.
Fitopatologia 27:80–84.
Nelson, P. E., Toussoun, T. A., and Cook, R. J., eds. 1981. Fusarium: diseases, biology, and
taxonomy. Penn. State Univ. Press, University Park. 457 pp.
O'Donnell, K. 1996. Progress towards a phylogenetic classification of Fusarium. Sydowia
48:57–70.
Peterson, J. L., and Davis, S. H. Jr. 1965. A Fusarium canker of Sophora japonica. Plant Dis.
Rep. 49:835–836.
Rossman, A. Y., Samuels, G. J., Rogerson, C. T. and Lowen, R. 1999. Genera of Bionectriaceae,
Hypocreaceae and Nectriaceae (Hypocreales, Ascomycetes). Stud. Mycol. No. 42. 248 pp.
Skelly, J. M., and Wood, F. A. 1966. The occurrence and etiology of an annual canker of sugar
maple in Pennsylvania. Can. J. Bot. 44:1401–1411.
Summerell, B. A., Leslie, J. F., Backhouse, D., Bryden, W. L., and Burgess, L. W., eds. 2001.
Fusarium: Paul E. Nelson memorial symposium. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 392 pp.
Tisserat, N. 1987. Stem canker of black walnut caused by Fusarium solani in Kansas. Plant Dis.
71:557.
Toole, E. R. 1963. Cottonwood canker caused by Fusarium solani. Plant Dis. Rep. 47:1032–
1035.
Toole, E. R. 1966. Stem canker of red oaks caused by Fusarium solani. Plant Dis. Rep. 50:160–
161.
101
Vujanovic, V., Cogliastro, A., St. Arnaud, M., Neumann, P., and Gagnon, D. 1999. First report
of Fusarium solani canker and wilt symptoms on red oak (Quercus rubra) in Quebec,
Canada. Plant Dis. 83:78.
Weidensaul, T. C., and Wood, F. A. 1973. Sources of species of Fusarium in northern hardwood
forests. Phytopathology 63:367–371.
Wood, F. A., and Skelly, J. M. 1969. Relation of the time of year to canker initiation by
Fusarium solani in sugar maple. Plant Dis. Rep. 53:753–755.
-----------------Fusarium cankers, continued, Plate 93, page 187
Pitch canker of pines
Barrows-Broaddus. J. 1990. Colonization of cones and seed of loblolly pine following
inoculation with Fusarium subglutinans. Plant Dis. 74:1002–1005.
Barrows-Broaddus, J., and Dwinell, L. D. 1985. Branch dieback and cone and seed infection
caused by Fusarium moniliforme var. subglutinans in a loblolly pine seed orchard in South
Carolina. Phytopathology 75:1104–1108.
Blakeslee, G. M., Jokela, E. J., Hollis, C. H., Wilson, D. S., Lante, W. D., and Allen, J. E. 1999.
Pitch canker in young loblolly pines: influence of precommercial thinning and fertilization
on disease incidence and severity. South. J. Appl. For. 23:139–143.
Bonello, P., Gordon, T. R., and Storer, A. J. 2001. Systemic induced resistance in Monterey pine.
For. Pathol. 31:99–106.
Britz, H., Coutinho, T. A., Wingfield, M. J., and Marasas, W. F. O. 2002. Validation of the
description of Gibberella circinata and morphological differentiation of the anamorph
Fusarium circinatum. Sydowia 54:9–22.
Britz, H., Coutinho, T. A., Wingfield, M. J., Marasas, W. F. O., Gordon, T. R., and Leslie, J. F.
1999. Fusarium subglutinans f.sp. pini represents a distinct mating population in the
Gibberella fujikuroi species complex. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 65:1198–1201.
Correll, J. C., Gordon, T. R., and McCain, A. H. 1992. Genetic diversity in California and
Florida populations of the pitch canker fungus Fusarium subglutinans f.sp. pini.
Phytopathology 82:415–420.
Correll, J. C., Gordon, T. R., McCain, A. H., Fox, J. W., Koehler, C. S., Wood, D. L., and
Schultz, M. E. 1991. Pitch canker disease in California: pathogenicity, distribution, and
canker development on Monterey pine (Pinus radiata). Plant Dis. 75:676–682.
Devey, M, Matheson, C., and Gordon, T. 1999. Current and potential impacts of pitch canker in
radiata pine. Proceedings of the IMPACT Monterey Workshop, Monterey, CA. CSIRO For.
& For. Prod. Tech. Rep. No. 112. 120 p,
Dwinell, L. D. 1978. Susceptibility of southern pines to infection by Fusarium moniliforme var.
subglutinans. Plant Dis. Rep. 62:108–111.
Dwinell, L. D., Barrows-Broaddus, J. B., and Kuhlman, E. G. 1985. Pitch canker: a disease
complex of southern pines. Plant Dis. 69:270–276.
Fox, J. W., Wood, D. L., Koehler, C. S., and O'Keefe, S. T. 1991. Engraver beetles (Scolytidae:
Ips species) as vectors of the pitch canker fungus, Fusarium subglutinans. Can. Entomol.
123:1355–1367.
Gordon, T. R., Okamoto, D., Storer, A. J., and Wood, D. L. 1998. Susceptibility of five
landscape pines to pitch canker disease, caused by Fusarium subglutinans f.sp. pini.
HortScience 33:868–871.
102
Gordon, T. R., Storer, A. J., and Wood, D. L. 2001. The pitch canker epidemic in California.
Plant Dis. 85:1128–1139.
Gordon, T. R., Wikler, K. R., Clark, S. L., Okamoto, D., Storer, A. J., and Bonello, P. 1998.
Resistance to pitch canker disease, caused by Fusarium subglutinans f.sp. pini, in Monterey
pine (Pinus radiata). Plant Pathol. 47:706–711.
Hepting, G. H., and Roth, E. R. 1946. Pitch canker, a new disease of some southern pines. J. For.
44:742–744.
Hoover, K., Wood, D. L., Storer, A. J., Fox, J. W., and Bros, W. E. 1996. Transmission of the
pitch canker fungus, Fusarium subglutinans f.sp. pini, to Monterey pine, Pinus radiata, by
cone- and twig-infesting beetles. Can. Entomol. 128:981–994.
Kuhlman, E. G., Dianis, S. D., and Smith, T. K. 1982. Epidemiology of pitch canker disease in a
loblolly pine seed orchard in North Carolina. Phytopathology 72:1212–1216.
Laflamme, G., Bérubé, J. A., and Hamelin, R. C., eds. 1998. Foliage, shoot, and stem diseases of
trees. Can. For. Serv. Laurentian For. Cent. Inf. Rep. LAU-X-122. 272 pp.
Nelson, P. E., Toussoun, T. A., and Cook, R. J., eds. 1981. Fusarium: diseases, biology, and
taxonomy. Penn. State Univ. Press, University Park. 457 pp.
Nirenberg, H. I., and O'Donnell, K. 1998. New Fusarium species and combinations within the
Gibberella fujikuroi species complex. Mycologia 90:434–458.
Solel, Z., and Bruck, R. I. 1989. Effect of nitrogen fertilization and growth suppression on pitch
canker development on loblolly pine seedlings. J. Phytopathol. 125:327–335.
Storer, A. J., Gordon, T. R., and Clark, S. L. 1998. Association of the pitch canker fungus,
Fusarium subglutinans f.sp. pini, with Monterey pine seeds and seedlings in California. Plant
Pathol. 47:649–656.
Summerell, B. A., Leslie, J. F., Backhouse, D., Bryden, W. L., and Burgess, L. W., eds. 2001.
Fusarium: Paul E. Nelson memorial symposium. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 392 pp.
Viljoen, A., Marasas, W. F. O., Wingfield, M. J., and Viljoen, C. D. 1997. Characterization of
Fusarium subglutinans f.sp. pini causing root disease of Pinus patula seedlings in South
Africa. Mycol. Res. 101:437–445.
-----------------Pestalotiopsis spots, blights, and diebacks, Plate 94, page 189
An, X., and Han, L. 1994. On the occurrence and control of coconut Pestalotia leaf spot. Plant
Prot. 20:16–17.
Cordell, C. E., Anderson, R. L., Hoffard, W. H., Landis, T. D., Smith, R. S. Jr., and Toko, H. V.,
tech. coords. 1989. Forest nursery pests. USDA Agric. Handb. 680. 184 pp.
Guba, E. F. 1961. Monograph of Monochaetia and Pestalotia. Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge,
MA. 342 pp.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Ito, K., Chiba, O., Ono, K., and Hosaka, Y. 1954. Pestalotia disease of Camellia japonica L.
Bull. Gov. For. Exp. Stn., Tokyo 70:103–124.
Kimishima, E., Kobayashi, Y., and Kobayashi, T. 1996. Cane blight of rose caused by
Pestalotiopsis populi-nigrae (Sawada et Ito) Morelet. Ann. Phytopathol. Soc. Jap. 62:502–
504.
103
Kobayashi, T., Ishihara, M., and Ono, Y. 2001. A new species of Pestalosphaeria, the
teleomorph of Pestalotiopsis neglecta. Mycoscience 42:211–216.
Lee, J. C., Yang, X., Schwartz, M., Strobel, G., and Clardy, J. 1995. The relationship between an
endangered North American tree and an endophytic fungus. Chem. Biol. 2:721–727.
Li, J., Strobel, G., Sidhu, R., Hess, W. M., and Ford, E. J. 1996. Endophytic taxol-producing
fungi from bald cypress, Taxodium distichum. Microbiology 142:2223–2226.
Madar, Z., Solel, Z., and Kimchi, M. 1991. Pestalotiopsis canker of cypress in Israel.
Phytoparasitica 19:79–81.
Nag Raj, T. R. 1993. Coelomycetous anamorphs with appendage-bearing conidia. Mycologue
Pub., Waterloo, ON. 1101 pp.
Subirats, F. J., and Self, R. L. 1971. A new petal blight of camellias incited by Pestalotia sp.
Plant Dis. Rep. 55:697–700.
Sugui, J. A., Pascholati, S. F., Kunoh, H., Howard, R. J., and Nicholson, R. L. 1998. Association
of Pestalotia malicola with the plant cuticle: visualization of the pathogen and detection of
cutinase and non-specific esterase. Physiol. Mol. Plant Pathol. 52:213–221.
Suto, Y., and Kobayashi, T. 1993. Taxonomic studies on the species of Pestalotiopsis, parasitic
on conifers in Japan. Trans. Mycol. Soc. Jap. 34:323–344.
Sutton, B. C. 1969. Forest microfungi. III. The heterogeneity of Pestalotia de Not. Section
Sexloculatae Klebahn sensu Guba. Can. J. Bot. 47:2083–2094.
Sutton, B. C. 1980. The Coelomycetes: Fungi Imperfecti with pycnidia, acervuli, and stromata.
Commonw. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK. 696 pp.
Wenner, J. J. 1914. A contribution to the morphology and life history of Pestalozzia funerea
Desm. Phytopathology 4:375–383.
White, R. P. 1930. Pathogenicity of Pestalotia spp. N.J. Agric. Exp. Stn. Annu. Rep. 43 (1929–
30):264–268.
White, R. P. 1930. Pathogenicity of Pestalotia spp. on rhododendron. Phytopathology 20:85–91.
-----------------Seiridium cankers of cypress, Plate 95, page 191
Barnes, I., Roux, J., Wingfield, M. J., Coetzee, M. P. A., and Wingfield, B. D. 2001.
Characterization of Seiridium spp. associated with cypress canker based on -tubulin and
histone sequences. Plant Dis. 85:317–321.
Capretti, P., Heiniger, U., and Stephan, R., eds. 1995. Shoot and foliage diseases in forest trees.
IUFRO Proceedings. Vallombrosa, Firenze, Italy, 1994. Inst. Patol. Zool. For. Agrar., Univ.
Studi di Firenze, Italy. 309 pp.
Chou, C. K. S. 1990. Pathogenic variation of Seiridium spp. isolated from cankered
Cupressaceae hosts in New Zealand. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 20:32–43.
Frankie, G. W., and Parmeter, J. R. Jr. 1972. A preliminary study of the relationship between
Coryneum cardinale (Fungi Imperfecti) and Laspeyresia cupressana (Lepidoptera:
Tortricidae). Plant Dis. Rep. 56:992–994.
Graniti, A. 1998. Cypress canker: a pandemic in progress. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 36:91–114.
Graniti, A., Sparapano, L., and Evidente, A. 1992. Cyclopaldic acid: a major phytotoxic
metabolite of Seiridium cupressi the pathogen of a canker disease of cypress. Plant Pathol.
41:563–568.
Graves, A. A., and Witcher, W. 1971. Monochaetia canker of Arizona cypress and redcedar in
South Carolina. Plant Dis. Rep. 55:810–813.
104
Guba, E. F. 1961. Monograph of Monochaetia and Pestalotia. Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge,
MA. 342 pp.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Krokene, P., Barnes, I., Wingfield, B. D., and Wingfield, M. J. 2004. A PCR-RFLP based
diagnostic technique to rapidly identify Seiridium species causing cypress canker. Mycologia
96:1352–1354.
Mutto, S., and Panconesi, A. 1987. Ultrastructural modifications in Cupressus sempervirens
tissues invaded by Seiridium cardinale. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 17:193–204.
Nag Raj, T. R. 1993. Coelomycetous anamorphs with appendage–bearing conidia. Mycologue
Pub., Waterloo, ON. 1101 pp.
Santini, A., Camussi, A., and Raddi, P. 1997. Genetic variability of canker resistance trait in
Cupressus sempervirens L. progenies. J. Appl. Genet. 38:453–461.
Santini, A., and Lonardo, V. di 2000. Genetic variability of the 'bark canker resistance' character
in several natural provenances of Cupressus sempervirens. For. Pathol. 30:87–96.
Sasaki, K., and Kobayashi, T. 1975. Resinous canker disease of Cupressaceae caused by
Monochaetia unicornis (Cke. et Ell.) Sacc. (I). The causal fungus and its pathogenicity. Bull.
Gov. For. Exp. Stn., Meguro 271:27–38.
Spanos, K. A., Pirrie, A., and Woodward, S. 2001. Screening for resistance to Seiridium
cardinale, S. cupressi, and S. unicorne isolates in glasshouse-grown seedlings of
Cupressaceae. Silvae Genet. 50:258–264.
Swart, H. J. 1973. The fungus causing cypress canker. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 61:71–82.
Tabata, M. 1991. Distribution and host range of Seiridium unicorne in Japan. Trans. Mycol. Soc.
Jap. 32:259–264.
Tisserat, N. A., Nus, A., and Barnes, L. W. 1991. A canker disease of the Cupressaceae in
Kansas and Texas caused by Seiridium unicorne. Plant Dis. 75:138–140.
Viljoen, C. D., Wingfield, B. D., and Wingfield, M. J. 1993. Comparison of Seiridium isolates
associated with cypress canker using sequence data. Exp. Mycol. 17:323–328.
Wagener, W. W. 1939. The canker of Cupressus induced by Coryneum cardinale n. sp. J. Agric.
Res. 58:1–46.
Xenopoulos, S. G. 1991. Pathogenic variability of various isolates of Seiridium cardinale, S.
cupressi and S. unicorne inoculated on selected Cupressus clones and seedlings. Eur. J. For.
Pathol. 21:129–135.
-----------------Cryptosphaeria canker of aspen, Plate 96, page 193
Barnett, H. L., and Hunter, B. B. 1998. Illustrated genera of imperfect fungi. 4th ed. APS Press,
St. Paul, MN. 218 pp.
Callan, B. E. 1998. Diseases of Populus in British Columbia: a diagnostic manual. Can. For.
Serv. Pac. For. Cent., Victoria, BC. 157 pp.
Chapela, I. H. 1989. Fungi in healthy stems and branches of American beech and aspen: a
comparative study. New Phytol. 113:65–75.
Ellis, M. B., and Ellis, J. P. 1997. Microfungi on land plants: an identification handbook.
Richmond. Slough, UK. 868 pp.
105
Funk, A. 1981. Parasitic microfungi of western trees. Can. For. Serv. Pac. For. Res. Cent. BC-X222. 190 pp.
Glawe, D. A., and Jacobs, K. A. 1987. Taxonomic notes on Eutypella vitis, Cryptosphaeria
populina, and Diatrype stigma. Mycologia 79:135–139.
Hinds, T. E. 1981. Cryptosphaeria canker and Libertella decay of aspen. Phytopathology
71:1137–1145.
Hinds, T. E. 1985. Diseases. Pages 87–106 in: Aspen: ecology and management in the western
United States. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-119. 283 pp.
Johnson, D. W., Beatty, J. S., and Hinds, T. E. 1995. Cankers on western quaking aspen. USDA
For. Serv. For. Insect Dis. Leafl. 152. Internet pub.
Juzwik, J., and French, D. W. 1990. Cryptosphaeria canker on Populus tremuloides in
Minnesota. Can. J. Bot. 68:2044–2045.
Juzwik, J., Nishijima, W. T., and Hinds, T. E. 1978. Survey of aspen cankers in Colorado. Plant
Dis. Rep. 62:906–910.
Rappaz, F. 1987. Taxonomy and nomenclature of Diatrypaceae with eight-spored asci. Mycol.
Helvet. 2:285–648.
-----------------Eutypella canker of maples, Plate 97, page 195
Davidson, R. W., and Lorenz, R. C. 1938. Species of Eutypella and Schizoxylon associated with
cankers of maple. Phytopathology 28:733–745.
French, W. J. 1969. Eutypella canker on Acer in New York. N.Y. State Coll. For. Tech. Pub. 94.
56 pp.
Glawe, D. A. 1983. Observations on the anamorph of Eutypella parasitica. Mycologia 75:742–
743.
Gross, H. L. 1984. Impact of Eutypella canker on the maple resource of the Owen Sound and
Wingham forest districts. For. Chron. 60:18–21.
Johnson, D. W., and Kuntz, J. E. 1979. Eutypella canker of maple: ascospore discharge and
dissemination. Phytopathology 69:130–135.
Johnson, D. W., and Kuntz, J. E. 1979. Eutypella parasitica: ascospore germination and
mycelial growth. Can. J. Bot. 57:624–628.
Kliejunas, J. T., and Kuntz, J. E. 1972. Development of stromata and the imperfect state of
Eutypella parasitica in maple. Can. J. Bot. 50:1453–1456.
Lachance, D. 1971. Discharge and germination of Eutypella parasitica ascospores. Can. J. Bot.
49:1111–1118.
Lachance, D. 1971. Inoculation and development of Eutypella canker of maple. Can. J. For. Res.
1:228–234.
Lachance, D. 1994. Eutypella canker of maple. Can. For. Serv. Inf. Leafl. LFC 8. 8 pp.
Lachance, D., and Kuntz, J. E. 1970. Ascocarp development of Eutypella parasitica. Can. J. Bot.
48:1977–1979.
Rappaz, F. 1987. Taxonomy and nomenclature of Diatrypaceae with eight-spored asci. Mycol.
Helvet. 2:285–648.
Sendak, P. E., Bove, J. R., Bergdahl, D. R., Tobi, D. R., and Huyler, N. K. 1997. Effects of
Eutypella canker and sugar maple borer in merchantable volume loss in sugar maple. North.
J. Appl. For. 14:26–31.
------------------
106
Entoleuca (Hypoxylon) canker of aspen, Plate 98, page 197
Anderson, D. L., and French, D. W. 1972. Isolation of Hypoxylon mammatum from aspen stem
sections. Can. J. Bot. 50:1971–1972.
Anderson, G. W., and Martin, M. P. 1981. Factors related to incidence of Hypoxylon cankers in
aspen and survival of cankered trees. For. Sci. 27:461–476.
Anderson, R. L., Anderson, G. W., and Schipper, A. L. Jr. 1979. Hypoxylon canker of aspen.
USDA For. Serv. For. Insect Dis. Leafl. 6. Internet pub.
Bagga, D. K., and Smalley, E. B. 1974. The development of Hypoxylon canker of Populus
tremuloides: role of ascospores, conidia, and toxins. Phytopathology 64:654–658.
Bagga, D. K., and Smalley, E. B. 1974. The development of Hypoxylon canker of Populus
tremuloides: role of interacting environmental factors. Phytopathology 64:658–662.
Bélanger, R. R., Manion, P. D., and Griffin, D. H. 1989. Hypoxylon mammatum ascospore
infection of Populus tremuloides clones: effects of moisture stress in tissue culture.
Phytopathology 79:315–317.
Bélanger, R. R., Manion, P. D., and Griffin, D. H. 1990. Amino acid content of water-stressed
plantlets of Populus tremuloides clones in relation to clonal susceptibility to Hypoxylon
mammatum in vitro. Can. J. Bot. 68:26–29.
Berbee, J. G., and Rogers, J. D. 1964. Life cycle and host range of Hypoxylon pruinatum and its
pathogenesis on poplars. Phytopathology 54:257–261.
Bier, J. E. 1940. Studies in forest pathology. III. Hypoxylon canker of poplar. Can. Dep. Agric.
Pub. 691. 40 pp.
Bier, J. E. 1959–1961. The relation of bark moisture content to the development of canker
diseases caused by native, facultative parasites. I. Cryptodiaporthe canker on willow. II.
Fusarium canker of black cottonwood. VI. Pathogenicity studies of Hypoxylon pruinatum
(Klotzsch) Cke. and Septoria musiva Pk. on species of Acer, Populus, and Salix. Can. J. Bot.
37:229–238; 37:781–788; 39:1555–1561.
Blanchette, R. A., and Biggs, A. R., eds. 1992. Defense mechanisms of woody plants against
fungi. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York. 458 pp.
Bruck, R. I., and Manion, P. D. 1980. Interacting environmental factors associated with the
incidence of Hypoxylon canker on trembling aspen. Can. J. For. Res. 10:17–24.
Bucciarelli, B., Ostry, M. E., Fulcher, R. G., Anderson, N. A., and Vance, C. P. 1999.
Histochemical and microspectrophotometric analyses of early wound responses of resistant
and susceptible Populus tremuloides inoculated with Entoleuca mammata ( Hypoxylon
mammatum). Can. J. Bot. 77:548–555.
Callan, B. E. 1998. Diseases of Populus in British Columbia: a diagnostic manual. Can. For.
Serv. Pac. For. Cent., Victoria, BC. 157 pp.
Enebak, S. A., Li, B., and Ostry, M. E. 1996. Seedling response of two trembling aspen (Populus
tremuloides) families to infection by Hypoxylon mammatum. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 26:245–
252.
Falk, S. P., Griffin, D. H., and Manion, P. D. 1989. Hypoxylon canker incidence and mortality in
naturally occurring aspen clones. Plant Dis. 73:394–397.
French, D. W., Hodges, C. S. Jr., and Froyd, J. D. 1969. Pathogenicity and taxonomy of
Hypoxylon mammatum. Can. J. Bot. 47:223–226.
Gerhold, H. D., Schreiner, E. J., McDermott, R. E., and Winieski, J. A., eds. 1966. Breeding
pest-resistant trees. Pergamon, New York. 505 pp.
107
Griffin, D. H., Quinn, K. E., Gilbert, G. S., Wang, C. J. K., and Rosemarin, S. 1992. The role of
ascospores and conidia as propagules in the disease cycle of Hypoxylon mammatum.
Phytopathology 82:114–119.
Hinds, T. E. 1985. Diseases. Pages 87–106 in: Aspen: ecology and management in the western
United States. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-119.
Hutchison, L. J. 1999. Wood-inhabiting microfungi isolated from Populus tremuloides from
Alberta and northeastern British Columbia. Can. J. Bot. 77:898–905.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Ju, Y.-M., and Rogers, J. D. 1996. A revision of the genus Hypoxylon. Mycologia Mem. No. 20.
APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 365 pp.
Kruger, B. M., and Manion, P. D. 1993. Genetic control of Populus tremuloides sensitivity to
metabolites of Hypoxylon mammatum. Can. J. Bot. 71:1276–1279.
Kruger, B. M., and Manion, P. D. 1993. Sensitivity of Populus tremuloides to toxic metabolites
of Hypoxylon mammatum and susceptibility to H. mammatum infection. Can. J. Bot.
71:1298–1303.
Kruger, B. M., and Manion, P. D. 1994. Antifungal compounds in aspen: effect of water stress.
Can. J. Bot. 72:454–460.
Manion, P. D. 1975. Two infection sites of Hypoxylon mammatum in trembling aspen (Populus
tremuloides). Can. J. Bot. 53:2621–2624.
Manion, P. D., and Griffin, D. H. 1986. Sixty-five years of research on Hypoxylon canker of
aspen. Plant Dis. 70:803–808.
Mazzaglia, A., Anselmi, N., Vicario, S., and Vannini, A. 2001. Sequence analysis of the 5.8S
rDNA and ITS regions in evaluating genetic relationships among some species of Hypoxylon
and related genera. Mycol. Res. 105:670–675.
Merrill, W., French, D. W., and Wood, F. A. 1964. Decay of wood by species of the
Xylariaceae. Phytopathology 54:56–58.
Ostry, M. E., and Anderson, N. A. 1998. Interactions of insects, woodpeckers, and Hypoxylon
canker on aspen. USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. NC-331. 17 pp.
Rogers, J. D., and Ju, Y. 1996. Entoleuca mammata comb. nov. for Hypoxylon mammatum and
the genus Entoleuca. Mycotaxon 59:441–448.
Schipper, A. L. Jr. 1978. A Hypoxylon mammatum pathotoxin responsible for canker formation
in quaking aspen. Phytopathology 68:866–872.
Stermer, B. A., Scheffer, R. P., and Hart, J. H. 1984. Isolation of toxins of Hypoxylon
mammatum and demonstration of some toxin effects on selected clones of Populus
tremuloides. Phytopathology 74:654–658.
Whalley, A. J. S. 1996. The xylariaceous way of life. Mycol. Res. 100:897–922.
Wood, F. A., and French, D. W. 1965. Hypoxylon canker of aspen: seasonal development of
cankers and ascospore ejection in winter. Phytopathology 55:771–774.
-----------------Biscogniauxia cankers and diebacks, Plates 99–100, page 199
Overview
Abe, Y. 1989. Effect of moisture on decay of wood by xylariaceous and diatrypaceous fungi and
quantitative changes in the chemical components of decayed woods. Trans. Mycol. Soc. Jap.
108
30:169–181.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Granata, G., and Whalley, A. J. S. 1994. Decline of beech associated with Biscogniauxia
nummularia in Italy. Petria 4:111–115.
Hendry, S. J., Lonsdale, D., and Boddy, L. 1998. Strip-cankering of beech (Fagus sylvatica):
pathology and distribution of symptomatic trees. New Phytol. 140:549–565.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Jong, S. C., and Rogers, J. D. 1972. Illustrations and descriptions of conidial states of some
Hypoxylon species. Wash. Agric. Exp. Stn. Tech. Bull. 71. 51 pp.
Ju, Y.-M., and Rogers, J. D. 1996. A revision of the genus Hypoxylon. APS Press, St. Paul, MN.
365 pp.
Ju, Y.-M., Rogers, J. D., Martin, F. S., and Granmo, A. 1998. The genus Biscogniauxia.
Mycotaxon 66:1–98.
Mazzaglia, A., Anselmi, N., Vicario, S., and Vannini, A. 2001. Sequence analysis of the 5.8S
rDNA and ITS regions in evaluating genetic relationships among some species of Hypoxylon
and related genera. Mycol. Res. 105:670–675.
Merrill, W., French, D. W., and Wood, F. A. 1964. Decay of wood by species of the
Xylariaceae. Phytopathology 54:56–58.
Miller, J. H. 1961. A monograph of the world species of Hypoxylon. Univ. Ga. Press, Athens.
158 pp.
Whalley, A. J. S. 1996. The xylariaceous way of life. Mycol. Res. 100:897–922.
-----------------Biscogniauxia (Hypoxylon) diebacks of oaks
Arsdel, E. P. Van 1972. Some cankers on oaks in Texas. Plant Dis. Rep. 56:300–304.
Bassett, E. N., and Fenn, P. 1984. Latent colonization and pathogenicity of Hypoxylon
atropunctatum on oaks. Plant Dis. 68:317–319.
Biocca, M., and Motta, E. 1995. Aspects of latency of Hypoxylon mediterraneum in declining
Turkey oaks (Quercus cerris). Petria 5:171–175.
Chun, S., Fenn, P., and Kim, K. 1999. Characterization of chitinase in oak tissues and changes in
its activity related to water stress and inoculation with Hypoxylon atropunctatum. Plant
Pathol. J. 15:144–151.
Collado, J., Platas, G., and Pelaez, F. 2001. Identification of an endophytic Nodulisporium sp.
from Quercus ilex in central Spain as the anamorph of Biscogniauxia mediterranea by rDNA
sequence analysis and effect of different ecological factors on distribution of the fungus.
Mycologia 93:875–886.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Ju, Y.-M., and Rogers, J. D. 1996. A revision of the genus Hypoxylon. APS Press, St. Paul, MN.
365 pp.
109
Ju, Y.-M., Rogers, J. D., Martin, F. S., and Granmo, A. 1998. The genus Biscogniauxia.
Mycotaxon 66:1–98.
Lewis, R. Jr. 1981. Hypoxylon spp., Ganoderma lucidum, and Agrilus bilineatus in association
with drought related oak mortality in the South. (Abstr.) Phytopathology 71:890.
Luque, J., Parlade, J., and Pera, J. 2000. Pathogenicity of fungi isolated from Quercus suber in
Catalonia (NE Spain). For. Pathol. 30:247–263.
Miller, J. H. 1928. Biologic studies in the Sphaeriales—II. Mycologia 20:305–339.
Miller, J. H. 1961. A monograph of the world species of Hypoxylon. Univ. Ga. Press, Athens.
158 pp.
Tainter, F. H., Williams, T. M., and Cody, J. B. 1983. Drought as a cause of oak decline and
death on the South Carolina coast. Plant Dis. 67:195–197.
Thompson, G. E. 1963. Decay of oaks caused by Hypoxylon atropunctatum. Plant Dis. Rep.
47:202–205.
Vannini, A., Biocca, M., and Paparatti, B. 1996. Contribution to the knowledge of the biological
cycle of Hypoxylon mediterraneum on Quercus cerris. Inf. Fitopatol. 46:53–55.
Vannini, A., Paganini, R., and Anselmi, N. 1996. Factors affecting discharge and germination of
ascospores of Hypoxylon mediterraneum (De Not.) Mill. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 26:12–24.
Vannini, A., and Valentini, R. 1994. Influence of water relations on Quercus cerris–Hypoxylon
mediterraneum interaction: a model of drought-induced susceptibility to a weakness parasite.
Tree Physiol. 14:129–139.
Vannini, A., Valentini, R., and Luisi, N. 1996. Impact of drought and Hypoxylon mediterraneum
on oak decline in the Mediterranean region. Ann. Sci. For. 53:753–760.
Whalley, A. J. S. 1996. The xylariaceous way of life. Mycol. Res. 100:897–922.
Wargo, P. M. 1996. Consequences of environmental stress on oak: predisposition to pathogens.
Ann. Sci. For. 53:359–368.
-----------------Biscogniauxia cankers and diebacks, continued, Plate 100, page 201
Blister canker
Anderson, H. W. 1922. Orchard practice for the control of blister canker of apple trees. Ill.
Agric. Exp. Stn. Circ. 258. 16 pp.
Anderson, H. W. 1930. Experiments with blister canker of apple trees. Ill. Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull.
340:55–90.
Callan, B. E., and Rogers, J. D. 1986. Cultural characters and anamorphs of Biscogniauxia
marginata, Biscogniauxia dennisii, and Biscogniauxia repanda. Can. J. Bot. 64:842–847.
Cooper, J. R. 1917. Studies of the etiology and control of blister canker on apple trees. Nebr.
Agric. Exp. Stn. Res. Bull. 12. 117 pp.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
Gloyer, W. O. 1921. Blister canker of apple and its control. N.Y. Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull. 485. 100
pp.
Jong, S. C., and Benjamin, C. R. 1971. North American species of Nummularia. Mycologia
63:862–876.
110
Ju, Y., Rogers, J. D., Martin, F. S., and Granmo, A. 1998. The genus Biscogniauxia. Mycotaxon
66:1–98.
Whalley, A. J. S., and Edwards, R. L. 1985. Nummulariella marginata: its conidial state,
secondary metabolites and taxonomic relationships. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 85:385–390.
Camillea- and Hypoxylon-associated cankers and dieback, Plate 101, page 203
Barnett, H. L. 1957. Hypoxylon punctulatum and its conidial stage on dead oak trees and in
culture. Mycologia 49:588–595.
Davis, T. C. 1966. Appraisal of Hypoxylon punctulatum as a biological control agent of
Ceratocystis fagacearum in oak-wilt trees. Phytopathology 56:772–775.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Filer, T. H., Solomon, J. D., McCracken, F. I., Oliveria, F. L., Lewis, R. Jr., Weiss, M. J., and
Rogers, T. J. 1977. Sycamore pests: a guide to major insects, diseases, and air pollution.
USDA For. Serv. Southeast. Area, State & Priv. For., South. For. Exp. Stn. 36 pp.
Gonsález, F. S. M., and Rogers, J. D. 1993. Biscogniauxia and Camillea in Mexico. Mycotaxon
46:229–258.
Jong, S. C., and Rogers, J. D. 1972. Illustrations and descriptions of conidial states of some
Hypoxylon species. Wash. Agric. Exp. Stn. Tech. Bull. 71. 51 pp.
Ju, Y.-M., and Rogers, J. D. 1996. A revision of the genus Hypoxylon. APS Press, St. Paul, MN.
365 pp.
Laessøe, T., Rogers, J. D., and Whalley, A. J. S. 1989. Camillea, Jongiella and light-spored
species of Hypoxylon. Mycol. Res. 93:121–155.
McAlpine, R. G. 1961. Hypoxylon tinctor associated with a canker on American sycamore trees
in Georgia. Plant Dis. Rep. 45:196–198.
Merrill, W., French, D. W., and Wood, F. A. 1964. Decay of wood by species of the
Xylariaceae. Phytopathology 54:56–58.
Miller, J. H. 1961. A monograph of the world species of Hypoxylon. Univ. Ga. Press, Athens.
158 pp.
Roncadori, R. S. 1962. The nutritional competition between Hypoxylon punctulatum and
Ceratocystis fagacearum. Phytopathology 52:498–502.
Whalley, A. J. S. 1996. The xylariaceous way of life. Mycol. Res. 100:897–922.
-----------------Basal canker and butt rot caused by Kretzschmaria deusta, Plate 102, page 205
Campbell, W. A., and Davidson, R. W. 1940. Ustulina vulgaris decay in sugar maple and other
hardwoods. J. For. 38:474–477.
Greig, B. J. W. 1989. Decay in an avenue of horse chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum L.) caused
by Ustulina deusta. Arboric. J. 13:1–6.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Jong, S. C., and Rogers, J. D. 1972. Illustrations and descriptions of conidial states of some
Hypoxylon species. Wash. Agric. Exp. Stn. Tech. Bull. 71. 51 pp.
Ko, W. H., Kunimoto, R. K., and Maedo, I. 1977. Root decay caused by Kretzschmaria clavus:
its relation to macadamia decline. Phytopathology 67:18–21.
111
Miller, J. H. 1961. A monograph of the world species of Hypoxylon. Univ. Ga. Press, Athens.
158 pp.
Nilsson, T., Daniel, G., Kirk, T. K., and Obst, J. R. 1989. Chemistry and microscopy of wood
decay by some higher ascomycetes. Holzforschung 43:11–18.
Pearce, R. B. 1991. Reaction zone relics and the dynamics of fungal spread in the xylem of
woody angiosperms. Physiol. Mol. Plant Pathol. 39:41–55.
Pearce, R. B., Sumer, S., Doran, S. J., Carpenter, T. A., and Hall, L. D. 1994. Non-invasive
imaging of fungal colonization and host response in the living sapwood of sycamore (Acer
pseudoplatanus L.) using nuclear magnetic resonance. Physiol. Mol. Plant Pathol. 45:359–
384.
Prljincević, M. B. 1982. Economic significance of the infection of beech forests by Hypoxylon
deustum (Hoffm. et Fr.) Grev. at Šara mountain. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 12:7–10.
Rogers, J. D., and Ju, Y. 1998. The genus Kretzschmaria. Mycotaxon 68:345–393.
Schwarze, F. 2001. Development and prognosis of decay in the sapwood of living trees. Arboric.
J. 25:321–337.
Schwarze, F. W. M. R., Engels, J., and Mattheck, C. 2000. Fungal strategies of wood decay in
trees. English trans. W. Linnard, of Holzzersetzende Pilze in Bäumen: Strategien der
Holzzersetzung. Springer, Berlin, New York. 185 pp.
Whalley, A. J. S. 1996. The xylariaceous way of life. Mycol. Res. 100:897–922.
Wilkins, W. H. 1933–1939. Studies in the genus Ustulina with special reference to parasitism.
Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 18:320–346; 20:133–156; 22:47–93; 23:65–85, 171–185.
-----------------Sooty-bark canker of aspen and poplar, Plate 103, page 207
Davidson, R. W., and Cash, E. K. 1956. A Cenangium associated with sooty-bark canker of
aspen. Phytopathology 46:34–36.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Hinds, T. E. 1962. Inoculations with the sooty-bark canker fungus on aspen. Plant Dis. Rep.
46:57–58.
Hinds, T. E. 1985. Diseases. Pages 87–106 in: Aspen: ecology and management in the western
United States. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-119. 283 pp.
Hinds, T. E., and Ryan, M. G. 1985. Expansion of sooty-bark and Ceratocystis cankers on aspen.
Plant Dis. 69:842–844.
Johnson, D. W., Beatty, J. S., and Hinds, T. E. 1995. Cankers on western quaking aspen. USDA
For. Serv. For. Insect Dis. Leafl. 152. Internet pub.
Juzwik, J., French, D. W., and Hinds, T. E. 1986. Encoelia pruinosa on Populus tremuloides in
Minnesota: occurrence, pathogenicity, and comparison with Colorado isolates. Can. J. Bot.
64:2728–2731.
Juzwik, J., and Hinds, T. E. 1984. Ascospore germination, mycelial growth, and microconidial
anamorphs of Encoelia pruinosa in culture. Can. J. Bot. 62:1916–1919.
Juzwik, J., Nishijima, W. T., and Hinds, T. E. 1978. Survey of aspen cankers in Colorado. Plant
Dis. Rep. 62:906–910.
Seaver, F. J. 1951. The North American cup-fungi (inoperculates). Published by the author, New
York. 428 pp.
Torkelsen, A.-E., and Eckblad, F.-E. 1977. Encoelioidae (Ascomycetes) of Norway. Norweg. J.
112
Bot. 24:133–149.
Walters, J. W., Hinds, T. E., Johnson, D. W., and Beatty, J. 1982. Effects of partial cutting on
diseases, mortality, and regeneration of Rocky Mountain aspen stands. USDA For. Serv.
Res. Pap. RM-240. 12 pp.
-----------------Cenangium dieback of pines, Plate 104, page 209
Cash, E. K., and Davidson, R. W. 1940. Some new species of ascomycetes on coniferous hosts.
Mycologia 32:728–735.
Conners, I. L. 1967. An annotated index of plant diseases in Canada. Can. Dep. Agric. Pub.
1251. 381 pp.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Funk, A. 1981. Parasitic microfungi of western trees. Can. For. Serv. Pac. For. Res. Cent. BC-X222. 190 pp.
Hanlin, R. T., Jimenez, B., Chang, L. H., and Brown, E. A. 1992. Crumenulopsis atropurpurea
comb. nov., from Japanese red pine in Georgia. Mycologia 84:650–658.
Hata, K., Futai, K., and Tsuda, M. 1998. Seasonal and needle age–dependent changes of the
endophytic mycobiota in Pinus thunbergii and Pinus densiflora needles. Can. J. Bot. 76:245–
250.
Helander, M. L., Sieber, T. N., Petrini, O., and Neuvonen, S. 1994. Endophytic fungi in Scots
pine needles: spatial variation and consequences of simulated acid rain. Can. J. Bot.
72:1108–1113.
Huo, Y. L., and Li, G. W. 1990. Investigations on decline and death of Pinus densiflora in the
Yantai region, Shandong Province. For. Pest Dis. 3:21–22.
Jung, J., Lee, S., and Lee, J. 2001. Comparison of Cenangium dieback fungus isolated from three
different species of pine. Plant Pathol. J. 17:216–221.
Kobayashi, T., and Mamiya, Y. 1963. A Cenangium causing dieback of Japanese pines. Bull.
Gov. For. Exp. Stn., Tokyo 161:123–150.
Laflamme, G., Bérubé, J. A., and Hamelin, R. C., eds. 1998. Foliage, shoot, and stem diseases of
trees. Can. For. Serv. Laurentian For. Cent. Inf. Rep. LAU-X-122. 272 pp.
Lee, S., Jung, J. H., and Lee, J. K. 1998. Cultural characteristics and pathogenicity test of a dieback fungus, Cenangium ferruginosum, isolated from Pinus koraiensis. J. Korean For. Soc.
87:557–561.
Long, W. H. 1924. The self pruning of western yellow pine. Phytopathology 14:336–337.
McKenzie, H. L., Gill, L. S., and Ellis, D. E. 1948. The Prescott scale (Matsucoccus vexillorum)
and associated organisms that cause flagging injury to ponderosa pine in the Southwest. J.
Agric. Res. 76:33–51.
Rack, K., and Scheidemann, U. 1987. On the succession and pathogenic properties of fungi
inhabiting pine needles. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 17:102–109.
Sieber, T. N., Rys, J., and Holdenrieder, O. 1999. Mycobiota in symptomless needles of Pinus
mugo ssp. uncinata. Mycol. Res. 103:306–310.
Sinclair, W. A., and Hudler, G. W. 1980. Tree and shrub pathogens new or noteworthy in New
York State. Plant Dis. 64:590–592.
113
Smerlis, E. 1973. Pathogenicity tests of some discomycetes occurring on conifers. Can. J. For.
Res. 3:7–16.
Torkelsen, A.-E., and Eckblad, F.-E. 1977. Encoelioidae (Ascomycetes) of Norway. Norweg. J.
Bot. 24:133–149.
Weir, J. R. 1921. Note on Cenangium abietis (Pers.) Rehm on Pinus ponderosa Laws.
Phytopathology 11:166–170.
-----------------Scleroderris canker of conifers, Plate 105, page 211
Barklund, P., Livsey, S., Karlman, M., and Stephan, R., eds. 1993. Shoot diseases of conifers.
Proceedings of an international symposium, Garpenberg, Sweden. June 1991. Swedish Univ.
Agric. Sci., Uppsala. 175 pp.
Barklund, P., and Unestam, T. 1988. Infection experiments with Gremmeniella abietina on
seedlings of Norway spruce and Scots pine. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 18:409–420.
Bernier, L., Hamelin, R. C., and Ouellette, G. B. 1994. Comparison of ribosomal DNA length
and restriction site polymorphisms in Gremmeniella and Ascocalyx isolates. Appl. Environ.
Microbiol. 60:1279–1286.
Capretti, P., Heiniger, U., and Stephan, R., eds. 1995. Shoot and foliage diseases in forest trees.
IUFRO Proceedings. Vallombrosa, Firenze, Italy, 1994. Inst. Patol. Zool. For. Agrar., Univ.
Studi di Firenze, Italy. 309 pp.
Donaubauer, E., and Stephen, B. R., eds. 1988. Recent research on Scleroderris canker of
conifers. IUFRO Proc., Salzburg, Austria, and Ljubljana, Yugoslavia, 1986. 167 pp.
Dorworth, C. E. 1972. Epidemiology of Scleroderris lagerbergii in central Ontario. Can. J. Bot.
50:751–765.
Dorworth, C. E. 1981. Status of pathogenic and physiologic races of Gremmeniella abietina.
Plant Dis. 65:927–931.
Dusabenyagasani, M., Lecours, N., and Hamelin, R. C. 1998. Sequence-tagged sites (STS) for
studies of molecular epidemiology of Scleroderris canker of conifers. Theor. Appl. Genet.
97:789–796.
Funk, A. 1981. Parasitic microfungi of western trees. Can. For. Serv. Pac. For. Res. Cent. BC-X222. 190 pp.
Hamelin, R. C., Lecours, N., Hansson, P., Hellgren, M., and Laflamme, G. 1996. Genetic
differentiation within the European race of Gremmeniella abietina. Mycol. Res. 100:49–56.
Hamelin, R. C., and Rail, J. 1997. Phylogeny of Gremmeniella spp. based on sequences of the
5.8S rDNA and internal transcribed spacer region. Can. J. Bot. 75:693–698.
Hellgren, M., and Barklund, P. 1992. Studies of the life cycle of Gremmeniella abietina on Scots
pine in southern Sweden. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 22:300–311.
Hellgren, M., and Hogberg, N. 1995. Ecotypic variation of Gremmeniella abietina in northern
Europe: disease patterns reflected by DNA variation. Can. J. Bot. 73:1531–1539.
Hiratsuka, Y., Langor, D. W., and Crane, P. E. 1995. Forest insects and diseases of the prairie
provinces. Can. For. Serv. North. For. Cent. Spec. Rep. 3. 297 pp.
Hudler, G. W., Knudsen, G. R., and Beale, M. A. 1983. Dose-response relationships of five
conifers to infection by conidia of Gremmeniella abietina. Plant Dis. 67:192–194.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
114
Kaitera, J., Hantula, J., and Jalkanen, R. 1997. Development of fruiting bodies of large tree type
of Gremmeniella abietina var. abietina and timing of infection on Scots pine in northern
Finland. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 27:115–124.
Laflamme, G., Bérubé, J. A., and Hamelin, R. C., eds. 1998. Foliage, shoot, and stem diseases of
trees. Can. For. Serv. Laurentian For. Cent. Inf. Rep. LAU-X-122. 272 pp.
Laflamme, G., and Blais, R. 2000. Resistance of Pinus banksiana to the European race of
Gremmeniella abietina. Phytoprotection 81:49–55.
Laflamme, G., Hopkin, A. A., and Harrison, K. J. 1998. Status of the European race of
Scleroderris canker in Canada. For. Chron. 74:561–566.
Laflamme, G., Ylimartimo, A., and Blais, R. 1996. Host preference of two Gremmeniella
abietina varieties on balsam fir, jack pine, and black spruce in eastern Canada. Can. J. Plant
Pathol. 18:330–334.
Lang, K. J., and Schütt, P. 1974. Anatomische Untersuchungen zur Infektionsbiologie von
Scleroderris lagerbergii Gr. [Brunchorstia pinea (Karst.) von Höhn]. Eur. J. For. Pathol.
4:166–174.
Manion, P. D., ed. 1984. Scleroderris canker of conifers. Martinus Nijhoff/W. Junk, The Hague.
273 pp.
Marosy, M., Patton, R. F., and Upper, C. D. 1989. A conducive day concept to explain the effect
of low temperature on the development of Scleroderris shoot blight. Phytopathology
79:1293–1301.
Patton, R. F., Spear, R. N., and Blenis, P. V. 1984. The mode of infection and early stages of
colonization of pines by Gremmeniella abietina. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 14:193–202.
Petäistö, R. L., and Kurkela, T. 1993. The susceptibility of Scots pine seedlings to Gremmeniella
abietina: effect of growth phase, cold and drought stress. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 23:385–399.
Petäistö, R. L., and Laine, A. 1999. Effects of winter storage temperature and age of Pinus
sylvestris seedlings on the occurrence of disease induced by Gremmeniella abietina. Scand.
J. For. Res. 14:227–233.
Petrini, O., Petrini, L., Laflamme, G., and Ouellette, G. B. 1989. Taxonomic position of
Gremmeniella abietina and related species: a reappraisal. Can. J. Bot. 67:2805–2814.
Simard, M., Rioux, D., and Laflamme, G. 2001. Formation of ligno-suberized tissues in jack
pine resistant to the European race of Gremmeniella abietina. Phytopathology 91:1128–
1140.
Skilling, D. D., Schneider, B., and Fasking, D. 1986. Biology and control of Scleroderris canker
in North America. USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. NC-275. 18 pp.
Terho, M., and Uotila, A. 1999. Virulence of two Finnish Gremmeniella abietina types (A and
B). Eur. J. For. Pathol. 29:143–152.
Uotila, A. 1992. Mating system and apothecia production in Gremmeniella abietina. Eur. J. For.
Pathol. 22:410–417.
Uotila, A., Hantula, J., Vaatanen, A. K., and Hamelin, R. C. 2000. Hybridization between two
biotypes of Gremmeniella abietina var. abietina in artificial pairings. For. Pathol. 30:211–
219.
Yakota, S. 1975. Scleroderris canker of Todo-fir in Hokkaido, northern Japan. III. Dormant
infection of the causal fungus. IV. An analysis of climatic data associated with the outbreak.
Eur. J. For. Pathol. 5:7–12, 13–21.
Yakota, S., Uozumi, T., and Matsuzaki, S. 1974. Scleroderris canker of Todo-fir in Hokkaido,
northern Japan. I. Present status of damage and features of infected plantations. II.
115
Physiological and pathological characteristics of the causal fungus. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 4:65–
74, 155–166.
Ylimartimo, A., Laflamme, G., Simard, M., and Rioux, D. 1997. Ultrastructure and
cytochemistry of early stages of colonization by Gremmeniella abietina in Pinus resinosa
seedlings. Can. J. Bot. 75:1119–1132.
-----------------Atropellis cankers of pines, Plate 106, page 213
Baranyay, J. A., Szabo, T., and Hunt, K. 1973. Effect of Atropellis canker on growth and
utilization of lodgepole pine. Can. For. Serv. Pac. For. Res. Cent., Inf. Rep. BC-X-86. 22 pp.
Boyce, J. S. 1961. Forest pathology. 3rd ed. McGraw-Hill, New York. 572 pp.
Diller, J. D. 1943. A canker of eastern pines associated with Atropellis tingens. J. For. 41:41–52.
Funk, A. 1981. Parasitic microfungi of western trees. Can. For. Serv. Pac. For. Res. Cent. BC-X222. 190 pp.
Hepting, G. H. 1971. Diseases of forest and shade trees of the United States. USDA Agric.
Handb. 386. 658 pp.
Hiratsuka, Y. 1987. Forest tree diseases of the prairie provinces. Can. For. Serv. Inf. Rep. NorX-286. 142 pp.
Hopkins, J. C. 1963. Atropellis canker of lodgepole pine: etiology, symptoms, and canker
development rates. Can. J. Bot. 41:1535–1545.
Kamp, B. J. van der 1994. Lodgepole pine stem diseases and management of stand density in the
British Columbia interior. For. Chron. 70:773–779.
Lohman, M. L., and Cash, E. K. 1940. Atropellis species from pine cankers in the United States.
J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 30:255–262.
Lohman, M. L., Cash, E. K., and Davidson, R. W. 1942. An undescribed Atropellis on cankered
Pinus virginiana. J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 32:296–298.
Nevill, R. J., Merler, H., and Borden, J. H. 1989. Reduced volume, grade and value of lodgepole
pine lumber caused by Atropellis canker and stalactiform blister rust. For. Chron. 65:36–41.
Reid, J., and Funk, A. 1966. The genus Atropellis and a new genus of the Helotiales associated
with branch cankers of western hemlock. Mycologia 58:417–439.
Stanek, W., Hopkins, J. C., and Simmons, C. S. 1986. Effects of spacing in lodgepole pine
stands on incidence of Atropellis canker. For. Chron. 62:91–95.
Weir, J. R. 1921. Cenangium piniphilum n. sp., an undescribed canker-forming fungus on Pinus
ponderosa and P. contorta. Phytopathology 11:294–296.
-----------------Lachnellula cankers of conifers and Strumella canker of hardwoods, Plate 107, page 215
Lachnellula cankers of conifers
Baldwin, H. I., Boyce, J. S., Brown, R. C., Cline, A. C., Filley, W. O., Reynolds, H. A., and
Turner, G. W. C., eds. 1940. Important tree pests of the Northeast. Mass. For. Park Assoc.,
Boston. 194 pp.
Blanchette, J.-Y. 2001. Microscopic observations of the early stages of the infection process by
Lachnellula willkommii (Hartig) Dennis artificially inoculated on larch (Larix laricina (Du
Roi) K. Koch) seedlings. Ph.D. diss., Univ. New Brunswick, Fredericton. 94 pp.
Buczaki, S. T. 1973. A microecological approach to larch canker biology. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc.
61:315–329.
116
Buczaki, S. T. 1973. Some factors governing mycelial establishment and lesion extension in the
larch canker disease. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 3:39–49.
Dharne, C. G. 1965. Taxonomic investigations on the discomycetous genus Lachnellula Karst.
Phytopathol. Z. 53:101–144.
Funk, A. 1981. Parasitic microfungi of western trees. Can. For. Serv. Pac. For. Res. Cent. BC-X222. 190 pp.
Hahn, G. G., and Ayers, T. T. 1934. Dasyscyphae on conifers in North America. I. The largespored, white-excipled species. Mycologia 26:73–101.
Hahn, G. G., and Ayers, T. T. 1943. Role of Dasyscypha willkommii and related fungi in the
production of canker and die-back of larches. J. For. 41:483–495.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Ito, K., Zinno, Y., and Kobayashi, T. 1963. Larch canker in Japan. Bull. Gov. For. Exp. Stn.,
Tokyo 155:25–47.
Magasi, L. P., ed. 1983. Proceedings of European larch canker workshop. Can. For. Serv.
Maritimes For. Res. Cent. MFRC Workshop Proc. No. 3. 46 pp.
Magasi, L. P., and Pond, S. E. 1982. European larch canker: a new disease in Canada and a new
North American host record. Plant Dis. 66:339.
Manners, J. G. 1957. Studies on larch canker. II. The incidence and anatomy of cankers
produced experimentally either by inoculation or by freezing. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc.
40:500–508.
Ostaff, D. P. 1985. Age distribution of European larch canker in New Brunswick. Plant Dis.
69:796–798.
Paques, L. E., Sylvestre-Guinot, G., and Delatour, C. 1999. Genetic variation among clones of
Larix decidua polonica for resistance to Lachnellula willkommii. Ann. For. Sci. 56:155–166.
Phillips, D. H., and Burdekin, D. A. 1982. Diseases of forest and ornamental trees. Macmillan,
London. 435 pp.
Smerlis, E. 1973. Pathogenicity tests of some discomycetes occurring on conifers. Can. J. For.
Res. 3:7–16.
Sylvestre-Guinot, G. 1981. Étude de l'émission des ascospores du Lachnellula willkommii
(Hartig) Dennis dans l'Est de la France. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 11:275–283.
Sylvestre-Guinot, G. 1986. Study of the infection sites of Lachnellula willkommii on Larix
decidua. Ann. Sci. For. 43:199–206.
Sylvestre-Guinot, G., Paques, L., and Delatour, C. 1994. An inoculation method for early
assessment of the behaviour of larch towards Lachnellula willkommii. Eur. J. For. Pathol.
24:160–170.
Sylvestre-Guinot, G., Paques, L. E., and Delatour, C. 1999. Hybrid larch resistance to
Lachnellula willkommii. Ann. Sci. For. 56:485–492.
Working Group on International Cooperation in Forest Disease Research, IUFRO Sect. 24,
Forest Protection. 1963. Internationally dangerous forest tree diseases. USDA Misc. Pub.
939. 122 pp.
Yde-Andersen, A. 1979. Host spectrum, host morphology, and geographic distribution of larch
canker, Lachnellula willkommii. A literature review. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 9:211–219.
Yde-Anderson, A. 1979. Disease symptoms, taxonomy, and morphology of Lachnellula
willkommii. A literature review. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 9:220–228.
117
Yde-Anderson, A. 1979. Lachnellula willkommii—canker formation and the role of microflora.
A literature review. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 9:347–355.
Yde-Andersen, A. 1980. Infection process and the influence of frost damage in Lachnellula
willkommii. A literature review. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 10:28–36.
-----------------Strumella canker of hardwoods
Baldwin, H. I., Boyce, J. S., Brown, R. C., Cline, A. C., Filley, W. O., Reynolds, H. A., and
Turner, G. W. C., eds. 1940. Important tree pests of the Northeast. Massachusetts Forest and
Park Association, Boston. 194 pp.
Bidwell, C. B., and Bramble, W. C. 1934. The Strumella disease in southern Connecticut. J. For.
32:15–23.
Boyce, J. S. 1961. Forest pathology. 3rd ed. McGraw-Hill, New York. 572 pp.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
Heald, F. D., and Studhalter, R. A. 1914. The Strumella disease of oak and chestnut trees. Penn.
Dep. For. Bull. 10. 15 pp.
Houston, D. R. 1963. Inoculation of oaks with Urnula craterium (Schw.) Fr. produces cankers
identical to Strumella cankers. Plant Dis. Rep. 47:867–869.
Hughes, S. J. 1958. Revisiones hyphomycetum aliquot cum appendice de nominibus rejiciendis.
Can. J. Bot. 36:727–836.
Hughes, S. J. 1960. Microfungi V. Conoplea Pers. and Exosporium Link. Can. J. Bot. 38:659–
696.
Kistler, B. R., and Merrill, W. 1968. Effects of Strumella coryneoidea on oak sapwood.
Phytopathology 58:1429–1430.
Wolf, F. A. 1958. Mechanism of apothecial opening and ascospore expulsion by the cup-fungus
Urnula craterium. Mycologia 50:837–843.
Working Group on International Cooperation in Forest Disease Research, IUFRO Sect. 24,
Forest Protection. 1963. Internationally dangerous forest tree diseases. USDA Misc. Pub.
939. 122 pp.
-----------------Charcoal root rot and Fusarium root rots, Plate 108, page 217
Charcoal root rot
Collins, D. J., Wyllie, T. D., and Anderson, S. H. 1991. Biological activity of Macrophomina
phaseolina in soil. Soil Biol. Biochem. 23:495–496.
Cordell, C. E., Anderson, R. L., Hoffard, W. H., Landis, T. D., Smith, R. S. Jr., and Toko, H. V.,
tech. coords. 1989. Forest nursery pests. USDA Agric. Handb. 680. 184 pp.
Dhingra, O. D., and Chagas, D. 1981. Effect of soil temperature, moisture, and nitrogen on
competitive saprophytic ability of Macrophomina phaseolina. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 77:15–
20.
Dhingra, O. D., and Sinclair, J. B. 1977. An annotated bibliography of Macrophomina
phaseolina, 1905–1975. Univ. Federal de Viçosa, Viçosa, Brazil; and Univ. Ill., Urbana. 244
pp.
118
Dhingra, O. D., and Sinclair, J. B. 1978. Biology and pathology of Macrophomina phaseolina.
Impresna Universitaria Univ. Federal de Viçosa, Viçosa, Brazil. 166 pp.
Filho, E. S., and Dhingra, O. D. 1980. Survival of Macrophomina phaseolina sclerotia in
nitrogen amended soils. Phytopathol. Z. 97:136–143.
Hodges, C. S. Jr. 1962. Black root rot of pine seedlings. Phytopathology 52:210–219.
Hodges, C. S. Jr. 1963. Black root rot of pine. Phytopathology 53:1131–1134.
Madar, Z., and Reuveni, R. 1988. Mortality of Cedrus seedlings caused by the fungus
Macrophomina phaseolina. Hassadeh 68:1808–1809.
McCain, A. H., and Scharpf, R. F. 1989. Effect of inoculum density of Macrophomina
phaseolina on seedling susceptibility of six conifer species. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 19:119–123.
Mihail, J. D., Orum, T. V., Alcorn, S. M., and Stroehlein, J. L. 1989. Macrophomina phaseolina
in the Sonoran Desert. Can. J. Bot. 67:76–82.
Muhammad, I. K., Muhammad, A. K., and Sultan, M. K. 1999. Effect of soil solarization on
sclerotial viability of Macrophomina phaseolina (Tassi) Goid. Pakistan J. Phytopathol.
11:156–158.
Olaya, G., and Abawi, G. S. 1996. Effect of water potential on mycelial growth and on
production and germination of sclerotia of Macrophomina phaseolina. Plant Dis. 80:1347–
1350.
Rowan, S. J. 1960. The susceptibility of twenty-three tree species to black root rot. Plant Dis.
Rep. 44:646–647.
Seymour, C. P. 1969. Charcoal rot of nursery-grown pines in Florida. Phytopathology 59:89–92.
Sheikh, A. H., and Ghaffar, A. 1987. Time-temperature relationships for the inactivation of
sclerotia of Macrophomina phaseolina. Soil Biol. Biochem. 19:313–315.
Smith, R. S. Jr. 1966. Effect of diurnal temperature fluctuations on the charcoal root disease of
Pinus lambertiana. Phytopathology 56:61–64.
Smits, B. G., and Noguera, R. 1988. The ontogeny and morphogenesis of sclerotia and pycnidia
of Macrophomina phaseolina. Agron. Trop. 1988(4–6):69–78.
-----------------Fusarium root rots
Asiegbu, F. O., Johansson, M., and Daniel, G. 1997. Cytopathological responses of Picea abies
seedling roots challenged in vitro by a necrotrophic Fusarium avenaceum (Fr.) Sacc. J.
Phytopathol. 145:239–244.
Asiegbu, F. O., Kacprzak, M., Daniel, G., Johansson, M., Stenlid, J., and Manka, M. 1999.
Biochemical interactions of conifer seedling roots with Fusarium spp. Can. J. Microbiol.
45:923–935.
Axelrood, P. E., Chapman, W. K., Seifert, K. A., Trotter, D. B., and Shrimpton, G. 1998.
Cylindrocarpon and Fusarium root colonization of Douglas-fir seedlings from British
Columbia reforestation sites. Can. J. For. Res. 28:1198–1206.
Bloomberg, W. J. 1971. Diseases of Douglas-fir seedlings caused by Fusarium oxysporum.
Phytopathology 61:467–470.
Bloomberg, W. J. 1973. Fusarium root rot of Douglas-fir seedlings. Phytopathology 63:337–341.
Bloomberg, W. J., and Lock, W. 1972. Strain differences in Fusarium oxysporum causing
diseases of Douglas-fir seedlings. Phytopathology 62:481–485.
Booth, C. 1971. The genus Fusarium. Commonw. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK. 237 pp.
119
Brownell, K. H., and Schneider, R. W. 1983. Fusarium hypocotyl rot of sugar pine in California
forest nurseries. Plant Dis. 67:105–107.
Chakravarty, P., and Hwang, S. F. 1991. Effect of an ectomycorrhizal fungus, Laccaria laccata,
on Fusarium damping-off in Pinus banksiana seedlings. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 21:97–106.
Chakravarty, P., Khasa, D., Dancik, B., Sigler, L., Wichlacz, M., Trifonov, L. S., and Ayer, W.
A. 1999. Integrated control of Fusarium damping-off in conifer seedlings. Z. Pflanzenkr.
Pflanzenschutz 106:342–352.
Cordell, C. E., Anderson, R. L., Hoffard, W. H., Landis, T. D., Smith, R. S. Jr., and Toko, H. V.,
tech. coords. 1989. Forest nursery pests. USDA Agric. Handb. 680. 184 pp.
Duchesne, L. C., Peterson, R. L., and Ellis, B. E. 1989. The time-course of disease suppression
and antibiosis by the ectomycorrhizal fungus Paxillus involutus. New Phytol. 111:693–698.
Edel, V., Steinberg, C., Gautheron, N., and Alabouvette, C. 2000. Ribosomal DNA-targeted
oligonucleotide probe and PCR assay specific for Fusarium oxysporum. Mycol. Res.
104:518–526.
Farquhar, M. L., and Peterson, R. L. 1989. Pathogenesis in Fusarium root rot of primary roots of
Pinus resinosa grown in test tubes. Can. J. Plant Pathol. 11:221–228.
Graham, J. H., and Linderman, R. G. 1983. Pathogenic seedborne Fusarium oxysporum from
Douglas-fir. Plant Dis. 67:323–325.
Hansen, E. M., and Hamm, P. B. 1988. Canker diseases of Douglas-fir seedlings in Oregon and
Washington bareroot nurseries. Can. J. For. Res. 18:1053–1058.
Juzwik, J., Gust, K. M., and Allmaras, R. R. 1999. Influence of cultural practices on edaphic
factors related to root disease in Pinus nursery seedlings. Plant Soil 207:195–208.
Kacprzak, M., Asiegbu, F. O., and Manka, M. 2000. Cell wall lignification in roots of Scots pine,
Norway spruce and European larch seedlings after infection with Rhizoctonia solani and
Fusarium spp. Sylwan 144:105–113.
Kope, H. H., Axelrood, P. E., Sutherland, J., and Reddy, M. S. 1996. Prevalence and incidence
of the root-inhabiting fungi, Fusarium, Cylindrocarpon and Pythium, on container-grown
Douglas-fir and spruce seedlings in British Columbia. New For. 12:55–67.
Merrill, W., McCall, K., and Zang, L. 1981. Fusarium root rot of Douglas-fir and Fraser fir
seedlings in Pennsylvania. Plant Dis. 65:913–914.
Nelson, P. E., Toussoun, T. A., and Cook, R. J., eds. 1981. Fusarium: diseases, biology, and
taxonomy. Penn. State Univ. Press, University Park. 457 pp.
Ocamb, C. M., and Juzwik, J. 1995. Fusarium species associated with rhizosphere soil and
diseased roots of eastern white pine seedlings and associated nursery soil. Can. J. Plant
Pathol. 17:325–330.
O'Donnell, K. 1996. Progress towards a phylogenetic classification of Fusarium. Sydowia
48:57–70.
O'Donnell, K., Cigelnik, E., and Nirenberg, H. I. 1998. Molecular systematics and
phylogeography of the Gibberella fujikuroi species complex. Mycologia 90:465–493.
Rossman, A. Y., Samuels, G. J., Rogerson, C. T. and Lowen, R. 1999. Genera of Bionectriaceae,
Hypocreaceae and Nectriaceae (Hypocreales, Ascomycetes). Stud. Mycol. No. 42. 248 pp.
Salerno, M. I., Gianinazzi, S., and Gianinazzi, P. V. 2000. Effects on growth and comparison of
root tissue colonization patterns of Eucalyptus viminalis by pathogenic and nonpathogenic
strains of Fusarium oxysporum. New Phytol. 146:317–324.
120
Sinclair, W. A., Cowles, D. P., and Hee, S. M. 1975. Fusarium root rot of Douglas-fir seedlings:
suppression by soil fumigation, fertility management, and inoculation with spores of the
fungal symbiont Laccaria laccata. For. Sci. 21:390–399.
Strobel, N. E., and Sinclair, W. A. 1991. Role of flavanolic wall infusions in the resistance
induced by Laccaria bicolor to Fusarium oxysporum in primary roots of Douglas-fir.
Phytopathology 81:420–425.
Summerell, B. A., Leslie, J. F., Backhouse, D., Bryden, W. L., and Burgess, L. W., eds. 2001.
Fusarium: Paul E. Nelson memorial symposium. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 392 pp.
Sutherland, J. R., and Van Eerden, E. 1980. Diseases and insect pests in British Columbia forest
nurseries. B.C. Minist. For., Can. For. Serv. Joint Rep. 12. 55 pp.
-----------------Root rots and blights caused by Cylindrocladium and Cylindrocladiella, Plate 109, page
219
Barnard, E. L. 1984. Occurrence, impact, and fungicidal control of girdling stem cankers caused
by Cylindrocladium scoparium on eucalyptus seedlings in a South Florida nursery. Plant Dis.
68:471–473.
Boesewinkel, H. J. 1982. Cylindrocladiella, a new genus to accommodate Cylindrocladium
parvum and other small-spored species of Cylindrocladium. Can. J. Bot. 60:2288–2294.
Bugbee, W. M., and Anderson, N. A. 1963. Infection of spruce seedlings by Cylindrocladium
scoparium. Phytopathology 53:1267–1271.
Cordell, C. E., Anderson, R. L., Hoffard, W. H., Landis, T. D., Smith, R. S. Jr., and Toko, H. V.,
tech. coords. 1989. Forest nursery pests. USDA Agric. Handb. 680. 184 pp.
Cordell, C. E., and Matuszewski, M. 1974. Cylindrocladium scoparium—damaging black
walnut seedlings in Kentucky nurseries. Plant Dis. Rep. 58:188–189.
Cordell, C. E., and Rowan, S. J. 1975. Cylindrocladium scoparium infection in a natural
sweetgum stand. Plant Dis. Rep. 59:775–776.
Cox, R. S. 1954. Cylindrocladium scoparium on conifer seedlings. Del. Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull.
301 (Tech.). 40 pp.
Crous, P. W. 2002. Taxonomy and pathology of Cylindrocladium (Calonectria) and allied
genera. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 294 pp.
Crous, P. W., and Wingfield, M. J. 1994. A monograph of Cylindrocladium, including
anamorphs of Calonectria. Mycotaxon 51:341–435.
Florida Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services, Division of Plant Industry. 1962–
present. Plant Pathology Circulars 1– .
French, D. W., and Menge, J. A. 1978. Survival of Cylindrocladium floridanum in naturally and
artificially infested forest tree nurseries. Plant Dis. Rep. 62:806–810.
Gill, D. L., Alfieri, S. A. Jr., and Sobers, E. K. 1971. A new leaf disease of Ilex spp. caused by
Cylindrocladium avesiculatum sp. nov. Phytopathology 61:58–60.
Hamelin, R. C., Bérubé, P., Gignac, M., and Bourassa, M. 1996. Identification of root rot fungi
in nursery seedlings by nested multiplex PCR. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 62:4026–4031.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Jones, R. K., and Benson, D. M., eds. 2001. Diseases of woody ornamentals and trees in
nurseries. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 482 pp.
121
Juzwik, J., Honhart, C., and Chong, N. 1988. Cylindrocladium root rot in Ontario bare-root
nurseries: estimate of spruce seedling losses. Can. J. For. Res. 18:1493–1496.
Kelman, A., and Gooding, G. V. Jr. 1965. A root and stem rot of yellow-poplar caused by
Cylindrocladium scoparium. Plant Dis. Rep. 49:797–801.
Kuhlman, E. G., Cordell, C. E., and Filer, T. H. Jr. 1980. Cylindrocladium root rots of sweetgum
seedlings in southern forest tree nurseries. Plant Dis. 64:1079–1080.
Linderman, R. G. 1973. Formation of microsclerotia of Cylindrocladium spp. in infected azalea
leaves, flowers, and roots. Phytopathology 63:187–191.
Linderman, R. G. 1974. Ascospore discharge from perithecia of Calonectria theae, C.
crotalariae, and C. kyotensis. Phytopathology 64:567–569.
Linderman, R. G. 1974. The role of abscised Cylindrocladium-infected azalea leaves in the
epidemiology of Cylindrocladium wilt of azalea. Phytopathology 64:481–485.
Menge, J. A., and French, D. W. 1976. Effect of plant residue amendments and chemical
treatments upon the inoculum potential of Cylindrocladium floridanum in soil.
Phytopathology 66:1085–1089.
Peerally, A. 1991. The classification and phytopathology of Cylindrocladium species.
Mycotaxon 40:323–366.
Polizzi, G. 1996. Myrtaceae, natural hosts of Cylindrocladium scoparium. Inf. Fitopatol. 46:59–
64.
Ross, E. W. 1967. Association of Cylindrocladium scoparium with mortality in a 27-year-old
yellow-poplar plantation. Plant Dis. Rep. 51:38–39.
Rossman, A. Y. 1979. A preliminary account of the taxa described in Calonectria. Mycotaxon
8:485–558.
Saunders, J. E., Juzwik, J., and Hutchison, R. 1992. Outplanting survival of Cylindrocladium
root rot affected black spruce seedlings. Can. J. For. Res. 22:1204–1207.
Schoch, C. L., Crous, P. W., Wingfield, B. D., and Wingfield, M. J. 1999. The Cylindrocladium
candelabrum species complex includes four distinct mating populations. Mycologia 91:286–
298.
Schoch, C. L., Crous, P. W., Wingfield, M. J., and Wingfield, B. D. 2000. Phylogeny of
Calonectria and selected hypocrealean genera with cylindrical macroconidia. Stud. Mycol.
45:45–62.
Schubert, T. S., and El-Gholl, N. E. 1997. Annotated list of valid worldwide
Calonectria/Cylindrocladium spp. Plant Diagos. Q. 18:28–30.
Schubert, T. S., Leahy, R. M., and El-Gholl, N. E. 1999. Cylindrocladium perseae sp. nov.
Mycotaxon 73:465–475.
Sobers, E. K., and Seymour, C. P. 1967. Cylindrocladium floridanum sp. n. associated with
decline of peach trees in Florida. Phytopathology 57:389–393.
Thies, W. G., and Patton, R. F. 1970. The biology and control of Cylindrocladium scoparium in
Wisconsin forest tree nurseries. Phytopathology 60:1662–1668.
Timonin, M. I., and Self, R. L. 1955. Cylindrocladium scoparium Morgan on azaleas and other
ornamentals. Plant Dis. Rep. 39:860–863.
Victor, D., Crous, P. W., Janse, B. J. H., and Wingfield, M. J. 1997. Genetic variation in
Cylindrocladium floridanum and other morphologically similar Cylindrocladium species.
Syst. Appl. Microbiol. 20:268–285.
122
Yang, D., Bernier, L., and Dessureault, M. 1995. Phaeotheca dimorphospora increases
Trichoderma harzianum density in soil and suppresses red pine damping-off caused by
Cylindrocladium scoparium. Can. J. Bot. 73:693–700.
-----------------Phymatotrichum and Thielaviopsis root rots, Plate 110, page 221
Phymatotrichum root rot
Alderman, S. C., and Stowell, L. J. 1986. Strand ontogeny in Phymatotrichum omnivorum.
Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 86:207–211.
Brinkerhoff, L. A., and Streets, R. B. 1946. Pathogenicity and pathological histology of
Phymatotrichum omnivorum (the fungus causing cotton or Texas root rot) in a woody
perennial—the pecan. Ariz. Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull. 111:103–126.
Jimenez, D. F., and Chew, M. Y. 1996. Periods of solarization and their influence on populations
of soil fungi and melon production (Cucumis melo L.). Rev. Mex. Fitopatol. 14:38–47.
Lyda, S. D. 1978. Ecology of Phymatotrichum omnivorum. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 16:193–
209.
Percy, R. G. 1983. Potential range of Phymatotrichum omnivorum as determined by edaphic
factors. Plant Dis. 67:981–983.
Streets, R. B., and Bloss, H. E. 1973. Phymatotrichum root rot. Monogr. 8. Am. Phytopathol.
Soc., St. Paul, MN. 38 pp.
Taubenhaus, J. J., and Ezekiel, W. N. 1936. A rating of plants with reference to their relative
resistance or susceptibility to Phymatotrichum root rot. Tex. Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull. 527. 52
pp.
Watson, W. T., Kenerley, C. M., and Appel, D. N. 2000. Visual and infrared assessment of root
colonization of apple trees by Phymatotrichopsis omnivora. Plant Dis. 84:539–543.
Wright, E., and Wells, H. R. 1948. Tests on the adaptability of trees and shrubs to shelterbelt
planting on certain Phymatotrichum root rot infested soils of Oklahoma and Texas. J. For.
46:256–262.
-----------------Thielaviopsis root rot
Corbaz, R. 1985. Pathotypes et variations du pouvoir pathogène chez Chalara elegans Nag Raj
et Kendrick (=Thielaviopsis basicola). Phytopathol. Z. 113:289–299.
Domsch, K. H., Gams, W., and Anderson, T.-H. 1980. Compendium of soil fungi. Vols. 1, 2.
Academic Press, London. 859 and 405 pp.
Frisullo, S., Bruno, G., and Sparapano, L. 1999. A foot and root rot of young olive trees caused
by Thielaviopsis basicola. Petria 9:249–257.
Graham, J. H., and Timmer, N. H. 1991. Peat-based media as a source of Thielaviopsis basicola
causing black root rot on citrus seedlings. Plant Dis. 75:1246–1249.
Hood, M. E., and Shew, H. D. 1997. Initial cellular interactions between Thielaviopsis basicola
and tobacco root hairs. Phytopathology 87:228–235.
Hood, M. E., and Shew, H. D. 1997. Reassessment of the role of saprophytic activity in the
ecology of Thielaviopsis basicola. Phytopathology 87:1214–1219.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
123
Lambe, R. C., and Wills, W. H. 1978. Pathogenicity of Thielaviopsis basicola to Japanese holly
(Ilex crenata). Plant Dis. Rep. 62:859–863.
Lambe, R. C., and Wills, W. H. 1980. Distribution of dieback associated with Thielaviopsis
black root rot of Japanese holly. Plant Dis. 64:956.
Meyer, J. R., Shew, H. D., and Harrison, U. J. 1994. Inhibition of germination and growth of
Thielaviopsis basicola by aluminum. Phytopathology 84:598–602.
Mims, C. W., Copes, W. E., and Richardson, E. A. 2000. Ultrastructure of the penetration and
infection of pansy roots by Thielaviopsis basicola. Phytopathology 90:843–850.
Nag Raj, T. R, and Kendrick, W. B. 1975. A monograph of Chalara and allied genera. Wilfred
Laurier Univ. Press, Waterloo, Canada. 200 pp.
Paulin, A. E., and Harrington, T. C. 2000. Phylogenetic placement of anamorphic species of
Chalara among Ceratocystis species and other ascomycetes. Stud. Mycol. No. 45:209–222.
Paulin-Mahady, A. E., Harrington, T. C., and McNew, D. 2002. Phylogenetic and taxonomic
evaluation of Chalara, Chalaropsis, and Thielaviopsis anamorphs associated with
Ceratocystis. Mycologia 94:62–72.
Riggs, W., and Mims, C. W. 2000. Ultrastructure of chlamydospore development in the plant
pathogenic fungus Thielaviopsis basicola. Mycologia 92:123–129.
Stanghellini, M. E., Rasmussen, S. L., and Kim, D. H. 1999. Aerial transmission of Thielaviopsis
basicola, a pathogen of corn-salad, by adult shore flies. Phytopathology 89:476–479.
Sun-Li, J., and Punja, Z. K. 1999. Morphological and molecular characterization of Chalara
elegans (Thielaviopsis basicola), cause of black root rot on diverse plant species. Can. J. Bot.
77:1801–1812.
Wick, R. L., and Moore, L. D. 1983. Histopathology of root disease incited by Thielaviopsis
basicola in Ilex crenata. Phytopathology 73:561–564.
Wills, W. H., and Lambe, R. C. 1978. Pathogenicity of Thielaviopsis basicola from Japanese
holly (Ilex crenata) to some other host plants. Plant Dis. Rep. 62:1102–1106.
Yarwood, C. E. 1981. The occurrence of Chalara elegans. Mycologia 73:524–530.
-----------------Xylaria and Rosellinia root rots, Plate 111, page 223
Xylaria root rots
Callan, B. E., and Rogers, J. D. 1993. A synoptic key to Xylaria species from continental United
States and Canada based on cultural and anamorphic features. Mycotaxon 49:141–154.
Campbell, A. H. 1933. Zone lines in plant tissues. I. The black lines formed by Xylaria
polymorpha (Pers.) Grev. in hardwoods. Ann. Appl. Biol. 20:123–145.
Dozier, W. A. Jr., Latham, A. J., Kouskolekas, C. A., and Mayton, E. L. 1974. Susceptibility of
apple rootstocks to black root rot and wooly apple aphids. HortScience 9:35–36.
Fromme, F. D. 1928. The black rootrot disease of apple. Va. Agric. Exp. Stn. Tech. Bull. 34. 52
pp.
Hilborn, M. T. 1937. The anatomy of a black zone caused by Xylaria polymorpha.
Phytopathology 27:1177–1179.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Proffer, T. J. 1988. Xylaria root rot of urban trees caused by Xylaria polymorpha. Plant Dis.
72:79.
124
Rogers, J. D., and Callan, B. E. 1986. Xylaria polymorpha and its allies in continental United
States. Mycologia 78:391–400.
U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Fungal
Databases. Beltsville, MD. Internet resource.
Whalley, A. J. S. 1996. The xylariaceous way of life. Mycol. Res. 100:897–922.
-----------------Rosellinia root rot
Anselmi, N., and Giorcelli, A. 1990. Factors influencing the incidence of Rosellinia necatrix
Prill. in poplars. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 20:175–183.
Butler, E. J., and Jones, S. G. 1955. Plant pathology. Macmillan, London. 979 pp.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Kanematsu, S., Hayashi, T., and Kudo, A. 1997. Isolation of Rosellinia necatrix mutants with
impaired cytochalasin E production and its pathogenicity. Ann. Phytopathol. Soc. Jap.
63:425–431.
Lee, S., Ko, K., and Aldwinckle, H. S. 2000. Resistance of selected Malus germplasm to
Rosellinia necatrix. J. Am. Pomol. Soc. 54:219–228.
Lopez, H. C. J., Perez, J. R. M., Basallote, U. M. J., Zea, B. T., and Melero, V. J. M. 1999. Loss
of viability of Dematophora necatrix in solarized soils. Eur. J. Plant Pathol. 105:571–576.
Martin, P. 1967. Studies in the Xylariaceae. II. Rosellinia and the Primo Cinera section of
Hypoxylon. J. S.Afr. Bot. 33:315–328.
Ofong, A. U., Pearce, R. B., and Barrett, D. K. 1991. Biology and pathogenicity of Rosellinia
desmazieresii. Mycol. Res. 95:189–194.
Ogawa, J. M., and English, H. 1991. Diseases of temperate zone tree fruit and nut crops. Univ.
Calif., Div. Agric. & Nat. Resour. Pub. 3345. 461 pp.
Schena, L., Nigro, F., and Ippolito, A. 2002. Identification and detection of Rosellinia necatrix
by conventional and real-time Scorpion-PCR. Eur. J. Plant Pathol. 108:355–366.
Sharland, P. R., Rayner, A. D. M., Ofong, A. U., and Barrett, D. K. 1988. Population structure of
Rosellinia desmazieresii [sic] causing ring-dying of Salix repens. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc.
90:654–656.
Sousa, A. J. T. de, 1985. Control of Rosellinia necatrix (Hartig) Berlese, causal agent of white
root rot: susceptibility of several plant species and chemical control. Eur. J. For. Pathol.
15:323–332.
Sztejnberg, A., and Madar, Z. 1980. Host range of Dematophora necatrix, the cause of white
root rot disease in fruit trees. Plant Dis. 64:662–664.
Sztejnberg, A., Madar, Z., and Chet, I. 1980. Induction and quantification of microsclerotia in
Rosellinia necatrix. Phytopathology 70:525–527.
U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Fungal
Databases. Beltsville, MD. Internet resource.
Whalley, A. J. S. 1996. The xylariaceous way of life. Mycol. Res. 100:897–922.
-----------------Rhizina root rot and southern blight, Plate 112, page 225
Rhizina root rot
125
Allen, E. A., Morrison, D. J., and Wallis, G. W. 1996. Common tree diseases of British
Columbia. Nat. Resour. Can., Can. For. Serv., Victoria, BC. 178 pp.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Jalaluddin, M. 1967. Studies on Rhizina undulata. I. Mycelial growth and ascospore germination.
II. Observations and experiments in East Anglian plantations. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc.
50:449–459, 461–472.
Lundquist, J. E. 1993. Assessing Rhizina root disease hazard: a case study. S.Afr. For. J. 164:51–
53.
Morgan, P. D., Wallin, E. K., and Driver, C. H. 1974. Occurrence of Rhizina root rot in an oldgrowth conifer stand in the Pacific Northwest. Plant Dis. Rep. 58:492–494.
Myren, D. T., ed. 1994. Tree diseases of eastern Canada. Nat. Resour. Can., Can. For. Serv.,
Ottawa. 159 pp.
National Mycological Herbarium (Canada). 1973–1993. Fungi Canadenses Nos. 1–330. Agric.
Can., Res. Branch, Biosyst. Res. Inst., Ottawa.
O'Donnell, K., Cigelnik, E., Weber, N. S., and Trappe, J. M. 1997. Phylogenetic relationships
among ascomycetous truffles and the true and false morels inferred from 18S and 28S
ribosomal DNA sequence analysis. Mycologia 89:48–65.
Peace, T. R. 1962. Pathology of trees and shrubs. Clarendon Press, Oxford. 722 pp.
Phillips, D. H., and Burdekin, D. A. 1982. Diseases of forest and ornamental trees. Macmillan,
London. 435 pp.
Sato, K., Yokozawa, Y., and Shoji, T. 1974. Studies on Rhizina root rot causing group dying of
pine trees. Bull. Gov. For. Exp. Stn., Meguro 268:13–48.
Seaby, D. 1977. Rhizina undulata on Picea abies transplants. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 7:186–188.
Sierota, Z. 1998. Rhizina undulata on stem and roots of 84-year-old Scots pine trees. Acta
Mycol. 33:69–76.
Thompson, J. H., and Tattar, T. A. 1973. Rhizina undulata associated with disease of 80-year-old
red spruce in Vermont. Plant Dis. Rep. 57:394–396.
Vasiliauskas, R., and Stenlid, J. 2001. Homothallism in the postfire ascomycete Rhizina
undulata. Mycologia 93:447–452.
-----------------Southern blight
Alfieri, S. A. J., Langdon, K. R., Kimbrough, J. W., El-Gholl, N. E., and Wehlburg, C. 1994.
Diseases and disorders of plants in Florida. Fla. Dep. Agric. Consum. Serv., Div. Plant
Indus., Gainesville. 1114 pp.
Aycock, R. 1966. Stem rot and other diseases caused by Sclerotium rolfsii. N.C. Agric. Exp. Stn.
Tech. Bull. 174. 202 pp.
Aycock, R., West, E., Watkins, G. M., Cooper, W. E., Wilson, C., Boyle, L. W., Garren, K. H.,
and Harrison, A. L. 1961. Symposium on Sclerotium rolfsii. Phytopathology 51:107–128.
Beute, M. K., and Rodriguez-Kabana, R. 1979. Effect of volatile organic compounds from
remoistened plant tissues on growth and germination of sclerotia of Sclerotium rolfsii.
Phytopathology 69:802–805.
Cooley, J. S. 1936. Sclerotium rolfsii as a disease of nursery apple trees. Phytopathology
26:1081–1083.
126
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Florida Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services, Division of Plant Industry. 1962–
present. Plant Pathology Circulars 1– .
Harlton, C. E., Levesque, C. A., and Punja, Z. K. 1995. Genetic diversity in Sclerotium (Athelia)
rolfsii and related species. Phytopathology 85:1269–1281.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Jones, R. K., and Benson, D. M., eds. 2001. Diseases of woody ornamentals and trees in
nurseries. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 482 pp.
Linderman, R. G., and Gilbert, R. G. 1969. Stimulation of Sclerotium rolfsii in soil by volatile
components of alfalfa hay. Phytopathology 59:1366–1372.
Maiti, S., and Sen, C. 1988. Effect of moisture and temperature on the survival of sclerotia of
Sclerotium rolfsii in soil. J. Phytopathol. 121:175–180.
Montealegre, J. R., Rojas, M. A., Varnero, M. T., and Aballay, E. 1996. Effect of soil
solarization on the control of Sclerotium rolfsii and nematodes in the Metropolitan Region of
Chile. Fitopatologia 31:70–83.
Punja, Z. K., and Grogan, R. G. 1981. Eruptive germination of sclerotia of Sclerotium rolfsii.
Phytopathology 71:1092–1099.
Punja, Z. K., and Grogan, R. G. 1981. Mycelial growth and infection without a food base by
eruptively germinating sclerotia of Sclerotium rolfsii. Phytopathology 71:1099–1103.
Punja, Z. K., and Grogan, R. G. 1983. Germination and infection by basidiospores of Athelia
(Sclerotium) rolfsii. Plant Dis. 67:875–878.
Sachslehner, A., Nidetzky, B., Kulbe, K. D., and Haltrich, D. 1998. Induction of mannanase,
xylanase, and endoglucanase activities in Sclerotium rolfsii. Appl. Environ. Microbiol.
64:594–600.
Singh, R. K., and Dwivedi, R. S. 1991. Ecology and biology of Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc. Int. J.
Trop. Plant Dis. 9:161–171.
Smith, V. L., Punja, Z. K., and Jenkins, S. F. 1986. A histological study of infection of host
tissue by Sclerotium rolfsii. Phytopathology 76:755–759.
Tomasino, S. F., and Conway, K. E. 1987. Spatial pattern, inoculum density–disease incidence
relationship and population dynamics of Sclerotium rolfsii on apple rootstock. Plant Dis.
71:719–724.
Tu, C. C., Hsieh, T. F., Tsai, W. H., and Kimbrough, J. W. 1992. Induction of basidia and
morphological comparison among isolates of Athelia (Sclerotium) rolfsii. Mycologia
84:695–704.
-----------------Procerum root disease of pines, Plate 113, page 227
Butnor, J. R., Seiler, J. R., and Gray, J. A. 2000. Influence of procerum root disease on the water
relations of eastern white pine (Pinus strobus L.). J. Sustain. For. 10:95–105.
Erbilgin, N., and Raffa, K. F. 2002. Association of declining red pine stands with reduced
populations of bark beetle predators, seasonal increases in root colonizing insects, and
incidence of root pathogens. For. Ecol. Manag. 164:221–236.
Hansen, E. M., and Lewis, K. J., eds. 1997. Compendium of conifer diseases. APS Press, St.
127
Paul, MN. 101 pp.
Harrington, T. C., and Cobb, F. W. Jr. 1983. Pathogenicity of Leptographium and
Verticicladiella spp. isolated from roots of western North American conifers.
Phytopathology 73:596–599.
Harrington, T. C., and Cobb, F. W. Jr., eds. 1988. Leptographium root diseases on conifers. APS
Press, St. Paul, MN. 148 pp.
Hausner, G., Reid, J., and Klassen, G. R. 2000. On the phylogeny of members of Ceratocystis
s.s. and Ophiostoma that possess different anamorphic states, with emphasis on the
anamorph genus Leptographium, based on partial ribosomal DNA sequences. Can. J. Bot.
78:903–916.
Highley, L., and Tattar, T. A. 1985. Leptographium terebrantis and black turpentine beetles
associated with blue stain and mortality of black and Scots pines on Cape Cod,
Massachusetts. Plant Dis. 69:528–530.
Houston, D. R. 1969. Basal canker of white pine. For. Sci. 15:66–83.
Jacobs, K., and Wingfield, M. J. 2001. Leptographium species: tree pathogens, insect associates,
and agents of blue stain. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 207 pp.
Jacobs, K., Wingfield, M. J., Uzunovic, A., and Frisullo, S. 2001. Three new species of
Leptographium from pine. Mycol. Res. 105:490–499.
Kendrick, W. B. 1962. The Leptographium complex. Verticicladiella Hughes. Can. J. Bot.
40:771–797.
Klepzig, K. D., Raffa, K. F., and Smalley, E. B. 1991. Association of an insect-fungal complex
with red pine decline in Wisconsin. For. Sci. 37:1119–1139.
Klepzig, K. D., Smalley, E. B., and Raffa, K. F. 1995. Dendroctonus valens and Hylastes
porculus (Coleoptera: Scolytidae): vectors of pathogenic fungi (Ophiostomatales) associated
with red pine decline disease. Great Lakes Entomol. 28:81–87.
Klepzig, K. D., Smalley, E. B., and Raffa, K. F. 1996. Interactions of ecologically similar
saprogenic fungi with healthy and abiotically stressed conifers. For. Ecol. Manag. 86:163–
169.
Lackner, A. L., and Alexander, S. A. 1982. Occurrence and pathogenicity of Verticicladiella
procera in Christmas tree plantations in Virginia. Plant Dis. 66:211–212.
Lackner, A. L., and Alexander, S. A. 1983. Root disease and insect infestations on air-pollutionsensitive Pinus strobus and studies of pathogenicity of Verticicladiella procera. Plant Dis.
67:679–681.
Lackner, A. L., and Alexander, S. A. 1984. Incidence and development of Verticicladiella
procera in Virginia Christmas tree plantations. Plant Dis. 68:210–212.
Nevill, R. J., and Alexander, S. A. 1992. Pathogenicity of three fungal associates of Hylobius
pales and Pissodes nemorensis (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) to eastern white pine. Can. J.
For. Res. 22:1438–1440.
Nevill, R. J., and Alexander, S. A. 1992. Root- and stem-colonizing insects recovered from
eastern white pines with procerum disease. Can. J. For. Res. 22:1712–1716.
Nevill, R. J., and Alexander, S. A. 1992. Transmission of Leptographium procerum to eastern
white pine by Hylobius pales and Pissodes nemorensis (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). Plant
Dis. 76:307–310.
Piou, D. 1993. Possible role of Hylobius abietis in the transport of Leptographium procerum and
in the infection of Scots pine. Ann. Sci. For. 50:297–308.
128
Rane, K. K., and Tattar, T. A. 1987. Pathogenicity of blue-stain fungi associated with
Dendroctonus terebrans. Plant Dis. 71:879–883.
Sinclair, W. A., and Hudler, G. W. 1980. Tree and shrub pathogens new or noteworthy in New
York State. Plant Dis. 64:590–592.
Swai, I. S., and Hindal, D. F. 1981. Selective medium for recovering Verticicladiella procera
from soils and symptomatic white pines. Plant Dis. 65:963–965.
Wingfield, M. J. 1983. Association of Verticicladiella procera and Leptographium terebrantis
with insects in the Lake States. Can. J. For. Res. 13:1238–1245.
Wingfield, M. J. 1985. Reclassification of Verticicladiella based on conidial development.
Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 85:81–93.
Wingfield, M. J. 1986. Pathogenicity of Leptographium procerum and L. terebrantis on Pinus
strobus seedlings and established trees. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 16:299–308.
-----------------Black stain root disease of conifers, Plate 114, page 229
Cobb, F. W. Jr., Slaughter, G. W., Rowney, D. L., and DeMars, C. J. 1982. Rate of spread of
Ceratocystis wageneri in ponderosa pine stands in the central Sierra Nevada. Phytopathology
72:1359–1362.
Diamandis, S., Epstein, L., Cobb, F. W. Jr., Popenuck, T., and Hecht, P. E. 1997. Development
of Leptographium wageneri on root surfaces and other substrata. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 27:381–
390.
Goheen, D. J., Cobb, F. W. Jr., and McKibbin, G. N. 1978. Influence of soil moisture on
infection of ponderosa pine by Verticicladiella wageneri. Phytopathology 68:913–916.
Hansen, E. M., and Goheen, D. J. 1988. Rate of increase of black-stain root disease in Douglasfir plantations in Oregon and Washington. Can. J. For. Res. 18:942–946.
Harrington, T. C., and Cobb, F. W. Jr. 1983. Pathogenicity of Leptographium and
Verticicladiella spp. isolated from roots of western North American conifers.
Phytopathology 73:596–599.
Harrington, T. C., and Cobb, F. W. Jr. 1984. Host specialization of three morphological variants
of Verticicladiella wageneri. Phytopathology 74:286–290.
Harrington, T. C., and Cobb, F. W. Jr. 1986. Varieties of Verticicladiella wageneri. Mycologia
78:562–567.
Harrington, T. C., and Cobb, F. W. Jr. 1987. Leptographium wageneri var. pseudotsugae, var.
nov., cause of black stain root disease on Douglas-fir. Mycotaxon 30:501–507.
Harrington, T. C., and Cobb, F. W. Jr., eds. 1988. Leptographium root diseases on conifers. APS
Press, St. Paul, MN. 148 pp.
Harrington, T. C., Cobb, F. W. Jr., and Lownsbery, J. W. 1985. Activity of Hylastes nigrinus, a
vector of Verticicladiella wageneri, in thinned stands of Douglas-fir. Can. J. For. Res.
15:519–523.
Helms, J. A., Cobb, F. W. Jr., and Whitney, H. S. 1971. Effect of infection by Verticicladiella
wageneri on the physiology of Pinus ponderosa. Phytopathology 61:920–925.
Hessburg, P. F., Goheen, D. J., and Bega, R. V. 1995. Black stain root disease of conifers.
USDA For. Serv. For. Insect Dis. Leafl. 145. 11 pp. Internet pub.
Hessburg, P. F., Goheen, D. J., and Koester, H. 2001. Association of black stain root disease
with roads, skid trails, and precommercial thinning in southwest Oregon. West. J. Appl. For.
16:127–135.
129
Hessburg, P. F., and Hansen, E. M. 1986. Soil temperature and rate of colonization of
Ceratocystis wageneri in Douglas-fir. Phytopathology 76:627–631.
Hessburg, P. F., and Hansen, E. M. 2000. Infection of Douglas-fir by Leptographium wageneri.
Can. J. Bot. 78:1254–1261.
Jacobs, K., and Wingfield, M. J. 2001. Leptographium species: tree pathogens, insect associates,
and agents of blue stain. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 207 pp.
Joseph, G., Kelsey, R. G., and Thies, W. G. 1998. Hydraulic conductivity in roots of ponderosa
pine infected with black-stain (Leptographium wageneri) or annosus (Heterobasidion
annosum) root disease. Tree Physiol. 18:333–339.
Kendrick, W. B. 1962. The Leptographium complex. Verticicladiella Hughes. Can. J. Bot.
40:771–797.
Smith, R. S. Jr. 1967. Verticicladiella root disease of pines. Phytopathology 57:935–938.
Wagener, W. W., and Mielke, J. L. 1961. A staining-fungus root disease of ponderosa, Jeffrey,
and pinyon pines. Plant Dis. Rep. 45:831–835.
Webber, J. F., and Hansen, E. M. 1990. Susceptibility of European and north-west American
conifers to the North American vascular pathogen Leptographium wageneri. Eur. J. For.
Pathol. 20:347–354.
Wilks, D. S., Gersper, P. L., and Cobb, F. W. Jr. 1985. Association of soil moisture with spread
of Ceratocystis wageneri in ponderosa pine disease centers. Plant Dis. 69:206–208.
Wingfield, M. J., Seifert, K. A., and Webber, J. F., eds. 1993. Ceratocystis and Ophiostoma.
Taxonomy, ecology, and pathogenicity. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 293 pp.
Witcosky, J. J., Schowalter, T. D., and Hansen, E. M. 1986. Hylastes nigrinus (Coleoptera:
Scolytidae), Pissodes fasciatus, and Steremnius carinatus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) as
vectors of black-stain root disease of Douglas-fir. Environ. Entomol. 15:1090–1095.
Witcosky, J. J., Schowalter, T. D., and Hansen, E. M. 1987. Host-derived attractants for the
beetles Hylastes nigrinus (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) and Steremnius carinatus (Coleoptera:
Curculionidae). Environ. Entomol. 16:1310–1313.
Zambino, P. J., and Harrington, T. C. 1990. Heterokaryosis and vegetative compatibility in
Leptographium wageneri. Phytopathology 80:1460–1469.
-----------------Ceratocystis cankers, Plate 115, page 231
Ceratocystis cankers of Populus and Prunus
Arx, J. A. von. 1987. Plant pathogenic fungi. Cramer, Berlin. 288 pp.
Baker, C. J., Harrington, T. C., Krauss, U., and Alfenas, A. C. 2003. Genetic variability and host
specialization in the Latin American clade of Ceratocystis fimbriata. Phytopathology
93:1274–1284.
Barnes, I., Roux, J., Wingfield, B. D., O'Neill, M., and Wingfield, M. J. 2003. Ceratocystis
fimbriata infecting Eucalyptus grandis in Uruguay. Australas. Plant Pathol. 32:361–366.
Bostock, R. M., and Middleton, G. E. 1987. Relationship of wound periderm formation to
resistance to Ceratocystis fimbriata in almond bark. Phytopathology 77:1174–1180.
CAB International. 2003. Crop protection compendium, 2003 ed. CAB International,
Wallingford, UK. Internet publication.
Callan, B. E. 1998. Diseases of Populus in British Columbia: a Diagnostic Manual. Can. For.
Serv. Pac. For. Cent., Victoria, BC. 157 pp.
130
Gremmen, J., and Kam, M. de. 1977. Ceratocystis fimbriata, a fungus associated with poplar
canker in Poland. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 7:44–47.
Hinds, T. E. 1972. Ceratocystis canker of aspen. Phytopathology 62:213–220.
Hinds, T. E. 1972. Insect transmission of Ceratocystis species associated with aspen cankers.
Phytopathology 62:221–225.
Hinds, T. E. 1985. Diseases. Pages 87–106 in: Aspen: ecology and management in the western
United States. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-119. 283 pp.
Hinds, T. E., and Ryan, M. G. 1985. Expansion of sooty-bark and Ceratocystis cankers on aspen.
Plant Dis. 69:842–844.
Johnson, D. W., Beatty, J. S., and Hinds, T. E. 1995. Cankers on western quaking aspen. USDA
For. Serv. For. Insect Dis. Leafl. 152. Internet pub.
Juzwik, J., Nishijima, W. T., and Hinds, T. E. 1978. Survey of aspen cankers in Colorado. Plant
Dis. Rep. 62:906–910.
Manion, P. D., and French, D. W. 1967. Nectria galligena and Ceratocystis fimbriata cankers of
aspen in Minnesota. For. Sci. 13:23–28.
Ogawa, J. M., and English, H. 1991. Diseases of temperate zone tree fruit and nut crops. Univ.
Calif., Div. Agric. & Nat. Resour. Pub. 3345. 461 pp.
Paulin, A. E., and Harrington, T. C. 2000. Phylogenetic placement of anamorphic species of
Chalara among Ceratocystis species and other ascomycetes. Stud. Mycol. No. 45:209–222.
Paulin-Mahady, A. E., Harrington, T. C., and McNew, D. 2002. Phylogenetic and taxonomic
evaluation of Chalara, Chalaropsis, and Thielaviopsis anamorphs associated with
Ceratocystis. Mycologia 94:62–72.
Przybyl, K. 1984. Pathological changes and defense responses in poplar tissues caused by
Ceratocystis fimbriata. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 14:183–191.
Przybyl, K. 1988. The response of Populus 'NE 42' (P. maximowiczii  P. trichocarpa) to
infection by Ceratocystis fimbriata isolated from cacao-tree and plane. Eur. J. For. Pathol.
18:8–12.
Roux, J., Wingfield, M. J., Bouillet, J. P., Wingfield, B. D., and Alfenas, A. C. 2000. A serious
new wilt disease of Eucalyptus caused by Ceratocystis fimbriata in central Africa. For.
Pathol. 30:175–184.
Teviotdale, B. L., and Harper, D. H. 1991. Infection of pruning and small bark wounds in
almond by Ceratocystis fimbriata. Plant Dis. 75:1026–1030.
Teviotdale, B. L., Michailides, T. J., and Pscheidt, J. W., eds. 2002. Compendium of nut crop
diseases in temperate zones. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 89 pp.
Upadhyay, H. P. 1981. A monograph of Ceratocystis and Ceratocystiopsis. Univ. Ga. Press,
Athens. 176 pp.
Webster, R. K., and Butler, E. E. 1967. A morphological and biological concept of the species
Ceratocystis fimbriata. Can. J. Bot. 45:1457–1468.
Wingfield, M. J., Seifert, K. A., and Webber, J. F., eds. 1993. Ceratocystis and Ophiostoma:
Taxonomy, ecology, and pathogenicity. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 293 pp.
Wood, F. A., and French, D. W. 1963. Ceratocystis fimbriata, the cause of a stem canker of
quaking aspen. For. Sci. 9:232–235.
Zalasky, H. 1965. Process of Ceratocystis fimbriata infection in aspen. Can. J. Bot. 43:1157–
1162.
------------------
131
Ceratocystis cankers, continued, Plate 116, page 233
Canker-stain of plane tree and sycamore
Accordi, S. M. 1986. Spread of Ceratocystis fimbriata f. platani through root anastomoses. Inf.
Fitopatol. 36:53–58.
Ash, C. L., ed. 2001. Shade tree wilt diseases. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 257 pp.
Baker, C. J., Harrington, T. C., Krauss, U., and Alfenas, A. C. 2003. Genetic variability and host
specialization in the Latin American clade of Ceratocystis fimbriata. Phytopathology
93:1274–1284.
CAB International. 2003. Crop protection compendium, 2003 ed. CAB International,
Wallingford, UK. Internet publication.
Clerivet, A., and Alami, I. 1999. Effects of jasmonic acid and of an elicitor from Ceratocystis
fimbriata f.sp. platani on the accumulation of phytoalexins in leaves of susceptible and
resistant plane trees. Plant Sci. 148:105–110.
Clerivet, A., and El Modafar, C. 1994. Vascular modifications in Platanus acerifolia seedlings
inoculated with Ceratocystis fimbriata f.sp. platani. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 24:1–10.
Clerivet, A., Deon, V., Alami, I., Lopez, F., Geiger, J. P., and Nicole, M. 2000. Tyloses and gels
associated with cellulose accumulation in vessels are responses of plane tree seedlings
(Platanus acerifolia) to the vascular fungus Ceratocystis fimbriata f.sp. platani. Trees
Struct. Funct. 15:25–31.
Crone, L. J., and Bachelder, S. 1961. Insect transmission of canker stain fungus, Ceratocystis
fimbriata f. platani. (Abstr.) Phytopathology 51:576.
D'Ambra, V., Ferrata, M., and Baldan, B. P. 1977. Growth and behaviour of Ceratocystis
fimbriata in plane-tree tissues. A scanning electron microscope study. Eur. J. For. Pathol.
7:351–357.
El Modafar, C., Clerivet, A., and Macheix, J. J. 1996. Flavan accumulation in stems of Platanus
acerifolia seedlings inoculated with Ceratocystis fimbriata f.sp. platani, the canker stain
disease agent. Can. J. Bot. 74:1982–1987.
El Modafar, C., Clerivet, A., Vigouroux, A., and Macheix, J. J. 1995. Accumulation of
phytoalexins in leaves of plane tree (Platanus spp.) expressing susceptibility or resistance to
Ceratocystis fimbriata f.sp. platani. Eur. J. Plant Pathol. 101:503–509.
Grosclaude, C., Olivier, R., Pizzuto, J. C., and Romiti, C. 1991. Experimental study on the
dissemination of Ceratocystis fimbriata f. platani inoculum by river water. Eur. J. For.
Pathol. 21:168–171.
Grosclaude, C., Olivier, R., Pizzuto, J. C., Romiti, C., and Madec, S. 1988. Detection of
Ceratocystis fimbriata f. platani by trapping. Application to the study of the persistence of
the parasite in infected wood. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 18:385–390.
Grosclaude, C., Olivier, R., and Romiti, C. 1995. Canker stain of London plane. Survival of the
causal agent in soil. Phytoma No. 479:41–42.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Leininger, T. D., Solomon, J. D., Wilson, A. D., and Schiff, N. M. 1999. A guide to major
insects, diseases, air pollution injury, and chemical injury of sycamore. USDA For. Serv.
Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS 28. 44 pp.
Panconesi, A. 1999. Canker stain of plane trees: a serious danger to urban plantings in Europe. J.
Plant Pathol. 81:3–15.
132
Paulin-Mahady, A. E., Harrington, T. C., and McNew, D. 2002. Phylogenetic and taxonomic
evaluation of Chalara, Chalaropsis, and Thielaviopsis anamorphs associated with
Ceratocystis. Mycologia 94:62–72.
Perry, E., and McCain, A. H. 1988. Incidence and management of canker stain in London plane
trees in Modesto, California. J. Arboric. 14:18–19.
Rex, E. G., and Walter, J. M. 1946. The canker stain disease of planetrees, with
recommendations for controlling it in New Jersey. N.J. Dep. Agric. Circ. 360. 23 pp.
Santini, A., and Capretti, P. 2000. Analysis of the Italian population of Ceratocystis fimbriata
f.sp. platani using RAPD and minisatellite markers. Plant Pathol. 49:461–467.
Walter, J. M. 1946. Canker stain of planetrees. USDA Circ. 742. 12 pp.
Walter, J. M., Rex, E. G., and Schreiber, R. 1952. The rate of progress and destructiveness of
canker stain of planetrees. Phytopathology 42:236–239.
Wingfield, M. J., Seifert, K. A., and Webber, J. F., eds. 1993. Ceratocystis and Ophiostoma.
Taxonomy, ecology, and pathogenicity. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 293 pp.
-----------------Sapstreak disease and bluestain, Plate 117, page 235
Sapstreak disease
Harrington, T. C., Steimel, J. P., Wingfield, M. J., and Kile, G. A. 1996. Isozyme variation and
species delimitation in the Ceratocystis coerulescens complex. Mycologia 88:104–113.
Hepting, G. H. 1944. Sapstreak, a new killing disease of sugar maple. Phytopathology 34:1069–
1076.
Houston, D. R. 1993. Recognizing and managing sapstreak disease of sugar maple. USDA For.
Serv. Res. Pap. NE-675. 11 pp.
Houston, D. R. 1994. Sapstreak disease of sugar maple: development over time and space.
USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. NE-687. 19 pp.
Paulin-Mahady, A. E., Harrington, T. C., and McNew, D. 2002. Phylogenetic and taxonomic
evaluation of Chalara, Chalaropsis, and Thielaviopsis anamorphs associated with
Ceratocystis. Mycologia 94:62–72.
Roth, E. R., Hepting, G. H., and Toole, E. R. 1959. Sapstreak disease of sugar maple and yellowpoplar in North Carolina. USDA For. Serv. Southeast. For. Exp. Stn. Res. Note 134. 2 pp.
Smith, K. T., and Houston, D. R. 1994. Metal concentrations in wood of sugar maple infected
with sapstreak disease. Can. J. For. Res. 24:185–188.
Wingfield, M. J., Seifert, K. A., and Webber, J. F., eds. 1993. Ceratocystis and Ophiostoma.
Taxonomy, ecology, and pathogenicity. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 293 pp.
Witthuhn, R. C., Harrington, T. C., Steimel, J. P., Wingfield, B. D., and Wingfield, M. J. 2000.
Comparison of isozymes, rDNA spacer regions and MAT-2 DNA sequences as phylogenetic
characters in the analysis of the Ceratocystis coerulescens complex. Mycologia 92:447–452.
-----------------Bluestain
Blanchette, R. A., and Biggs, A. R., eds. 1992. Defense mechanisms of woody plants against
fungi. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York. 458 pp.
Boyce, J. S. 1961. Forest Pathology. 3rd ed. McGraw-Hill, New York. 572 pp.
133
Christiansen, E., Krokene, P., Berryman, A. A., Franceschi, V. R., Krekling, T., Lieutier, F.,
Lonneborg, A., and Solheim, H. 1999. Mechanical injury and fungal infection induce
acquired resistance in Norway spruce. Tree Physiol. 19:399–403.
Croise, L., Lieutier, F., Cochard, H., and Dreyer, E. 2001. Effects of drought stress and high
density stem inoculations with Leptographium wingfieldii on hydraulic properties of young
Scots pine trees. Tree Physiol. 21:427–436.
Franceschi, V. R., Krokene, P., Krekling, T., and Christiansen, E. 2000. Phloem parenchyma
cells are involved in local and distant defense responses to fungal inoculation or bark-beetle
attack in Norway spruce (Pinaceae). Am. J. Bot. 87:314–326.
Harrington, T. C., and Wingfield, M. J. 1998. The Ceratocystis species on conifers. Can. J. Bot.
76:1446–1457.
Jacobs, K., and Wingfield, M. J. 2001. Leptographium species: tree pathogens, insect associates,
and agents of blue stain. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 207 pp.
Klepzig, K. D., Moser, J. C., Lombardero, F. J., Hofstetter, R. W., and Ayres, M. P. 2001.
Symbiosis and competition: complex interactions among beetles, fungi and mites. Symbiosis
30:83–96.
Paine, T. D., Raffa, K. F., and Harrington, T. C. 1997. Interactions among scolytid bark beetles,
their associated fungi, and live conifers. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 42:179–206.
Showalter, T. D., and Filip, G. M., eds. 1993. Beetle-pathogen interactions in conifer forests.
Academic Press, San Diego. 292 pp.
Wingfield, M. J., Seifert, K. A., and Webber, J. F., eds. 1993. Ceratocystis and Ophiostoma.
taxonomy, ecology, and pathogenicity. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 293 pp.
Witthuhn, R. C., Harrington, T. C., Steimel, J. P., Wingfield, B. D., and Wingfield, M. J. 2000.
Comparison of isozymes, rDNA spacer regions and MAT-2 DNA sequences as phylogenetic
characters in the analysis of the Ceratocystis coerulescens complex. Mycologia 92:447–452.
-----------------Oak wilt, Plate 118, page 237
Appel, D. N. 1994. Identification and control of oak wilt in Texas urban forests. J. Arboric.
20:250–258.
Appel, D. N. 1995. The oak wilt enigma: perspectives from the Texas epidemic. Annu. Rev.
Phytopathol, 33:103–118.
Appel, D. N., Kurdyla, T., and Lewis, R. Jr. 1990. Nitidulids as vectors of the oak wilt fungus
and other Ceratocystis spp. in Texas. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 20:412–417.
Appel, D. N., Maggio, R. C., Nelson, E. L., and Jeger, M. J. 1989. Measurement of expanding
oak wilt centers in live oak. Phytopathology 79:1318–1322.
Appel, D. N., Peters, R., and Lewis, R. Jr. 1987. Tree susceptibility, inoculum availability, and
potential vectors in a Texas oak wilt center. J. Arboric. 13:169–173.
Ash, C. L., ed. 2001. Shade tree wilt diseases. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 257 pp.
Bartelt, R. J., Kyhl, J. F., Ambourn, A. K., Juzwik, J., and Seybold, S. J. 2004. Male-produced
aggregation pheromone of Carpophilus sayi, a nitidulid vector of oak wilt disease, and
pheromonal comparison with Carpophilus lugubris. Agric. For. Entomol. 6:39–46.
Cease, K. R., and Juzwik, J. 2001. Predominant nitidulid species (Coleoptera: Nitidulidae)
associated with spring oak wilt mats in Minnesota. Can. J. For. Res. 31:635–643.
Cobb, F. W. Jr., and Fergus, C. L. 1964. Pathogenicity, host specificity, and mat production of
seven isolates of the oak wilt fungus. Phytopathology 54:865–866.
134
French, D. W., and Schroeder, D. B. 1969. Oak wilt fungus, Ceratocystis fagacearum, as a
selective silvicide. For. Sci. 15:198–203.
French, D. W., and Stienstra, W. C. 1975. Oak wilt disease. Univ. Minn. Exten. Folder 310. 6 pp.
Gibbs, J. N. 1980. Survival of Ceratocystis fagacearum in branches of trees killed by oak wilt in
Minnesota. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 10:218–224.
Gibbs, J. N., and French, D. W. 1980. The transmission of oak wilt. USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap.
NC-185. 17 pp.
Henry, B. W., Moses, C. S., Richards, C. A., and Riker, A. J. 1944. Oak wilt: its significance,
symptoms, and cause. Phytopathology 34:636–647.
Houston, D. R., Drake, C. R., and Kuntz, J. E. 1965. Effects of environment on oak wilt
development. Phytopathology 55:1114–1121.
Jacobi, W. R., and MacDonald, W. L. 1980. Colonization of resistant and susceptible oaks by
Ceratocystis fagacearum. Phytopathology 70:618–623.
Kurdyla, T. M., Guthrie, P. A. I., McDonald, B. A., and Appel, D. N. 1995. RFLPs in
mitochondrial and nuclear DNA indicate low levels of genetic diversity in the oak wilt
pathogen Ceratocystis fagacearum. Curr. Genet. 27:373–378.
Kyhl, J. F., Bartelt, R. J., Cosse, A., Juzwik, J., and Seybold, S. J. 2002. Semiochemicalmediated flight responses of sap beetle vectors of oak wilt, Ceratocystis fagacearum. J.
Chem. Ecol. 28:1527–1547.
Lewis, R. Jr. 1985. Temperature tolerance and survival of Ceratocystis fagacearum in Texas.
Plant Dis. 69:443–444.
Liebhold, A. M., MacDonald, W. L., Bergdahl, D., and Mastro, V. C. 1995. Invasion by exotic
forest pests: a threat to forest ecosystems. For. Sci. Monogr. 30. 49 pp.
McDonald, B. A., Bellamy, B. K., Zhan, J., and Appel, D. N. 1998. The effect of an oak wilt
epidemic on the genetic structure of a Texas live oak population. Can. J. Bot. 76:1900–1907.
McWain, P., and Gregory, G. F. 1972. A neutral mannan from Ceratocystis fagacearum culture
filtrate. Phytochemistry 11:2609–2612.
Mistretta, P. A., Anderson, R. L., MacDonald, W. L., and Lewis, R. Jr. 1984. Annotated
bibliography of oak wilt, 1943–80. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-45. 132 pp.
Paulin-Mahady, A. E., Harrington, T. C., and McNew, D. 2002. Phylogenetic and taxonomic
evaluation of Chalara, Chalaropsis, and Thielaviopsis anamorphs associated with
Ceratocystis. Mycologia 94:62–72.
Pokorny, J. 1999. How to collect field samples and identify the oak wilt fungus in the laboratory.
USDA For. Serv. For. Northeast. Area State & Priv. For. NA-FR-01-99. 12 pp.
Raychaudhuri, S. P., and Maramorosch, K., eds. 1996. Forest trees and palms: diseases and
control. Science Pub., Lebanon, NH. 336 pp.
Rexrode, C. O. 1976. Insect transmission of oak wilt. J. Arboric. 2:61–66.
Struckmeyer, B. E., Kuntz, J. E., and Riker, A. J. 1958. Histology of certain oaks infected with
the oak wilt fungus. Phytopathology 48:556–561.
Tainter, F. H., and Baker, F. A. 1996. Principles of forest pathology. Wiley, New York. 805 pp.
Tainter, F. H., and Fraedrich, S. W. 1986. Compartmentalization of Ceratocystis fagacearum in
turkey oak in South Carolina. Phytopathology 76:698–701.
Tainter, F. H., and Gubler, W. D. 1973. Natural biological control of oak wilt in Arkansas.
Phytopathology 63:1027–1034.
Tainter, F. H., and Gubler, W. D. 1974. Effect of invasion by Hypoxylon and other
microorganisms on carbohydrate reserves of oak-wilted trees. For. Sci. 20:337–342.
135
Tainter, F. H., and Ham, D. L. 1983. The survival of Ceratocystis fagacearum in South Carolina.
Eur. J. For. Pathol. 13:102–109.
True, R. P., Barnett, H. L., Dorsey, C. K., and Leach, J. G. 1960. Oak wilt in West Virginia. W.
Va. Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull. 448T. 119 pp.
Wilding, N., Collins, N. M, Hammond, P., M., and Webber, J. F., eds. 1989. Insect-fungus
interactions. Academic Press, London. 344 pp.
Wilson, A. D., and Lester, D. G. 2002. Trench inserts as long-term barriers to root transmission
for control of oak wilt. Plant Dis. 86:1067–1074.
-----------------Dutch elm disease, Plate 119, page 239
Ash, C. L., ed. 2001. Shade tree wilt diseases. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 257 pp.
Benhamou, N., Lafontaine, J. G., Joly, J. R., and Ouellette, G. B. 1985. Ultrastructural
localization in host tissues of a toxic glycopeptide produced by Ophiostoma ulmi, using
monoclonal antibodies. Can. J. Bot. 63:1185–1195.
Bonsen, K. J. M., Scheffer, R. J., and Elgersma, D. M. 1985. Barrier zone formation as a
resistance mechanism of elms to Dutch elm disease. IAWA Bull. 6:71–77.
Bowden, C. G., Smalley, E., Guries, R. P., Hubbes, M., Temple, B., and Horgen, P. A. 1996.
Lack of association between cerato-ulmin production and virulence in Ophiostoma novoulmi. Mol. Plant-Microbe Interact. 9:556–564.
Brasier, C. M. 1986. The population biology of Dutch elm disease: its principal features and
some implications for other host-pathogen systems. Adv. Plant Pathol. 5:53–118.
Brasier, C. M. 1996. Low genetic diversity of the Ophiostoma novo-ulmi population in North
America. Mycologia 88:951–964.
Brasier, C. M. 2001. Rapid evolution of introduced plant pathogens via interspecific
hybridization. BioScience 51:123–133.
Brasier, C. M., and Kirk, S. A. 2001. Designation of the EAN and NAN races of Ophiostoma
novo-ulmi as subspecies. Mycol. Res. 105:547–554.
Brasier, C. M., Kirk, S. A., and Tegli, S. 1995. Naturally occurring non cerato-ulmin producing
mutants of Ophiostoma novo-ulmi are pathogenic but lack aerial mycelium. Mycol. Res.
99:436–440.
Brasier, C. M., and Mehrotra, M. D. 1995. Ophiostoma himal-ulmi sp. nov., a new species of
Dutch elm disease fungus endemic to the Himalayas. Mycol. Res. 99:205–215.
Cannon, W. N. J., and Worley, D. P. 1980. Dutch elm disease control: performance and costs.
USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. NE-457. 8 pp.
Carter, J. C., and Carter, L. R. 1974. An urban epiphytotic of phloem necrosis and Dutch elm
disease, 1944–1972. Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bull. 31:113–143.
Duchesne, L. C., Jeng, R. S., Hubbes, M., and Sticklen, M. B. 1990. Accumulation of
mansonones E and F in seedlings of Ulmus americana in response to inoculation with
Ophiostoma ulmi. Trees Struct. Funct. 4:187–190.
Dunn, C. P., ed. 2000. The elms: breeding, conservation, and disease management. Kluwer
Academic, Boston, Dordrecht. 361 pp.
Harrington, T. C., McNew, D., Steimel, J., Hofstra, D., and Farrell, R. 2001. Phylogeny and
taxonomy of the Ophiostoma piceae complex and the Dutch elm disease fungi. Mycologia
93:111–136.
136
Holmes, F. W., and Heybroek, H. M., trans. 1990. Dutch elm disease—the early papers: selected
works of seven Dutch women phytopathologists. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 154 pp.
Kondo, E. S., Hiratsuka, Y., and Denyer, W. B. G., eds. 1982. Proceedings of the Dutch elm
disease symposium and workshop. Environ. Can. and Manitoba Dep. Nat. Res. 517 pp.
Konrad, H., Kirisits, T., Riegler, M., Halmschlager, E., and Stauffer, C. 2002. Genetic evidence
for natural hybridization between the Dutch elm disease pathogens Ophiostoma novo-ulmi
ssp. novo-ulmi and O. novo-ulmi ssp. americana. Plant Pathol. 51:78–84.
Magasi, L. P., Harrison, K. J., Urquhart, D. A., and Murray, D. M. 1993. Three decades of Dutch
elm disease in Fredericton, NB. Can. For. Serv. Inf. Rep. M-X-185E. 39 pp.
Millar, J. G., Zhao, C. H., Lanier, G. N., O'Callaghan, D. P., Griggs, M., West, J. R., and
Silverstein, R. M. 1986. Components of moribund American elm trees as attractants to elm
bark beetles, Hylurgopinus rufipes and Scolytus multistriatus. J. Chem. Ecol. 12:583–608.
Newbanks, D., Bosch, A., and Zimmermann, M. H. 1983. Evidence for xylem dysfunction by
embolization in Dutch elm disease. Phytopathology 73:1060–1063.
Richards, W. C. 1994. Cerato-ulmin: a wilt toxin of Dutch elm disease. Can. For. Serv. Inf. Rep.
O-X-432. 37 pp.
Scala, A., Pattuelli, M., Coppola, L., Guastini, M., Tegli, S., Sorbo, G. del, Mittempergher, L.,
and Scala, F. 1997. Dutch elm disease progression and quantitative determination of ceratoulmin in leaves, stems and branches of elms inoculated with Ophiostoma novo-ulmi and O.
ulmi. Physiol. Mol. Plant Pathol. 50:349–360.
Sherald, J. L., Santamour, F. S. Jr., Hajela, R. K., Hajela, N., and Sticklen, M. B. 1994. A Dutch
elm disease resistant triploid elm. Can. J. For. Res. 24:647–653.
Shigo, A., and Tippett, J. T. 1981. Compartmentalization of American elm tissues infected by
Ceratocystis ulmi. Plant Dis. 65:715–718.
Sinclair, W. A., and Campana, R. J., eds. 1978. Dutch elm disease. Perspectives after 60 years.
Cornell Univ. Agric. Exp. Stn. Search Agric. 8, No. 5. 52 pp.
Sinclair, W. A., Townsend, A. M., and Sherald, J. L. 2001. Elm yellows phytoplasma lethal to
Dutch elm disease-resistant Ulmus americana cultivars. Plant Dis. 85:560.
Smalley, E. B., and Guries, R. P. 1993. Breeding elms for resistance to Dutch elm disease. Annu.
Rev. Phytopathol. 31:325–352.
Sorbo, G. del, Scala, F., Parrella, G., Lorito, M., Comparini, C., Ruocco, M., and Scala, A. 2000.
Functional expression of the gene cu, encoding the phytotoxic hydrophobin cerato-ulmin,
enables Ophiostoma quercus, a nonpathogen on elm, to cause symptoms of Dutch elm
disease. Mol. Plant-Microbe Interact. 13:43-53.
Sticklen, M. B., and Sherald, J. M., eds. 1993. Dutch elm disease research: cellular and
molecular approaches. Springer-Verlag, New York. 344 pp.
Stipes, R. J., and Campana, R. J., eds. 1981. Compendium of elm diseases. Am. Phytopathol.
Soc., St. Paul, MN. 96 pp.
Takai, S. 1980. Relationship of the production of the toxin, cerato-ulmin, to synnemata
formation, pathogenicity, mycelial habit, and growth of Ceratocystis ulmi isolates. Can. J.
Bot. 58:658–662.
Takai, S., Richards, W. C., and Stevenson, K. J. 1983. Evidence for the involvement of ceratoulmin, the Ceratocystis ulmi toxin, in the development of Dutch elm disease. Physiol. Plant
Pathol. 23:275–280.
Temple, B., and Horgen, P. A. 2000. Biological roles for cerato-ulmin, a hydrophobin secreted
by the elm pathogens, Ophiostoma ulmi and O. novo-ulmi. Mycologia 92:1–9.
137
Townsend, A. M., and Douglass, L. W. 2001. Variation among American elm clones in longterm dieback, growth, and survival following Ophiostoma inoculation. J. Environ. Hortic.
19:100–103.
Townsend, A. M., and Douglass, L. W. 2004. Evaluation of elm clones for tolerance to Dutch
elm disease. J. Arboric. 30:179–183.
Wilding, N., Collins, N. M, Hammond, P., M., and Webber, J. F., eds. 1989. Insect-fungus
interactions. Academic Press, London. 344 pp.
Wu, W. D., Jeng, R. S., and Hubbes, M. 1989. Toxic effects of elm phytoalexin mansonones on
Ophiostoma ulmi, the causal agent of Dutch elm disease. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 19:343–357.
-----------------Verticillium wilt, Plates 120–121, pages 241–243
Arx, J. A. von. 1987. Plant pathogenic fungi. Cramer, Berlin. 288 pp.
Ash, C. L. 1999. The ecology of Verticillium dahliae in Fraxinus and Acer species. Ph.D. diss.,
Univ. Minnesota, St. Paul. 112 pp.
Ash, C. L., ed. 2001. Shade tree wilt diseases. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 257 pp.
Ashworth, L. J. Jr., and Gaona, S. A. 1982. Evaluation of clear polyethylene mulch for
controlling Verticillium wilt in established pistachio nut groves. Phytopathology 72:243–
246.
Ashworth, L. J. Jr., Gaona, S. A., and Surber, E. 1985. Verticillium wilt of pistachio: the
influence of potassium nutrition on susceptibility to infection by Verticillium dahliae.
Phytopathology 75:1091–1093.
Banfield, W. M. 1941. Distribution by the sap stream of spores of three fungi that induce
vascular wilt diseases of elm. J. Agric. Res. 62:637–681.
Bhat, R. G., and Subbarao, K. V. 1999. Host range specificity in Verticillium dahliae.
Phytopathology 89:1218–1225.
Born, G. L. 1974. Root infection of woody hosts with Verticillium albo-atrum. Ill. Nat. Hist.
Surv. Bull. 31:205–249.
Caroselli, N. E. 1957. Verticillium wilt of maples. R.I. Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull. 335. 84 pp.
Caroselli, N. E. 1959. The relation of sapwood moisture content to the incidence of maple wilt
caused by Verticillium albo-atrum. Phytopathology 49:496–498.
Chen, W. 1994. Vegetative compatibility groups of Verticillium dahliae from ornamental woody
plants. Phytopathology 84:214–219.
Dwinell, L. D. 1967. Selected interactions of Verticillium dahliae, Pratylenchus penetrans,
major nutrient elements, Acer saccharum, and Ulmus americana. Ph.D. diss., Cornell Univ.,
Ithaca, NY. 262 pp.
Farley, J. D., Wilhelm, S., and Snyder, W. C. 1971. Repeated germination and sporulation of
microsclerotia of Verticillium albo-atrum in soil. Phytopathology 61:260–264.
Goud, J. C., and Termorshuizen, A. J. 2002. Pathogenicity and virulence of the two Dutch VCGs
of Verticillium dahliae to woody ornamentals. Eur. J. Plant Pathol. 108:771–782.
Harrington, T. C., and Cobb, F. W. Jr. 1984. Verticillium albo-atrum on Ceanothus in a
California forest. Plant Dis. 68:1012.
Hawksworth, D. L., and Talboys, P. W. 1970. Verticillium albo-atrum. C.M.I. Descr. Pathogenic
Fungi Bact. No. 255. 2 pp.
138
Hiemstra, J. A., and Rataj-Guranowska, M. 2003. Vegetative compatibility groups in
Verticillium dahliae isolates from the Netherlands as compared to VCG diversity in Europe
and in the USA. Eur. J. Plant Pathol. 109:827–839.
Himelick, E. B. 1969. Tree and shrub hosts of Verticillium albo-atrum. Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv. Biol.
Notes No. 66. 8 pp.
Holmes, F. W. 1976. Verticillium wilt of salt-injured sugar maple—preliminary study. (Abstr.)
Proc. Am. Phytopathol. Soc. 3:305–306.
Ioannou, N., Schneider, R. W., and Grogan, R. G. 1977. Effect of flooding on the soil gas
composition and the production of microsclerotia by Verticillium dahliae in the field.
Phytopathology 67:651–656.
Li, K. N., Rouse, D. I., Eyestone, E. J., and German, T. L. 1999. The generation of specific DNA
primers using random amplified polymorphic DNA and its application to Verticillium
dahliae. Mycol. Res. 103:1361–1368.
Lu, J. D., Gan, L., and Yan, L. F. 1991. Purification of the toxin of Verticillium dahliae and its
properties. Acta Phytopathol. Sinica 21:129–133.
Malia, M. E., and Tattar, T. A. 1978. Electrical resistance, physical characteristics, and cation
concentrations in xylem of sugar maple infected with Verticillium dahliae. Can. J. For. Res.
8:322–327.
McCain, A. H., Raabe, R. D., and Wilhelm, S. 1979. Plants resistant or susceptible to
Verticillium wilt. Univ. Calif. Div. Agric. Sci., Leafl. 2703. 10 pp.
Morehart, A. L., Donohue, F. M. III, and Melchior, G. L. 1980. Verticillium wilt of yellow
poplar. Phytopathology 70:756–760.
Morehart, A. L., and Melchior, G. L. 1982. Influence of water stress on Verticillium wilt of
yellow-poplar. Can. J. Bot. 60:201–209.
Müller, J. 1977. Wechselwirkungen zwischen fünf Pratylenchus-Arten und Verticillium alboatrum. Z. Pflanzenkr. Pflanzenschutz 84:215–220.
Newcombe, G., and Robb, J. 1989. The chronological development of a lipid-to-suberin
response at Verticillium trapping sites in alfalfa. Physiol. Mol. Plant Pathol. 34:55–73.
Ogawa, J. M., and English, H. 1991. Diseases of temperate zone tree fruit and nut crops. Univ.
Cal. Div. Agric. Nat. Resour. Pub. 3345. 461 pp.
Parker, K. G. 1959. Verticillium hadromycosis of deciduous tree fruits. Plant Dis. Rep. Suppl.
255:38–61.
Pegg, G. F. 1974 Verticillium diseases. Rev. Plant Pathol. 53:157–182.
Rijkers, A. J. M., Hiemstra, J. A., and Bollen, G. J. 1992. Formation of microsclerotia of
Verticillium dahliae in petioles of infected ash trees. Neth. J. Plant Pathol. 98:261–264.
Rudolph, B. A. 1931. Verticillium hadromycosis. Hilgardia 5:197–361.
Santamour, F. S. Jr. 1992. Influence of root-knot nematodes on Verticillium wilt of maples. J.
Arboric. 18:298–301.
Schreiber, L. R., and Mayer, J. S. 1992. Seasonal variations in susceptibility and in internal
inoculum densities in maple species inoculated with Verticillium dahliae. Plant Dis. 76:184–
187.
Sewell, G. W. F., and Wilson, J. F. 1964. Occurrence and dispersal of Verticillium conidia in
xylem sap of the hop (Humulus lupus L.). Nature 204:901.
Sinclair, W. A., Smith, K. L., and Larsen, A. O. 1981. Verticillium wilt of maples: symptoms
related to movement of the pathogen in stems. Phytopathology 71:340–345.
139
Smith, L. D. 1983. Major nutrient influence on Verticillium dahliae infections of Acer
saccharum. J. Arboric. 9:277–281.
Smith, L. D., and Neely, D. 1979. Relative susceptibility of tree species to Verticillium dahliae.
Plant Dis. Rep. 63:328–332.
Tjamos, E. C., and Beckman, C. H., eds. 1988. Vascular wilt diseases of plants. NATO ASI
Series H. Cell Biol. Vol. 28. Springer-Verlag, New York, Berlin, Heidelberg. 590 pp.
Tjamos, E. C., Biris, D. A., and Paplomatas, E. J. 1991. Recovery of olive trees with Verticillium
wilt after individual application of soil solarization in established olive orchards. Plant Dis.
75:557–562.
Tjamos, E. C., Rowe, R. C., Heale, J. B., and Fravel, D. R., eds. 2000. Advances in Verticillium:
research and disease management. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 357 pp.
Townsend, A. M., Schreiber, L. R., Hall, T. J., and Bentz, S. E. 1990. Variation in response of
Norway maple cultivars to Verticillium dahliae. Plant Dis. 74:44–46.
U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Fungal
Databases. Beltsville, MD. Internet resource.
Wilhelm, S., and Taylor, J. B. 1965. Control of Verticillium wilt of olive through natural
recovery and resistance. Phytopathology 55:310–316.
-----------------Persimmon wilt, Plate 122, page 245
Ash, C. L., ed. 2001. Shade tree wilt diseases. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 257 pp.
Crandall, B. S. 1945. A new species of Cephalosporium causing persimmon wilt. Mycologia
37:495–498.
Crandall, B. S., and Baker, W. L. 1950. The wilt disease of American persimmon, caused by
Cephalosporium diospyri. Phytopathology 40:307–325.
Creager, D. B. 1937. The Cephalosporium disease of elms. Contrib. Arnold Arbor. No. 10. 91
pp.
Gams, W. 1971. Cephalosporium-artige Schimmelpilze (Hyphomycetes). Gustav Fischer, Jena.
262 pp.
Goss, R. W., and Frink, P. R. 1934. Cephalosporium wilt and die-back of the white elm. Nebr.
Agric. Exp. Stn. Res. Bull. 70. 24 pp.
Hawksworth, D. L., Gibson, I. A. S., and Gams, W. 1976. Phialophora parasitica associated
with disease conditions in various trees. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 66:427–431.
Lewis, R. Jr., and Oliveria, F. L. 1979. Live oak decline in Texas. J. Arboric. 5:241–244.
Schroers, H.-J., Geldenhuis, M. M., Wingfield, M. J., Schoeman, M. H., and Wingfield, B. D.
2005. Introduction of Nalanthamala, anamorphic Rubrinectria, for the guava wilt fungus, N.
guajavae sp. nov., the palm-pathogenic Gliocladium vermoesenii, and the persimmon wilt
fungus Acremonium diospyri. Mycologia (in press).
Verrall, A. F., and May, C. 1937. A new species of Dothiorella causing die-back of elm.
Mycologia 29:321–324.
Wilson, C. L. 1963. Wilting of persimmon caused by Cephalosporium diospyri. Phytopathology
53:1402–1406.
Wilson, C. L. 1965. Consideration of the use of persimmon wilt as a silvicide for weed
persimmons. Plant Dis. Rep. 49:789–791.
------------------
140
Fusarium wilts, Plate 123, page 247
Overview
Anderson, R. C., Gardner, D. E., Daehler, C. C., and Meinzer, F. C. 2002. Dieback of Acacia
koa in Hawaii: ecological and pathological characteristics of affected stands. For. Ecol.
Manag. 162:273–286.
Armel, G. R., Richardson, R. J., Stipes, R. J., and Hipkins, P. L. 1997. Biocontrol of the invasive
Ailanthus altissima with fungal weaponry. (Abstr.) Va. J. Sci. 48:94.
Ash, C. L., ed. 2001. Shade tree wilt diseases. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 257 pp.
Baayen, R. P., O'Donnell, K., Bonants, P. J. M., Cigelnik, E., Kroon, L. P. N. M., Roebroeck, E.
J. A., and Waalwijk, C. 2000. Gene genealogies and AFLP analyses in the Fusarium
oxysporum complex identify monophyletic and nonmonophyletic formae speciales causing
wilt and rot disease. Phytopathology 90:891–900.
Domsch, K. H., Gams, W., and Anderson, T.-H. 1980. Compendium of soil fungi. Vols. 1, 2.
Academic Press, London. 859 and 405 pp.
Edel, V., Steinberg, C., Gautheron, N., and Alabouvette, C. 2000. Ribosomal DNA-targeted
oligonucleotide probe and PCR assay specific for Fusarium oxysporum. Mycol. Res.
104:518–526.
Feather, T. V., Ohr, H. D., Munnecke, D. E., and Carpenter, J. B. 1989. The occurrence of
Fusarium oxysporum on Phoenix canariensis, a potential danger to date production in
California. Plant Dis. 73:78–80.
Gordon, T. R., and Martyn, R. D. 1997. The evolutionary biology of Fusarium oxysporum.
Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 35:111–128.
Katan, T. 1999. Current status of vegetative compatibility groups in Fusarium oxysporum.
Phytoparasitica 27:51–64.
Katan, T., and Primo, P. di. 1999. Current status of vegetative compatibility groups in Fusarium
oxysporum: supplement (1999). Phytoparasitica 27:273–277.
Kistler, H. C. 1997. Genetic diversity in the plant-pathogenic fungus Fusarium oxysporum.
Phytopathology 87:474–479.
McRitchie, J. J. 1973. Pathogenicity and control of Fusarium oxysporum wilt of variegated
pyracantha. Plant Dis. Rep. 57:389–391.
O'Mara, J., and Tisserat, N. 1997. A vascular wilt of fragrant sumac caused by Fusarium
oxysporum. Plant Dis. 81:1333.
Nelson, P. E., Toussoun, T. A., and Cook, R. J., eds. 1981. Fusarium: diseases, biology, and
taxonomy. Penn. State Univ. Press, University Park. 457 pp.
Nesbitt, R. B., Tidwell, T. E., Stipes, R. J., and Griffin, G. J. 1999. First report of mimosa wilt
disease of silk tree (Albizia julibrissin) in California caused by Fusarium oxysporum f.sp.
perniciosum. Plant Dis. 83:487.
Raabe, R. D. 1985. Fusarium wilt of Hebe species. Plant Dis. 69:450–451.
Summerell, B. A., Leslie, J. F., Backhouse, D., Bryden, W. L., and Burgess, L. W., eds. 2001.
Fusarium: Paul E. Nelson memorial symposium. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 392 pp.
Timmer, L. W., Garnsey, S. M., Grimm, G. R., El-Gholl, N. E., and Schoulties, C. L. 1979. Wilt
and dieback of Mexican lime caused by Fusarium oxysporum. Phytopathology 69:730–734.
Tjamos, E. C., and Beckman, C. H., eds. 1988. Vascular wilt diseases of plants. NATO ASI
Series H. Cell Biol. Vol. 28. Springer-Verlag, New York, Berlin, Heidelberg. 590 pp.
Toole, E. R. 1949. Fusarium wilt of staghorn sumac. Phytopathology 39:754–759.
------------------
141
Mimosa wilt and others illustrated
Ash, C. L., ed. 2001. Shade tree wilt diseases. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 257 pp.
Barnard, E. L., and Ash, E. C. III. 1991. Fusarium wilt of waxmyrtle. Fla. Dep. Agric. Consum.
Serv. Plant Pathol. Circ. 350. 3 pp.
Gill, D. L. 1958. Effect of root-knot nematodes on Fusarium wilt of mimosa. Plant Dis. Rep.
42:587–590.
Gill, D. L. 1967. Fusarium wilt infection of apparently healthy mimosa trees. Plant Dis. 51:148–
150.
Gill, D. L. 1968. Mimosa-wilt Fusarium carried in seed. Plant Dis. Rep. 52:949–951.
Gill, D. L. 1979. 'Union' mimosa. HortScience 14:644.
Griffin, G. J., and Stipes, R. J. 1975. High populations of Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. perniciosum
in mimosa bark lenticellar sporodochia and in soil. Plant Dis. Rep. 59:787–790.
Hepting, G. H. 1939. A vascular wilt of the mimosa tree (Albizia julibrissin). USDA Circ. 535.
10 pp.
McArdle, A. J., and Santamour, F. S. 1986. Screening mimosa (Albizia julibrissin) seedlings for
resistance to nematodes and Fusarium wilt. Plant Dis. 70:249–251.
Phipps, P. M., and Stipes, R. J. 1976. Histopathology of mimosa infected with Fusarium
oxysporum f.sp. perniciosum. Phytopathology 66:839–843.
Skarmoutsou, H., and Skarmoutsos, G. 1999. First report of Fusarium wilt disease of mimosa in
Greece. Plant Dis. 83:590.
Stipes, R. J. Jr. 1972. Comparative susceptibility of eight species of Albizia to fusarium wilt
caused by Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. perniciosum. Va. J. Sci. 35(2):72.
Toole, E. R. 1952. Two races of Fusarium oxysporum f. perniciosum causing wilt of Albizia spp.
Phytopathology 42:694.
-----------------Exobasidium galls and blisters, Plate 124, page 249
Begerow, D., R. Bauer, and F. Oberwinkler. 2002. The Exobasidiales: an evolutionary
hypothesis. Mycol. Progr. 1:187–199.
Blanz, P., and Doring, H. 1995. Taxonomic relationships in the genus Exobasidium
(Basidiomycetes) based on ribosomal DNA analysis. Stud. Mycol. No. 38:119–127.
Blanz, P., and Oberwinkler, F. 1983. A contribution to the species definition in the genus
Exobasidium (Basidiomycetes). Syst. Appl. Microbiol. 4:199–206.
Caruso, F. L., and Ramsdell, D. C., eds. 1995. Compendium of blueberry and cranberry diseases.
APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 87 pp.
Conners, I. L. 1967. An annotated index of plant diseases in Canada. Can. Dep. Agric. Pub.
1251. 381 pp.
Coyier, D. L., and Roane, M. K. 1986. Compendium of rhododendron and azalea diseases. APS
Press, St. Paul, MN. 65 pp.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Farr, D. F., Esteban, H. B., and Palm, M. E. 1996. Fungi on Rhododendron: a world reference.
Parkway, Boone, NC. 192 pp.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
142
Graafland, W. 1960. The parasitism of Exobasidium japonicum Shir. on azalea. Acta Bot. Neerl.
9:347–379.
Hildebrand, P. D., Nickerson, N. L., McRae, K. B., and Lu, X. 2000. Incidence and impact of red
leaf disease caused by Exobasidium vaccinii in lowbush blueberry fields in Nova Scotia.
Can. J. Plant Pathol. 22:364–367.
Mims, C. W., and Nickerson, N. L. 1986. Ultrastructure of the host-pathogen relationship in red
leaf disease of low-bush blueberry caused by the fungus Exobasidium vaccinii. Can. J .Bot.
64:1338–1343.
Mims, C. W., Richardson, E. A., and Roberson, R. W. 1987. Ultrastructure of basidium and
basidiospore development in three species of the fungus Exobasidium. Can. J. Bot. 65:1236–
1244.
Nannfeldt, J. A. 1981. Exobasidium, a taxonomic reassessment applied to the European species.
Symb. Bot. Upsal. 23:1–72.
Rautenberg, E. 1973. Untersuchungen an Exobasidium-Gallen von Rhododendron simsii Planch.
I. Der Erreger Exobasidium japonicum Shir. und Begleitpilze. II. Bedingungen der
Gallentwicklung und die Wechselbeziehung zwischen Wirtspflanze und Cecidie. III.
Fluoreszierende Phenolderivate in Gallen und Blättern. Phytopathol. Z. 78:2–13, 121–133,
214–226.
Savile, D. B. O. 1959. Notes on Exobasidium. Can. J. Bot. 37:641–656.
Wolf, F. T., and Wolf, F. A. 1952. Pathology of Camellia leaves infected by Exobasidium
camelliae var. gracilis Shirai. Phytopathology 42:147–149.
Wolfe, L. M., and Rissler, L. J. 1999. Reproductive consequences of a gall-inducing fungal
pathogen (Exobasidium vaccinii) on Rhododendron calendulaceum (Ericaceae). Can. J. Bot.
77:1454–1459.
-----------------Articularia and Microstroma leaf spots and witches'-brooms, Plate 125, page 251
Articularia leaf spot and witches'-broom
Charles, V. K. 1935. A little known pecan fungus. Mycologia 27:74–82.
Converse, R. H. 1953. Articularia and Microstroma on pecan in Oklahoma. Plant Dis. Rep.
37:511–512.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 p
Kirk, P. M., Cannon, P. F., David, J. C., and Stalpers, J. A., eds. 2001. Ainsworth & Bisby's
dictionary of the fungi. 9th ed. CABI Pub., New York. 655 pp.
Hawksworth, F. G., and Mielke, J. L. 1962. Witches'-broom of Gambel oak associated with
Articularia quercina var. minor. Phytopathology 52:451–454.
Lightle, P. C., and Hawksworth, F. G. 1965. New hosts for broom-causing fungi in the
Southwest. Plant Dis. Rep. 49:417–418.
Peck, C. H. 1881. Two new species of fungi. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 8:49–51.
-----------------Microstroma leaf spot and witches'-broom
Arx, J. A. von 1970. A revision of the fungi classified as Gloeosporium, 2nd ed. Bibl. Mycol.
Vol. 24. 203 pp.
143
Arx, J. A. von, Walt, J. P. van der, and Liebenberg, N. V. D. M. 1982. The classification of
Taphrina and other fungi with yeast-like cultural states. Mycologia 74:285–296.
Charles, V. K. 1935. A little known pecan fungus. Mycologia 27:74–82.
Converse, R. H. 1953. Articularia and Microstroma on pecan in Oklahoma. Plant Dis. Rep.
37:511–512.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 p
Kirk, P. M., Cannon, P. F., David, J. C., and Stalpers, J. A., eds. 2001. Ainsworth & Bisby's
dictionary of the fungi. 9th ed. CABI Pub., New York. 655 pp.
Higgins, B. B. 1917. A disease of pecan catkins. Phytopathology 7:42–45.
Lightle, P. C., and Hawksworth, F. G. 1965. New hosts for broom-causing fungi in the
Southwest. Plant Dis. Rep. 49:417–418.
Stewart, F. C. 1917. Witches-brooms on hickory trees. Phytopathology 7:185–187.
Wilson, C. L. 1962. Brooming and galling of shagbark hickory in Arkansas. Plant Dis. Rep.
46:448–450.
-----------------Insolibasidium blight of honeysuckle and false smut of palms, Plate 126, page 253
Insolibasidium blight of honeysuckle
Cordell, C. E., Anderson, R. L., Hoffard, W. H., Landis, T. D., Smith, R. S. Jr., and Toko, H. V.,
tech. coords. 1989. Forest nursery pests. USDA Agric. Handb. 680. 184 pp.
Gould, C. T. 1945. The parasitism of Glomerularia lonicerae (Pk.) D. and H. in Lonicera
species. Iowa State Coll. J. Sci. 19:301–331.
Henderson, D. M. 1961. Glomospora and Glomopsis. R. Bot. Gard. Edinb. Notes 23:497–502.
Oberwinkler, F., and Bandoni, R. 1984. Herpobasidium and allied genera. Trans. Br. Mycol.
Soc. 83:639–658.
Riffle, J. W. 1981. Recovery of Herpobasidium deformans basidiospores from Lonicera tatarica
leaves overwintered in nursery beds. (Abstr.) Phytopathology 71:251–252.
Riffle, J. W., and Peterson, G. W., tech. coords. 1986. Diseases of trees in the Great Plains.
USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-129. 149 pp.
-----------------False smut of palms
Alfieri, S. A. J., Langdon, K. R., Kimbrough, J. W., El-Gholl, N. E., and Wehlburg, C. 1994.
Diseases and disorders of plants in Florida. Fla. Dep. Agric. Consum. Serv. Div. Plant
Indus., Gainesville. 1114 pp.
Bains, L. M. 1994. Phoenix dactylifera cultivars with resistance to Graphiola leaf spot. Principes
38:134–137.
Cole, G. T. 1983. Graphiola phoenicis: a taxonomic enigma. Mycologia 75:93–116.
Elliott, M. L. Broschat, T. K., Uchida, Y., and Simone, G. W. 2004. Compendium of ornamental
palm diseases and disorders. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 69 pp.
Kapur, S., Kapur, S. P., and Rehlia, A. S. 1978. Studies on some of the biochemical changes
occurring in date palm leaves infected by smut. Indian Phytopathol. 31:394–395.
Omamor, I. B. 1985. Studies on the infective stage of Graphiola phoenicis. Date Palm J. 4:55–
68.
144
Sinha, M. K., Singh, R., and Jeyarajan, R. 1970. Graphiola leaf spot on date palm (Phoenix
dactylifera): susceptibility of date varieties and effect on chlorophyll content. Plant Dis. Rep.
54:617–619.
Tayal, M. S., Sharma, S. M., and Agarwal, M. L. 1981. Studies on the polyphenols, proteins,
chlorophylls, IAA-oxidase, and amylases of normal and false smut infected leaves of
Phoenix sylvestris. Indian Phytopathol. 34:337–339.
-----------------Diseases caused by Rhizoctonia-forming fungi, Plate 127, page 255
Arx, J. A. von. 1987. Plant pathogenic fungi. Cramer, Berlin. 288 pp.
Alfieri, S. A. J., Langdon, K. R., Kimbrough, J. W., El-Gholl, N. E., and Wehlburg, C. 1994.
Diseases and disorders of plants in Florida. Fla. Dep. Agric. Consum. Serv., Div. Plant
Indus., Gainesville. 1114 pp.
Alfieri, S. A. Jr., Seymour, C. P., and Denmark, J. C. 1972. Aerial blight of Carissa grandiflora
caused by Rhizoctonia solani. Plant Dis. Rep. 56:511–514.
Andersen, T. F. 1996. A comparative taxonomic study of Rhizoctonia sensu lato employing
morphological, ultrastructural and molecular methods. Mycol. Res. 100:1117–1128.
Andersen, T. F., and Stalpers, J. A. 1994. A checklist of Rhizoctonia epithets. Mycotaxon
51:437–457.
Burr, T. J., Hunter, J. E., Ogawa, J. M., and Abawi, G. S. 1978. A root rot of apple caused by
Rhizoctonia solani in New York nurseries. Plant Dis. Rep. 62:476–478.
Cordell, C. E., Anderson, R. L., Hoffard, W. H., Landis, T. D., Smith, R. S. Jr., and Toko, H. V.,
tech. coords. 1989. Forest nursery pests. USDA Agric. Handb. 680. 184 pp.
Cubeta, M. A., and Vilgalys, R. 1997. Population biology of the Rhizoctonia solani complex.
Phytopathology 87:480–484.
English, J. T., Ploetz, R. C., and Barnard, E. L. 1986. Seedling blight of longleaf pine caused by
a binucleate Rhizoctonia solani–like fungus. Plant Dis. 70:148–150.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Florida Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services, Division of Plant Industry. 1962–
present. Plant Pathology Circulars 1– .
Frisina, T. A., and Benson, D. M. 1987. Characterization and pathogenicity of binucleate
Rhizoctonia spp. from azaleas and other woody ornamental plants with web blight. Plant Dis.
71:977–981.
Gonzalez, D., Carling, D. E., Kuninaga, S., Vilgalys, R., and Cubeta, M. A. 2001. Ribosomal
DNA systematics of Ceratobasidium and Thanatephorus with Rhizoctonia anamorphs.
Mycologia 93:1138–1150.
Hartman, J. R., Smith, C. A., and Stuckey, R. E. 1981. Thread blight disease in Kentucky.
(Abstr.) Phytopathology 71:1004.
Huang, J. W., and Kuhlman, E. G. 1990. Fungi associated with damping-off of slash pine
seedlings in Georgia. Plant Dis. 74:27–30.
Jones, R. K., and Benson, D. M., eds. 2001. Diseases of woody ornamentals and trees in
nurseries. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 482 pp.
Kacprzak, M., Asiegbu, F. O., Daniel, G., and Manka, M. 2000. Changes in root structure of
Scots pine seedlings infected with Rhizoctonia solani observed under fluorescence and
electron microscopes. Phytopathol. Polon. 19:127–140.
145
Kacprzak, M., Asiegbu, F. O., and Manka, M. 2000. Cell wall lignification in roots of Scots
pine, Norway spruce and European larch seedlings after infection with Rhizoctonia solani
and Fusarium spp. Sylwan 144:105–113.
Large, J. R., Painter, J. H., and Lewis, W. A. 1950. Thread blight in tung orchards and its
control. Phytopathology 40:453–459.
Litterick, A. M., McQuilken, M. P., and Holmes, S. J. 1995. Sources of Rhizoctonia species in
ericaceous plant nurseries. Z. Pflanzenkr. Pflanzenschutz 102:441–444.
Mazzola, M. 1997. Identification and pathogenicity of Rhizoctonia spp. isolated from apple roots
and orchard soils. Phytopathology 87:582–587.
Moore, R. T. 1987. The genera of Rhizoctonia-like fungi—Ascorhizoctonia, Ceratorhiza gen.
nov., Epulorhiza gen. nov., Moniliopsis, and Rhizoctonia. Mycotaxon 29:91–100.
Roberts, P. 1999. Rhizoctonia-forming fungi. R. Bot. Gard., Kew, UK. 239 pp.
Runion, G. B., and Kelley, W. D. 1993. Characterization of a binucleate Rhizoctonia species
causing foliar blight of loblolly pine. Plant Dis. 77:754–755.
Sneh, B., Burpee, L., and Ogoshi, A. 1991. Identification of Rhizoctonia species. APS Press, St.
Paul, MN. 133 pp.
Sneh, B., Jabaji-Hare, S., Neate, S., and Dijst, G., eds. 1996. Rhizoctonia species: taxonomy,
molecular biology, ecology, pathology, and disease control. Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht,
Boston. 578 pp.
Vilgalys, R., and Cubeta, M. A. 1994. Molecular systematics and population biology of
Rhizoctonia. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 32:135–155.
Weber, G. F., and Roberts, D. A. 1951. Silky threadblight of Elaeagnus pungens caused by
Rhizoctonia ramicola n. sp. Phytopathology 41:615–621.
Wehlburg, C., and Cox, R. S. 1966. Rhizoctonia leaf blight of azalea. Plant Dis. Rep. 50:354–
355.
-----------------Overview of rusts, Phragmidium rusts, Plate 128, page 257
Overview
Alexopoulos, C. J., Mims, C. W., and Blackwell, M. 1996. Introductory mycology. 4th ed.
Wiley, New York. 868 pp.
Arthur, J. C. 1934. Manual of the rusts in the United States and Canada. Purdue Res. Found.,
Lafayette, IN. 438 pp.
Cummins, G. B. 1962. Supplement to Arthur's manual of the rusts in the United States and
Canada. Hafner, New York. 24 pp.
Cummins, G. B., and Hiratsuka, Y. 2003. Illustrated genera of rust fungi. 3rd ed. APS Press, St.
Paul, MN. 225 pp.
Gäumann, E. 1959. Die Rostpilze Mitteleuropas. Beitr. Kryptogamenflora Schweiz. Vol. 12.
1407 pp.
Kirk, P. M., Cannon, P. F., David, J. C., and Stalpers, J. A., eds. 2001. Ainsworth & Bisby's
dictionary of the fungi. 9th ed. CABI Pub., New York. 655 pp.
Hiratsuka, N., Sato, S., Katsuya, K., Kakishima, M., Hiratsuka, Y., Kaneko, S., Ono, Y., Sato,
T., Harada, Y., Hiratsuka, T., and Nakayama, K. 1992. The rust flora of Japan. Tsukuba
Shuppankai, Takezono, Ibaraki, Japan. 1205 pp.
Hiratsuka, Y. 1973. The nuclear cycle and the terminology of spore states in the Uredinales.
Mycologia 65:432–443.
146
Littlefield, L. J. 1981. Biology of the plant rusts: an introduction. Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames.
103 pp.
Littlefield, L. J., and Heath, M. C. 1979. Ultrastructure of rust fungi. Academic Press, New
York. 277 pp.
Maier, W., Begerow, D., Weiss, M., and Oberwinkler, F. 2003. Phylogeny of the rust fungi: an
approach using nuclear large subunit ribosomal DNA sequences. Can. J. Bot. 81:12–23.
Petersen, R. H. 1974. The rust fungus life cycle. Bot. Rev. 40:453–513.
Preece, T. F., and Hick, A. J. 1990. An introductory scanning electron microscope atlas of rust
fungi. Farrand, London. 220 pp.
Scott, K. J., and Chakravorty, A. K., eds. 1982. The rust fungi. Academic Press, New York. 288
pp.
Wilson, M., and Henderson, D. M. 1966. British rust fungi. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge,
UK. 324 pp.
Ziller, W. G. 1974. The tree rusts of western Canada. Can. For. Serv. Pub. 1329. 272 pp.
-----------------Phragmidium rusts
Arthur, J. C., and Cummins, G. B. 1962. Manual of the rusts in the United States and Canada,
with a new supplement. Hafner Pub. Co., New York. 438 + 24 pp.
Bedlan, G. 1984. The genus Phragmidium Link. with particular reference to the Phragmidium
mucronatum and Phragmidium potentillae groups in central Europe. Pflanzenschutzberichte
46:33–60.
Cochrane, V. W. 1945. The common leaf rust of cultivated roses, caused by Phragmidium
mucronatum (Fr.) Schlecht. Cornell Univ. Agric. Exp. Stn. Mem. 268. 39 pp.
Cummins, G. B., and Hiratsuka, Y. 2003. Illustrated genera of rust fungi. 3rd ed. APS Press, St.
Paul, MN. 225 pp.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
Horst, R. K. 1983. Compendium of rose diseases. Am. Phytopathol. Soc., St. Paul, MN. 50 pp.
Howden, J. C. W., and Jacobs, L. 1973. Report on the rust work at Bath. Rose Annu. 1973:113–
119.
Ingold, C. T., Davey, R. A., and Wakley, G. 1981. The teliospore pedicel of Phragmidium
mucronatum. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 77:439–442.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Laundon, G. F., and Rainbow, A. F. 1969. Phragmidium mucronatum. C.M.I. Descr. Pathogenic
Fungi Bact. No. 204. 2 pp.
Savile, D. B. O. 1976. Phragmidium ivesiae and its allies in North America. Can. J. Bot.
54:1690–1696.
Shattock, R. C. 2003. Rust. Pages 165–168 in: Encyclopedia of rose science. Vol. 1. A. Roberts,
T. Debener, and S. Gudin, eds. Elsevier Academic Press, Amsterdam.
Shattock, R. C., and Bhatti, M. H. R. 1983. The effect of Phragmidium mucronatum on rose
understocks and maiden rose bushes. Plant Pathol. 32:61–66.
147
Shear, C. L. 1902. Mycological notes and new species. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 29:449–457.
Wahyuno, D., Kakishima, M., and Ono, Y. 2001. Morphological analyses of urediniospores and
teliospores in seven Phragmidium species parasitic on ornamental roses. Mycoscience
42:519–533.
Wahyuno, D., Kakishima, M., and Ono, Y. 2002. Aeciospore-surface structures of Phragmidium
species parasitic on roses. Mycoscience 43:159–167.
-----------------Gymnosporangium rusts, Plates 129–130, pages 259–261
Overview
Arthur, J. C. 1934. Manual of the rusts in the United States and Canada. Purdue Res. Found.,
Lafayette, IN. 438 pp.
Cummins, G. B., and Hiratsuka, Y. 2003. Illustrated genera of rust fungi. 3rd ed. APS Press, St.
Paul, MN. 225 pp.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Kern, F. D. 1973. A revised taxonomic account of Gymnosporangium. Penn. State Univ. Press,
University Park. 134 pp.
Lee, S., and Kakishima, M. 1999. Aeciospore surface structures of Gymnosporangium and
Roestelia (Uredinales). Mycoscience 40:109–120.
Lee, S., and Kakishima, M. 1999. Surface structures of peridial cells of Gymnosporangium and
Roestelia (Uredinales). Mycoscience 40:121–131.
Maier, W., Begerow, D., Weiss, M., and Oberwinkler, F. 2003. Phylogeny of the rust fungi: an
approach using nuclear large subunit ribosomal DNA sequences. Can. J. Bot. 81:12–23.
National Mycological Herbarium (Canada). 1973–1993. Fungi Canadenses Nos. 1–330. Agric.
Can. Res. Branch, Biosys. Res. Inst., Ottawa.
Parmelee, J. A. 1965. The genus Gymnosporangium in eastern Canada. Can. J. Bot. 43:239–267.
Parmelee, J. A. 1971. The genus Gymnosporangium in western Canada. Can. J. Bot. 49:903–
926.
Ziller, W. G. 1974. The tree rusts of western Canada. Can. For. Serv. Pub. 1329. 272 pp.
-----------------Gymnosporangium rusts, continued, Plate 130, page 261
Cedar-apple rust
Aldwinckle, H. S. 1975. Pathogenic races of Gymnosporangium juniperi-virginianae on apple.
Phytopathology 65:958–961.
Aldwinckle, H. S., Lamb, C., and Gustafson, H. L. 1977. Nature and inheritance of resistance to
Gymnosporangium juniperi-virginianae in apple cultivars. Phytopathology 67:259–266.
Aldwinckle, H. S., Pearson, R. C., and Seem, R. C. 1980. Infection periods of
Gymnosporangium juniperi-virginianae on apple. Phytopathology 70:1070–1073.
148
Crowell, I. H. 1934. The hosts, life history, and control of the cedar-apple rust fungus
Gymnosporangium juniperi-virginianae Schw. J. Arnold Arbor. 15:163–232.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Himelick, E. B., and Neely, D. 1960. Juniper hosts of cedar-apple rust and cedar-hawthorn rust.
Plant Dis. Rep. 44:109–112.
Hotson, H. H., and Cutter, V. M. 1951. The isolation and culture of Gymnosporangium juniperivirginianae Schw. upon artificial media. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 37:400–403.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Mims, C. W., and Glidewell, D. C. 1978. Some ultrastructural observations on the host-pathogen
relationship within the telial gall of the rust fungus Gymnosporangium juniperi-virginianae.
Bot. Gaz. 139:11–17.
National Mycological Herbarium (Canada). 1973–present. Fungi Canadenses No. 1– . Agric.
Can. Res. Branch Biosyst. Res. Inst., Ottawa.
Nichols, L. P. 1985. Disease resistant crabapples (results of 1984 survey). Penn. State Univ.
Plant Pathol. Contrib. 1502. 7 pp.
Pady, S. M., and Kramer, C. L. 1971. Basidiospore discharge in Gymnosporangium.
Phytopathology 61:951–953.
Pady, S. M., Kramer, C. L., and Clary, R. 1969. Aeciospore release in Gymnosporangium. Can.
J. Bot. 47:1027–1032.
Pearson, R. C., Aldwinckle, H. S., and Seem, R. C. 1977. Teliospore germination and
basidiospore formation in Gymnosporangium juniperi-virginianae: a regression model of
temperature and time effects. Can. J. Bot. 55:2832–2837.
Pearson, R. C., Seem, R. C., and Meyer, F. W. 1980. Environmental factors influencing the
discharge of basidiospores of Gymnosporangium juniperi-virginianae. Phytopathology
70:262–266.
Thomas, H. E., and Mills, W. D. 1929. Three rust diseases of the apple. Cornell Univ. Agric.
Exp. Stn. Mem. 123. 21 pp.
Tisserat, N. A., and Pair, J. C. 1997. Susceptibility of selected juniper cultivars to cedar-apple
rust, Kabatina tip blight, Cercospora needle blight and Botryosphaeria canker. J. Environ.
Hortic. 15:160–163.
Warner, J. 1990. Field susceptibility of scab-resistant apple cultivars and selections to cedar
apple rust, quince rust and hawthorn rust. Fruit Var. J. 44:216–224.
Warner, J. 1992. Field susceptibility of 68 apple cultivars to cedar apple rust, quince rust and
hawthorn rust. Fruit Var. J. 46:6–10.
Weimer, J. L. 1917. The origin and development of the galls produced by two cedar rust fungi.
Am. J. Bot. 4:241–251.
Weimer, J. L. 1917. Three cedar rust fungi, their life histories, and the diseases they produce.
Cornell Univ. Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull. 390:509–549.
-----------------Gymnosporangium rusts, continued, Plate 131, page 263
Hawthorn rust
149
Bliss, D. E. 1933. The pathogenicity and seasonal development of Gymnosporangium in Iowa.
Iowa Agric. Exp. Stn. Res. Bull. 166:339–392.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Himelick, E. B., and Neely, D. 1960. Juniper hosts of cedar-apple rust and cedar-hawthorn rust.
Plant Dis. Rep. 44:109–112.
MacLachlan, J. D. 1935. The hosts of Gymnosporangium globosum Farl. and their relative
susceptibility. J. Arnold Arbor. 16:98–142.
Pady, S. M., and Kramer, C. L. 1971. Basidiospore discharge in Gymnosporangium.
Phytopathology 61:951–953.
Pady, S. M., Kramer, C. L., and Clary, R. 1969. Aeciospore release in Gymnosporangium. Can.
J. Bot. 47:1027–1032.
Parmelee, J. A. 1968. Effective range of basidiospores of Gymnosporangium. Can. Plant Dis.
Surv. 48:150–151.
Thomas, H. E., and Mills, W. D. 1929. Three rust diseases of the apple. Cornell Univ. Agric.
Exp. Stn. Mem. 123. 21 pp.
Warner, J. 1990. Field susceptibility of scab-resistant apple cultivars and selections to cedar
apple rust, quince rust and hawthorn rust. Fruit Var. J. 44:216–224.
Warner, J. 1992. Field susceptibility of 68 apple cultivars to cedar apple rust, quince rust and
hawthorn rust. Fruit Var. J. 46:6–10.
Weimer, J. L. 1917. The origin and development of the galls produced by two cedar rust fungi.
Am. J. Bot. 4:241–251.
Weimer, J. L. 1917. Three cedar rust fungi, their life histories, and the diseases they produce.
Cornell Univ. Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull. 390:509–549.
-----------------Gymnosporangium rusts, continued, Plate 132, page 265
Quince rust
Aldwinckle, H. S. 1974. Field susceptibility of 41 apple cultivars to cedar apple rust and quince
rust. Plant Dis. Rep. 58:696–699.
Crowell, I. H. 1935. The hosts, life history, and control of Gymnosporangium clavipes C. & P. J.
Arnold Arbor. 16:367–410.
Dodge, B. O. 1933. The course of mycelia of Gymnosporangia in the trunks of cedars. Proc.
Natl. Shade Tree Conf. 9:94–101.
Dodge, B. O. 1933. The orange-rust of hawthorn and quince invades the trunk of red cedar. J.
N.Y. Bot. Gard. 34:233–237.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Kozar, F., and Netolitzky, H. J. 1975. Ultrastructure and cytology of pycnia, aecia, and
aeciospores of Gymnosporangium clavipes. Can. J. Bot. 53:972–977.
Mims, C. W. 1981. Ultrastructure of teliospore germination and basidiospore formation in the
rust fungus Gymnosporangium clavipes. Can. J. Bot. 59:1041–1049.
National Mycological Herbarium (Canada). 1973–1993. Fungi Canadenses Nos. 1–330 . Agric.
Can. Res. Branch Biosyst. Res. Inst., Ottawa.
150
Pady, S. M., Kramer, C. L., and Clary, R. 1969. Aeciospore release in Gymnosporangium. Can.
J. Bot. 47:1027–1032.
Parmelee, J. A. 1965. The genus Gymnosporangium in eastern Canada. Can. J. Bot. 43:239–267.
Thomas, H. E. 1933. The quince-rust disease caused by Gymnosporangium germinale.
Phytopathology 23:546–553.
Thomas, H. E., and Mills, W. D. 1929. Three rust diseases of the apple. Cornell Univ. Agric.
Exp. Stn. Mem. 123. 21 pp.
Warner, J. 1992. Field susceptibility of 68 apple cultivars to cedar apple rust, quince rust and
hawthorn rust. Fruit Var. J. 46:6–10.
Ziller, W. G. 1974. The tree rusts of western Canada. Can. For. Serv. Pub. 1329. 272 pp.
-----------------Juniper broom rust
Dodge, B. O. 1931. A destructive red-cedar rust disease. J. N.Y. Bot. Gard. 32:101–108.
Dodge, B. O. 1933. The course of mycelia of Gymnosporangia in the trunks of cedars. Proc.
Natl. Shade Tree Conf. 9:94–101.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
National Mycological Herbarium (Canada). 1973–1993. Fungi Canadenses Nos. 1–330 . Agric.
Can. Res. Branch Biosyst. Res. Inst., Ottawa.
Parmelee, J. A. 1965. The genus Gymnosporangium in eastern Canada. Can. J. Bot. 43:239–267.
Parmelee, J. A. 1971. The genus Gymnosporangium in western Canada. Can. J. Bot. 49:903–
926.
Prince, A. E. 1943. Basidium formation and spore discharge in Gymnosporangium nidus-avis.
Farlowia 1:79–93.
Prince, A. E. 1946. The biology of Gymnosporangium nidus-avis Thaxter. Farlowia 2:475–525.
Wang, Y. C., and Guo, L. 1985. Taxonomic studies on Gymnosporangium in China. Acta
Mycol. Sinica 4:24–34.
Ziller, W. G. 1974. The tree rusts of western Canada. Can. For. Serv. Pub. 1329. 272 pp.
-----------------Gymnosporangium rusts, continued, Plate 133, page 267
Broom rust of incense cedar and rust galls on southwestern junipers
Arthur, J. C. 1934. Manual of the rusts in the United States and Canada. Purdue Res. Found.,
Lafayette, IN. 438 pp.
Boyce, J. S. 1961. Forest pathology. 3rd ed. McGraw-Hill, New York. 572 pp.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Jackson, H. S. 1914. A new pomaceous rust of economic importance, Gymnosporangium
blasdaleanum. Phytopathology 4:261–268.
Kern, F. D. 1973. A revised taxonomic account of Gymnosporangium. Penn. State Univ. Press,
University Park. 134 pp.
Peterson, R. S. 1967. Studies of juniper rusts in the West. Madroño 19:79–91.
151
-----------------Medlar rust
Barbe, G. D., McCartney, W. O., and Rosenberg, D. Y. 1966. Gymnosporangium confusum
found in California. Plant Dis. Rep. 50:768–769.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Kern, F. D. 1973. A revised taxonomic account of Gymnosporangium. Penn. State Univ. Press,
University Park. 134 pp.
Wilson, M., and Henderson, D. M. 1966. British rust fungi. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge,
UK. 324 pp.
-----------------Additional Gymnosporangium rusts
Arthur, J. C. 1934. Manual of the rusts in the United States and Canada. Purdue Res. Foundation,
Lafayette, IN. 438 pp.
Boyce, J. S. 1961. Forest pathology. 3rd ed. McGraw-Hill, New York. 572 pp.
Bunderson, E. D., Weber, D. J., and Nelson, D. L. 1986. Diseases associated with Juniperus
osteosperma and a model for predicting their occurrence with environmental site factors.
Great Basin Nat. 46:427–440.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Kern, F. D. 1973. A revised taxonomic account of Gymnosporangium. Penn. State Univ. Press,
University Park. 134 pp.
Lee, S., and Kakishima, M. 1999. Aeciospore surface structures of Gymnosporangium and
Roestelia (Uredinales). Mycoscience 40:109–120.
Lee, S., and Kakishima, M. 1999. Surface structures of peridial cells of Gymnosporangium and
Roestelia (Uredinales). Mycoscience 40:121–131.
National Mycological Herbarium (Canada). 1973–1993. Fungi Canadenses Nos. 1–330 . Agric.
Can. Res. Branch Biosyst. Res. Inst., Ottawa.
Parmelee, J. A. 1965. The genus Gymnosporangium in eastern Canada. Can. J. Bot. 43:239–267.
Parmelee, J. A. 1971. The genus Gymnosporangium in western Canada. Can. J. Bot. 49:903–
926.
Peterson, R. S. 1967. Studies of juniper rusts in the West. Madroño 19:79–91.
U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Fungal
Databases. Beltsville, MD. Internet resource.
Wang, Y. C., and Guo, L. 1985. Taxonomic studies on Gymnosporangium in China. Acta
Mycol. Sinica 4:24–34.
-----------------Puccinia and Cumminsiella rusts, Plate 134, page 269
Overview, Ash rust
152
Amerson, H. V. 1976. A structural characterization of the uredial stage of Puccinia
sparganioides and its associated interactions with Spartina alterniflora. Ph.D. diss., N.C.
State Univ., Raleigh. 116 pp.
Arsdel, E. P. Van, and Chitzanidis, A. 1970. Life cycle and spread of ash rust in Texas. (Abstr.)
Phytopathology 60:1317.
Arthur, J. C. 1934. Manual of the rusts in the United States and Canada. Purdue Res. Found.,
Lafayette, IN. 438 pp.
Creelman, D. W. 1956. The occurrence of ash rust in western Nova Scotia. Plant Dis. Rep.
40:580.
Dyke, C. G. Van , and Amerson, H. V. 1976. Interactions of Puccinia sparganioides with
smooth cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora). Plant Dis. Rep. 60:670–674.
Partridge, A. D. 1957. The ash leaf rust syndrome in New Hampshire: suscepts, incitant,
epidemiology and control. Ph.D. diss., Univ. New Hampshire, Durham.
Ziller, W. G. 1974. The tree rusts of western Canada. Can. For. Serv. Pub. 1329. 272 pp.
-----------------Puccina and Cumminsiella rusts, continued, Plate 135, page 271
Cluster-cup rust of currant and gooseberry
Arthur, J. C. 1934. Manual of the rusts in the United States and Canada. Purdue Res. Found.,
Lafayette, IN. 438 pp.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Gäumann, E. 1959. Die Rostpilze Mitteleuropas. Beitr. Kryptogamenflora Schweiz. Vol. 12.
1407 pp.
Klebahn, H. 1931. Kulturversuche und Bemerkungen über Rost-pilze. XVIII Bericht (1925–
1930). Mit einem Anhang über Ustilago longissima. Z. Pflanzenkr. Pflanzenschutz 41:209–
223.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Fungal
Databases. Beltsville, MD. Internet resource.
-----------------Crown rust of buckthorn
Al-Kherb, S. M., Roelfs, A. P., and Groth, J. V. 1987. Diversity for virulence in a sexually
reproducing population of Puccinia coronata. Can. J. Bot. 65:994–998.
Allen, R. F. 1932. A cytological study of heterothallism in Puccinia coronata. J. Agric. Res.
45:513–541.
Arthur, J. C., and Cummins, G. B. 1962. Manual of the rusts in the United States and Canada,
with a new supplement. Hafner Pub. Co., New York. 438 + 24 pp.
Cummins, G. B. 1971. Rust fungi of cereals, grasses, and bamboos. Springer-Verlag, New York.
570 pp.
Dietz, S. M. 1926. The alternate hosts of crown rust, Puccinia coronata Corda. J. Agric. Res.
33:953–970.
Eshed, N., and Dinoor, A. 1980. Genetics of pathogenicity in Puccinia coronata: pathogenic
specialization at the host genus level. Phytopathology 70:1042–1046.
153
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
Jin, Y., and Steffenson, B. J. 1999. Puccinia coronata var. hordei var. nov.: morphology and
pathogenicity. Mycologia 91:877–884.
Peturson, B. 1954. The relative prevalence of specialized forms of Puccinia coronata that occur
on Rhamnus cathartica in Canada. Can. J. Bot. 32:40–47.
Simons, M. D., Rothman, P. J., and Michel, L. J. 1979. Pathogenicity of Puccinia coronata from
buckthorn and from oats adjacent to and distant from buckthorn. Phytopathology 69:156–
158.
U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Fungal
Databases. Beltsville, MD. Internet resource.
Ziller, W. G. 1974. The tree rusts of western Canada. Can. For. Serv. Pub. 1329. 272 pp.
-----------------Rusts on Berberis and Mahonia
Arthur, J. C. 1934. Manual of the rusts in the United States and Canada. Purdue Res. Found.,
Lafayette, IN. 438 pp.
Baxter, J. W. 1957. The genus Cumminsiella. Mycologia 49:864–873.
Cummins, G. B., and Hiratsuka, Y. 2003. Illustrated genera of rust fungi. 3rd ed. APS Press, St.
Paul, MN. 225 pp.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Gäumann, E. 1959. Die Rostpilze Mitteleuropas. Beitr. Kryptogamenflora Schweiz. Vol. 12.
1407 pp.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
Hammarlund, C. 1930. Rostsvampar pa Mahonia (Puccinia mirabilissima Peck och P. graminis
Pers.). Bot. Notis. 1930:380–407.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Klebahn, H. 1935. Einige Beobachtungen und Versuche über den Mahonia-Rost. Z. Pflanzenkr.
Pflanzenschutz 45:529–537.
Lucas, J. A. 1988. An outbreak of mahonia rust, Cumminsiella mirabilissima. Mycologist 2:163.
McCain, J. W., Hennen, J. F., and Ono, Y. 1990. New host species and state distribution records
for North American rust fungi (Uredinales). Mycotaxon 39:281–300.
Parmelee, J. A., and Carteret, P. M. de. 1984. Cumminsiella mirabilissima. Fungi Canadenses
No. 288. 2 pp.
Pisi, A., and Bellardi, M. G. 1993. Rust and powdery mildew on Mahonia aquifolium Nutt.
Phytopathol. Medit. 32:51–54.
Punja, Z. K., and Ormrod, D. J. 1979. New or noteworthy plant diseases in coastal British
Columbia, 1975 to 1977. Can. Plant Dis. Surv. 59:22–24.
Sivanesan, A. 1970. Cumminsiella mirabilissima. C.M.I. Descr. Pathogenic Fungi Bact. No. 261.
2 pp.
154
U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Fungal
Databases. Beltsville, MD. Internet resource.
-----------------Fig rust and birch rust, Plate 136, page 273
Fig rust
Arthur, J. C. 1934. Manual of the rusts in the United States and Canada. Purdue Res. Found.,
Lafayette, IN. 438 pp.
Cummins, G. B., and Hiratsuka, Y. 2003. Illustrated genera of rust fungi. 3rd ed. APS Press, St.
Paul, MN. 225 pp.
Edgerton, C. W. 1911. Diseases of the fig tree and fruit. La. Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull. 126. 20 pp.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Krezdorn, A. H., and Adriance, G. W. 1961. Fig growing in the South. USDA Agric. Handb.
196. 26 pp.
McKenzie, E. H. C. 1986. New plant disease record in New Zealand: fig rust (Cerotelium fici)
on Ficus carica. N.Z. J. Agric. Res. 29:707–710.
Prasad, K. V., Yadav, B. R. D., and Sullia, S. B. 1993. Taxonomic status of rust on mulberry in
India. Curr. Sci. 65:424–426.
Thirumalachar, M. J., Rao, D. V. S., and Ravindranath, V. 1950. Telia of the rust on cultivated
figs. Curr. Sci. 19:27–28.
-----------------Birch rust
Arthur, J. C. 1934. Manual of the rusts in the United States and Canada. Purdue Res. Found.,
Lafayette, IN. 438 pp.
Capretti, P., Heiniger, U., and Stephan, R., eds. 1995. Shoot and foliage diseases in forest trees.
IUFRO Proceedings. Vallombrosa, Firenze, Italy, 1994. Inst. Patol. Zool. For. Agrar., Univ.
Studi di Firenze, Italy. 309 pp.
Cummins, G. B., and Hiratsuka, Y. 2003. Illustrated genera of rust fungi. 3rd ed. APS Press, St.
Paul, MN. 225 pp.
Dooley, H. L. 1984. Temperature effects on germination of uredospores of Melampsoridium
betulinum and on rust development. Plant Dis. 68:686–688.
Helander, M. L., Vuorinen, P., Saikkonen, K., and Lappalainen, J. 1998. Evidence for resistance
of mountain birch (Betula pubescens ssp. czerepanovii) to birch rust (Melampsoridium
betulinum). Mycol. Res. 102:63–66.
Jalkanen, R., Crane, P. E., Walla, J. A., and Aalto, T., eds. 1998. Proceedings of the first IUFRO
rusts of forest trees working party conference, 1998, Saariselkä, Finland. Finn. For. Res. Inst.
Res. Pap. 712. 309 pp.
Kechel, H. G., and Boden, E. 1984. Differential resistance of North American and European
birches to Melampsoridium betulinum. Holzzucht 38:27–30.
Kurkela, T., Hanso, M., and Hantula, J. 1999. Differentiating characteristics between
Melampsoridium rusts infecting birch and alder leaves. Mycologia 91:987–992.
155
Peace, T. R. 1962. Pathology of trees and shrubs. Clarendon Press, Oxford. 722 pp.
Poteri, M. 1992. Screening of clones of Betula pendula and B. pubescens against two forms of
Melampsoridium betulinum leaf rust fungus. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 22:166–173.
Poteri, M., and Rousi, M. 1996. Variation in Melampsoridium resistance among European whitebirch clones grown in different fertilization treatments. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 26:171–181.
Roll-Hansen, F., and Roll-Hansen, H. 1981. Melampsoridium on Alnus in Europe. M. alni
conspecific with M. betulinum. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 11:77–87.
Yamaoka, Y., and Katsuya, K. 1985. Evaluation of morphological characteristics in the rust
taxonomy with special reference to the cultural state of Melampsora and Melampsoridium.
Trans. Mycol. Soc. Jap. 26:231–246.
Ziller, W. G. 1974. The tree rusts of western Canada. Can. For. Serv. Pub. 1329. 272 pp.
-----------------Pucciniastrum and allied rusts, Plates 137–138, pages 275–277
Overview, Hemlock-hydrangea rust, Hemlock-blueberry rusts
Adams, J. F. 1920. The alternate stage of Pucciniastrum hydrangeae. Mycologia 12:33–35.
Allen, E. A., Morrison, D. J., and Wallis, G. W. 1996. Common tree diseases of British
Columbia. Nat. Resour. Can. Can. For. Serv., Victoria, BC. 178 pp.
Arthur, J. C. 1934. Manual of the rusts in the United States and Canada. Purdue Res. Found.,
Lafayette, IN. 438 pp.
Berndt, R., and Oberwinkler, F. 1995. Ultrastructure of the parasitic interface of Pucciniastrum,
Thekopsora, Naohidemyces, and Calyptospora (Uredinales, Pucciniastraceae) in the
dikaryotic stage. Mycoscience 36:51–59.
Canadian Forest Service, Forest Insect and Disease Survey. 1950–1996. Annual Report of the
Forest Insect and Disease Survey, 1950–1979; volumes of 1980–1995 entitled Forest insect
and disease conditions in Canada. Nat. Resour. Can. Can. For. Serv., Ottawa.
Conners, I. L. 1967. An annotated index of plant diseases in Canada. Can. Dep. Agric. Pub.
1251. 381 pp.
Cummins, G. B., and Hiratsuka, Y. 2003. Illustrated genera of rust fungi. 3rd ed. APS Press, St.
Paul, MN. 225 pp.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
Hiratsuka, N. 1936. A monograph of the Pucciniastreae. Mem. Tottori Agric. Coll., Tottori, Jap.
Vol. 4. 374 pp.
Hiratsuka, N. 1958. Revision of taxonomy of the Pucciniastreae with special reference to species
of the Japanese archipelago. Tokyo Univ. Educ. Faculty Agric., Tokyo. Contrib. No. 31. 167
pp.
Maier, W., Begerow, D., Weiss, M., and Oberwinkler, F. 2003. Phylogeny of the rust fungi: an
approach using nuclear large subunit ribosomal DNA sequences. Can. J. Bot. 81:12–23.
McCain, J. W., Hennen, J. F., and Ono, Y. 1990. New host species and state distribution records
for North American rust fungi (Uredinales). Mycotaxon 39:281–300.
Pfister, S. E., Halik, S., and Bergdahl, D. R. 2004. Effect of temperature on Thekopsora minima
urediniospores and uredinia. Plant Dis. 88:359–362.
156
Sato, S., Katsuya, K., and Hiratsuka, Y. 1993. Morphology, taxonomy and nomenclature of
Tsuga-Ericaceae rusts. Trans. Mycol. Soc. Jap. 34:47–62.
U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Fungal
Databases. Beltsville, MD. Internet resource.
Wegwitz, E. 1993. Needle and broom rusts of true firs. Can. For. Serv. Pac. For. Cent. For. Pest
Leafl. 45. 7 pp.
Wilson, M., and Henderson, D. M. 1966. British rust fungi. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge.
324 pp.
Ziller, W. G. 1974. The tree rusts of western Canada. Can. For. Serv. Pub. 1329. 272 pp.
-----------------Pucciniastrum and allied rusts, continued, Plate 138, page 277
Fir-fireweed and fuchsia rusts
Arthur, J. C. 1934. Manual of the rusts in the United States and Canada. Purdue Res. Found.,
Lafayette, IN. 438 pp.
Cummins, G. B., and Hiratsuka, Y. 2003. Illustrated genera of rust fungi. 3rd ed. APS Press, St.
Paul, MN. 225 pp.
Faull, J. H. 1938. Pucciniastrum on Epilobium and Abies. J. Arnold Arbor. 19:163–173.
Hiratsuka, N. 1936. A monograph of the Pucciniastreae. Mem. Tottori Agric. Coll., Tottori, Jap.
Vol. 4. 374 pp.
Hiratsuka, N. 1958. Revision of taxonomy of the Pucciniastreae with special reference to species
of the Japanese archipelago. Tokyo Univ. Educ. Faculty Agric., Tokyo. Contrib. No. 31. 167
pp.
Hiratsuka, Y., McArthur, L. E., and Emond, F. J. 1967. A distinction between Pucciniastrum
goeppertianum and P. epilobii, with clarification of status of Peridermium holwayi and P.
ornamentale. Can. J. Bot. 45:1913–1915.
Loring, L. B., and Roth, L. F. 1964. Pucciniastrum epilobii on Fuchsia in Oregon. Plant Dis.
Rep. 48:99.
McCain, J. W., Hennen, J. F., and Ono, Y. 1990. New host species and state distribution records
for North American rust fungi (Uredinales). Mycotaxon 39:281–300.
McNabb, R. F. R., and Laurenson, J. B. 1965. A rust of cultivated fuchsias. N.Z. J. Agric. Res.
8:336–339.
Pady, S. M. 1933. Teliospore development in the Pucciniastraceae. Can. J. Res. 9:458–485.
Savile, D. B. O. 1962. Some fungal parasites of Onagraceae. Can. J. Bot. 40:1385–1398.
Strider, D. L., and Jones, R. K. 1978. Rust of fuchsia in North Carolina. Plant Dis. Rep. 62:745–
746.
Weir, J. R., and Hubert, E. E. 1918. Notes on the overwintering of forest tree rusts.
Phytopathology 8:55–59.
Wilson, M., and Henderson, D. M. 1966. British rust fungi. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge,
UK. 324 pp.
Ziller, W. G. 1974. The tree rusts of western Canada. Can. For. Serv. Pub. 1329. 272 pp.
-----------------Fir-blueberry rust
Arthur, J. C. 1934. Manual of the rusts in the United States and Canada. Purdue Res. Found.,
Lafayette, IN. 438 pp.
157
Berndt, R., and Oberwinkler, F. 1995. Ultrastructure of the parasitic interface of Pucciniastrum,
Thekopsora, Naohidemyces, and Calyptospora (Uredinales, Pucciniastraceae) in the
dikaryotic stage. Mycoscience 36:51–59.
Cummins, G. B., and Hiratsuka, Y. 2003. Illustrated genera of rust fungi. 3rd ed. APS Press, St.
Paul, MN. 225 pp.
Davis, C., and Meyer, T. 1997. Field guide to tree diseases of Ontario. NODA/NFP Tech. Rep.
TR-46. Can. For. Serv. Great Lakes For. Cent. and Ontario Minist. Nat. Resour., Sault Ste.
Marie. 135 pp.
Hiratsuka, N. 1936. A monograph of the Pucciniastreae. Mem. Tottori Agric. Coll., Tottori, Jap.
Vol. 4. 374 pp.
Hiratsuka, N. 1958. Revision of taxonomy of the Pucciniastreae with special reference to species
of the Japanese archipelago. Tokyo Univ. Educ. Faculty Agric., Tokyo. Contrib. No. 31. 167
pp.
Hiratsuka, Y., McArthur, L. E., and Emond, F. J. 1967. A distinction between Pucciniastrum
goeppertianum and P. epilobii, with clarification of status of Peridermium holwayi and P.
ornamentale. Can. J. Bot. 45:1913–1915.
Krebill, R. G. 1972. Pucciniastrum goeppertianum in Abies lasiocarpa in the Rocky Mountain
states. Am. Midl. Nat. 87:570–576.
Sickle, G. A. Van. 1973. A quantitative survey for needle rust of balsam fir. Plant Dis. Rep.
57:765–766.
Sickle, G. A. Van. 1973. A survey of production losses due to witches' broom of blueberry in the
Maritime Provinces. Plant Dis. Rep. 57:608–611.
Sickle, G. A. Van. 1974. Growth loss caused by a needle rust (Pucciniastrum goeppertianum) of
balsam fir. Can. J. For. Res. 4:138–140.
Sickle, G. A. Van. 1975. Basidiospore production and infection of balsam fir by a needle rust,
Pucciniastrum goeppertianum. Can. J. Bot. 53:8–17.
Sickle, G. A. Van. 1977. Seasonal periodicity in the discharge of Pucciniastrum goeppertianum
basidiospores. Can. J. Bot. 55:745–751.
-----------------Other Pucciniastrum and Thekopsora rusts in North America
Arthur, J. C. 1934. Manual of the rusts in the United States and Canada. Purdue Res. Found.,
Lafayette, IN. 438 pp.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
Hiratsuka, N. 1936. A monograph of the Pucciniastreae. Mem. Tottori Agric. Coll., Tottori, Jap.
Vol. 4. 374 pp.
Hiratsuka, N. 1958. Revision of taxonomy of the Pucciniastreae with special reference to species
of the Japanese archipelago. Tokyo Univ. Educ. Faculty Agric., Tokyo. Contrib. No. 31. 167
pp.
U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Fungal
Databases. Beltsville, MD. Internet resource.
Ziller, W. G. 1974. The tree rusts of western Canada. Can. For. Serv. Pub. 1329. 272 pp.
------------------
158
Fir-fern rusts, Plate 139, page 279
Berndt, R., Bauer, R., and Oberwinkler, F. 1994. Ultrastructure of the host-parasite interface in
the fern rusts Milesia, Uredinopsis, and Hyalopsora (Pucciniastraceae, Uredinales). Can. J.
Bot. 72:1084–1094
Cummins, G. B., and Hiratsuka, Y. 2003. Illustrated genera of rust fungi. 3rd ed. APS Press, St.
Paul, MN. 225 pp.
Faull, J. H. 1934. The biology of Milesian rusts. J. Arnold Arbor. 15:50–85.
Faull, J. H. 1938. Taxonomy and geographical distribution of the genus Uredinopsis. Contrib.
Arnold Arbor. No. 11. 120 pp.
Faull, J. H. 1938. The biology of rusts of the genus Uredinopsis. J. Arnold Arbor. 19:402–436.
Fraser, W. P. 1914. Notes on Uredinopsis mirabilis and other rusts. Mycologia 6:25–28.
Mazzola, M., and Bergdahl, D. R. 1989. The phenology and spore dissemination patterns of
Uredinopsis mirabilis on Abies balsamea and Onoclea sensibilis. Can. J. For. Res. 19:88–95.
Sjamsuridzal, W., Nishida, H., Ogawa, H., Kakishima, M., and Sugiyama, J. 1999. Phylogenetic
positions of rust fungi parasitic on ferns: evidence from 18S rDNA sequence analysis.
Mycoscience 40:21–27.
Wegwitz, E. 1993. Needle and broom rusts of true firs. Can. For. Serv. Pac. For. Cent. For. Pest
Leafl. 45. 7 pp.
Ziller, W. G. 1974. The tree rusts of western Canada. Can. For. Serv. Pub. 1329. 272 pp.
-----------------Broom rust of fir, Plate 140, page 281
Berndt, R., and Oberwinkler, F. 1997. Haustorial ultrastructure and morphology of
Melampsorella and Thekopsora areolata. Mycologia 89:698–705.
Capretti, P., Heiniger, U., and Stephan, R., eds. 1995. Shoot and foliage diseases in forest trees.
IUFRO Proceedings. Vallombrosa, Firenze, Italy, 1994. Inst. Patol. Zool. For. Agrar., Univ.
Studi di Firenze, Italy. 309 pp.
Cummins, G. B., and Hiratsuka, Y. 2003. Illustrated genera of rust fungi. 3rd ed. APS Press, St.
Paul, MN. 225 pp.
Gäumann, E. 1959. Die Rostpilze Mitteleuropas. Beitr. Kryptogamenflora Schweiz. Vol. 12.
1407 pp.
Merrill, W., Wenner, N. G., and Peplinski, J. D. 1993. New host distribution records from
Pennsylvania conifers. Plant Dis. 77:430–432.
Pady, S. M. 1946. The development and germination of the intraepidermal teliospores of
Melampsorella cerastii. Mycologia 38:477–499.
Peterson, R. S. 1963. Effects of broom rusts on spruce and fir. USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. INT7. 10 pp.
Wegwitz, E. 1993. Needle and broom rusts of true firs. Can. For. Serv. Pac. For. Cent. For. Pest
Leafl. 45. 7 pp.
White, B. L., and Merrill, W. 1969. Pathological anatomy of Abies balsamea infected with
Melampsorella caryophyllacearum. Phytopathology 59:1238–1242.
Ziller, W. G. 1974. The tree rusts of western Canada. Can. For. Serv. Pub. 1329. 272 pp.
-----------------Melampsora rusts, Plates 141–142, pages 283–285
159
Overview, poplar rusts, and M. farlowii
Arthur, J. C. 1934. Manual of the rusts in the United States and Canada. Purdue Res. Found.,
Lafayette, IN. 438 pp.
Beare, J. A., Archer, S. A., and Bell, J. N. B. 1999. Effects of Melampsora leaf rust disease and
chronic ozone exposure on poplar. Environ. Pollut. 105:419–426.
Callan, B. E. 1998. Diseases of Populus in British Columbia: a diagnostic manual. Can. For.
Serv. Pac. For. Cent., Victoria, BC. 157 pp.
Cummins, G. B., and Hiratsuka, Y. 2003. Illustrated genera of rust fungi. 3rd ed. APS Press, St.
Paul, MN. 225 pp.
Gäumann, E. 1959. Die Rostpilze Mitteleuropas. Beitr. Kryptogamenflora Schweiz. Vol. 12.
1407 pp.
Hamelin, R. C., Shain, L., and Thielges, B. A. 1992. Influence of leaf wetness, temperature, and
rain on poplar leaf rust epidemics. Can. J. For. Res. 22:1249–1254.
Hepting, G. H., and Toole, E. R. 1939. The hemlock rust caused by Melampsora farlowii.
Phytopathology 29:463–473.
Hsiang, T., and Chastagner, G. A. 1993. Variation in Melampsora occidentalis rust on poplars in
the Pacific Northwest. Can. J. Plant Pathol. 15:175–181.
Jalkanen, R., Crane, P. E., Walla, J. A., and Aalto, T., eds. 1998. Proceedings of the first IUFRO
Rusts of Forest Trees Working Party conference, 1998, Saariselkä, Finland. Finn. For. Res.
Inst. Res. Pap. 712. 309 pp.
Laurans, F., and Pilate, G. 1999. Histological aspects of a hypersensitive response in poplar to
Melampsora larici-populina. Phytopathology 89:233–238.
Lefèvre, F., Goué-Mourier, M. C., Faivre-Rampant, R. P., and Villar, M. 1998. A single gene
cluster controls incompatibility and partial resistance to various Melampsora larici-populina
races in hybrid poplars. Phytopathology 88:156–163.
Lefèvre, F., Pichot, C., and Pinon, J. 1994. Intra- and interspecific inheritance of some
components of the resistance to leaf rust (Melampsora larici-populina Kleb.) in poplars.
Theor. Appl. Genet. 88:501–507.
Ludwig, C. A. 1915. Notes on some North American rusts with Caeoma-like sori.
Phytopathology 5:273–281.
McCracken, F. I., Schipper, A. L., and Widin, K. D. 1984. Observations on occurrence of
cottonwood leaf rust in central United States. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 14:226–233.
Miot, S., Frey, P., and Pinon, J. 1999. Varietal mixture of poplar clones: effects on infection by
Melampsora larici-populina and on plant growth. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 29:411–423.
Newcombe, G. 1998. A review of exapted resistance to diseases of Populus. Eur. J. For. Pathol.
28:209–216.
Newcombe, G. 1998. Association of Mmd1, a major gene for resistance to Melampsora medusae
f.sp. deltoidae, with quantitative traits in poplar rust. Phytopathology 88:114–121.
Newcombe, G., Chastagner, G. A., and McDonald, S. K. 1994. Additional coniferous aecial
hosts of the poplar leaf rusts, Melampsora larici-populina and M. medusae f.sp. deltoidae.
Plant Dis. 78:1218.
Newcombe, G., Stirling, B., and Bradshaw, H. D. Jr. 2001. Abundant pathogenic variation in the
new hybrid rust Melampsora columbiana on hybrid poplar. Phytopathology 91:981–985.
Newcombe, G., Stirling, B. McDonald, S., and Bradshaw, H. D. Jr. 2000. Melampsora
columbiana, a natural hybrid of M. medusae and M. occidentalis. Mycol. Res. 104:261–
274.
160
Ostry, M. E., and McNabb, H. S. Jr. 1985. Susceptibility of Populus species and hybrids to
disease in the north central United States. Plant Dis. 69:755–757.
Ostry, M. E., Wilson, L. F., McNabb, H. S. Jr., and Moore, L. M. 1988. A guide to insect,
disease, and animal pests of poplars. USDA Agric. Handb. 677. 118 pp.
Pichot, C., and Teissier, C. E. du. 1993. Susceptibility of P. deltoides Bartr. to Melampsora
larici-populina and M. alli-populina. I. Qualitative analysis of a 6  6 factorial mating
design. II. Quantitative analysis of a 6  6 factorial mating design. Silvae Genet. 42:179–
188, 188–199.
Prakash, C. S., and Heather, W. A. 1986. Inheritance of resistance to races of Melampsora
medusae in Populus deltoides. Silvae Genet. 35:74–77.
Prakash, C. S., and Thielges, B. A. 1989. Interaction of geographic isolates of Melampsora
medusae and Populus: effect of temperature. Can. J. Bot. 67:486–490.
Shain, L. 1988. Evidence for formae speciales in the poplar leaf rust fungus Melampsora
medusae. Mycologia 80:729–732.
Shain, L., and Jarlfors, U. 1987. Ultrastructure of eastern cottonwood clones susceptible or
resistant to leaf rust. Can. J. Bot. 65:1586–1598.
Singh, S. J., and Heather, W. A. 1982. Temperature sensitivity of qualitative race-cultivar
interactions in Melampsora medusae Thüm. and Populus species. Eur. J. For. Pathol.
12:123–127.
Singh, S. J., and Heather, W. A. 1982. Temperature-light sensitivity of infection types expressed
by cultivars of Populus deltoides Marsh. to races of Melampsora medusae Thüm. Eur. J. For.
Pathol. 12:327–331.
Spiers, A. G., and Hopcroft, D. H. 1985. Ultrastructural studies of pathogenesis and uredinial
development of Melampsora larici-populina and M. medusae on poplar and M.
coleosporioides and M. epitea on willow. N.Z. J. Bot. 23:117–133.
Spiers, A. G., and Hopcroft, D. H. 1985. Ultrastructural studies of the spermatial and aecial
stages of Melampsora larici-populina and Melampsora epitea on Larix decidua. N.Z. J. Bot.
23:101–116.
Spiers, A. G., and Hopcroft, D. H. 1988. Penetration and infection of poplar leaves by
urediniospores of Melampsora larici-populina and Melampsora medusae. N.Z. J. Bot.
26:101–111.
Spiers, A. G., and Hopcroft, D. H. 1990. Ultrastructural studies of interactions between resistant
and susceptible poplar cultivars and the rusts, Melampsora medusae and Melampsora laricipopulina. N.Z. J. Bot. 28:307–322.
Spiers, A. G., and Hopcroft, D. H. 1994. Comparative studies of the poplar rusts Melampsora
medusae, M. larici-populina and their interspecific hybrid M. medusae-populina. Mycol.
Res. 98:889–903.
Thielges, B. A., and Adams, J. C. 1975. Genetic variation and heritability of Melampsora leaf
rust resistance in eastern cottonwood. For. Sci. 21:278–282.
U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Fungal
Databases. Beltsville, MD. Internet resource.
Wang, J., and van der Kamp, B. J. 1992. Resistance, tolerance, and yield of western black
cottonwood infected by Melampsora rust. Can. J. For. Res. 22:183–192.
Widin, K. D., and Schipper, A. L. Jr. 1980. Epidemiology of Melampsora medusae leaf rust of
poplars in the north central United States. Can. J. For. Res. 10:257–263.
161
Widin, K. D., and Schipper, A. L. Jr. 1981. Effect of Melampsora medusae leaf rust infections
on yield of hybrid poplars in the north-central United States. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 11:438–448.
Wilson, M., and Henderson, D. M. 1966. British rust fungi. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge,
UK. 324 pp.
Ziller, W. G. 1955–1970. Studies of western tree rusts. II. Melampsora occidentalis and M.
albertensis, two needle rusts of Douglas-fir. V. The rusts of hemlock and fir caused by
Melampsora epitea. VI. The aecial host ranges of Melampsora albertensis, M. medusae, and
M. occidentalis. VII. Inoculation experiments with pine stem rusts (Cronartium and
Endocronartium). VIII. Inoculation experiments with conifer needle rusts
(Melampsoraceae). Can. J. Bot. 33:177–188; 37:109–119; 43:217–230; 48:1313–1319,
1471–1476.
Ziller, W. G. 1974. The tree rusts of western Canada. Can. For. Serv. Pub. 1329. 272 pp.
-----------------Willow rusts, Melampsora hybrids and races, host resistance, and cultural control
Arthur, J. C. 1934. Manual of the rusts in the United States and Canada. Purdue Res. Found.,
Lafayette, IN. 438 pp.
Carvalho, A. A. Jr., Martins, E. M. F., and Figueiredo, M. B. 1998. Axenic culture of
Melampsora epitea, the willow (Salix babylonica) rust, from urediniospores. Fitopatol.
Brasil. 23:379–385.
Gäumann, E. 1959. Die Rostpilze Mitteleuropas. Beitr. Kryptogamenflora Schweiz. Vol. 12.
1407 pp.
Jalkanen, R., Crane, P. E., Walla, J. A., and Aalto, T., eds. 1998. Proceedings of the first IUFRO
Rusts of Forest Trees Working Party conference, 1998, Saariselkä, Finland. Finn. For. Res.
Inst. Res. Pap. 712. 309 pp.
McCracken, A. R., and Dawson, W. M. 1997. Growing clonal mixtures of willow to reduce
effect of Melampsora epitea var. epitea. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 27:319–329.
McCracken, A. R., and Dawson, W. M. 1998. Short rotation coppice willow in Northern Ireland
since 1973: development of the use of mixtures in the control of foliar rust (Melampsora
spp.). Eur. J. For. Pathol. 28:241–250.
Nakamura, H., Kaneko, S., Yamaoka, Y., and Kakishima, M. 1998. Differentiation of
Melampsora rust species on willows in Japan using PCR-RFLP analysis of ITS regions of
ribosomal DNA. Mycoscience 39:105–113.
Pei, M. H., Hunter, T., and Ruiz, C. 1999. Occurrence of Melampsora rusts in biomass willow
plantations for renewable energy in the United Kingdom. Biomass Bioenergy 17:153–163.
Pei, M. H., Parker, S. R., Hunter, T., and Royle, D. J. 1997. Variation in populations of
Melampsora willow rust and the implications for design of short rotation coppice
plantations. Aspects Appl. Biol. 49:91–96.
Pei, M. H., Royle, D. J., and Hunter, T. 1993. Identity and host alternation of some willow rusts
(Melampsora spp.) in England. Mycol. Res. 97:845–851.
Pei, M. H., Royle, D. J., and Hunter, T. 1995. A comparative study of stem- and leaf-infecting
forms of Melampsora rust on Salix viminalis in the UK. Mycol. Res. 99:357–363.
Pei, M. H., Royle, D. J., and Hunter, T. 1996. Pathogenic specialization in Melampsora epitea
var. epitea on Salix. Plant Pathol. 45:679–690.
Pei, M. H., Royle, D. J., and Hunter, T. 1999. Hybridization in larch-alternating Melampsora
epitea (M. larici-epitea). Mycol. Res. 103:1440–1446.
162
Ramstedt, M., Hurtado, S., and Astrom, B. 2002. Pathotypes of Melampsora rust on Salix in
short-rotation forestry plantations. Plant Pathol. 51:185–190.
Samils, B., Stepien, V., Lagercrantz, U., Lascoux, M., and Gullberg, U. 2001. Genetic diversity
in relation to sexual and asexual reproduction in populations of Melampsora larici-epitea.
Eur. J. Plant Pathol. 107:871–881.
Spiers, A. G., and Hopcroft, D. H. 1985. Ultrastructural studies of pathogenesis and uredinial
development of Melampsora larici-populina and M. medusae on poplar and M.
coleosporioides and M. epitea on willow. N.Z. J. Bot. 23:117–133.
Spiers, A. G., and Hopcroft, D. H. 1985. Ultrastructural studies of the spermatial and aecial
stages of Melampsora larici-populina and Melampsora epitea on Larix decidua. N.Z. J. Bot.
23:101–116.
Spiers, A. G., and Hopcroft, D. H. 1988. Ultrastructural studies of the telial, basidial, and
spermatial stages of the willow rust fungus Melampsora coleosporioides in New Zealand.
N.Z. J. Bot. 26:423–430.
U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Fungal
Databases. Beltsville, MD. Internet resource.
Weir, J. R., and Hubert, E. E. 1918. Notes on the overwintering of forest tree rusts.
Phytopathology 8:55–59.
Wilson, M., and Henderson, D. M. 1966. British rust fungi. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge,
UK. 324 pp.
Ziller, W. G. 1955–1970. Studies of western tree rusts. II. Melampsora occidentalis and M.
albertensis, two needle rusts of Douglas-fir. V. The rusts of hemlock and fir caused by
Melampsora epitea. VI. The aecial host ranges of Melampsora albertensis, M. medusae, and
M. occidentalis. VII. Inoculation experiments with pine stem rusts (Cronartium and
Endocronartium). VIII. Inoculation experiments with conifer needle rusts
(Melampsoraceae). Can. J. Bot. 33:177–188; 37:109–119; 43:217–230; 48:1313–1319;
48:1471–1476.
Ziller, W. G. 1974. The tree rusts of western Canada. Can. For. Serv. Pub. 1329. 272 pp.
-----------------Chrysomyxa rusts of spruce, Plate 143, page 287
Arthur, J. C. 1934. Manual of the rusts in the United States and Canada. Purdue Res. Found.,
Lafayette, IN. 438 pp.
Berndt, R. 1999. Chrysomyxa rust: morphology and ultrastructure of D-haustoria, uredinia, and
telia. Can. J. Bot. 77:1469–1484.
Conners, I. L. 1967. An annotated index of plant diseases in Canada. Can. Dep. Agric. Pub.
1251. 381 pp.
Crane, P. E. 2001. Morphology, taxonomy, and nomenclature of the Chrysomyxa ledi complex
and related rust fungi on spruce and Ericaceae in North America and Europe. Can. J. Bot.
79:957–982.
Crane, P. E., and Hiratsuka, Y. 1999. Evidence for environmental determination of uredinia and
telia production in Chrysomyxa pirolata (inland spruce cone rust). Can. J. Bot. 78:660–667.
Crane, P. E., Hiratsuka, Y., and Currah, R. S. 2000. Clarification of the life-cycle of Chrysomyxa
woroninii on Ledum and Picea. Mycol. Res. 104:581–586.
163
Crane, P. E., Hiratsuka, Y., and Currah, R. S. 2000. Reproductive biology and evidence for water
dispersal of teliospores in Chrysomyxa weirii, a microcyclic spruce needle rust. Mycologia
92:754–763.
Cummins, G. B., and Hiratsuka, Y. 2003. Illustrated genera of rust fungi. 3rd ed. APS Press, St.
Paul, MN. 225 pp.
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
Hiratsuka, Y. 1987. Forest tree diseases of the prairie provinces. Can. For. Serv. Inf. Rep. Nor-X286. 142 pp.
Hiratsuka, Y., Langor, D. W., and Crane, P. E. 1995. Forest insects and diseases of the prairie
provinces. Can. For. Serv. North. For. Cent. Spec. Rep. 3. 297 pp.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, No. 1–1010, and C.M.I. descriptions of
fungi and bacteria, No. 1011–1030. International Mycological Institute, Kew, Surrey, UK.
Jalkanen, R., Crane, P. E., Walla, J. A., and Aalto, T., eds. 1998. Proceedings of the first IUFRO
Rusts of Forest Trees Working Party conference, 1998, Saariselkä, Finland. Finn. For. Res.
Inst. Res. Pap. 712. 309 pp.
Mayr, S., Siller, C., Kriss, M., Oberhuber, W., and Bauer, H. 2001. Photosynthesis in rustinfected adult Norway spruce in the field. New Phytol. 151:683–689.
McBeath, J. H. 1984. Symptomology on spruce trees and spore characteristics of a bud rust
pathogen. Phytopathology 74:456–461.
Oberhuber, W., Thomaser, G., Mayr, S., and Bauer, H. 1999. Radial growth of Norway spruce
infected by Chrysomyxa rhododendri. Phyton 39:147–154.
Peterson, R. S. 1961. Host alternation of spruce broom rust. Science 134:468–469.
Peterson, R. S. 1963. Effects of broom rusts on spruce and fir. USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. INT7. 10 pp.
Plattner, K., Volgger, W., Oberhuber, W., Mayr, S., and Bauer, H. 1999. Dry mass production in
seedlings of Norway spruce infected by the needle rust Chrysomyxa rhododendri. Eur. J. For.
Pathol. 29:365–370.
Savile, D. B. O. 1950. North American species of Chrysomyxa. Can. J. Res. C28:318–330.
Savile, D. B. O. 1955. Chrysomyxa in North America—additions and corrections. Can. J. Bot.
33:487–496.
Singh, P. 1978. Broom rusts of balsam fir and black spruce in Newfoundland. Eur. J. For. Pathol.
8:25–36.
Singh, P., and Carew, G. C. 1990. Inland spruce cone rust of black spruce: effect on cone and
seed yield, and seed quality. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 20:397–404.
Sutherland, J. R., Hopkinson, S. J., and Farris, S. H. 1984. Inland spruce cone rust, Chrysomyxa
pirolata, in Pyrola asarifolia and cones of Picea glauca and morphology of the spore stages.
Can. J. Bot. 62:2441–2447.
U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Fungal
Databases. Beltsville, MD. Internet resource.
164
Ziller, W. G. 1974. The tree rusts of western Canada. Can. For. Serv. Pub. 1329. 272 pp.
-----------------Needle rusts of pines, Plate 144, page 289
Arthur, J. C. 1934. Manual of the rusts in the United States and Canada. Purdue Res. Found.,
Lafayette, IN. 438 pp.
Berndt, R. 1996. Ultrastructure of the D-haustoria of Coleosporium spp. (rust fungi, Uredinales).
Sydowia 48:263–272.
Boyce, J. S. 1943. Host relationships and distribution of conifer rusts in the United States and
Canada. Trans. Conn. Acad. Arts Sci. 35:329–482.
Cummins, G. B. 1978. Rust fungi on legumes and composites in North America. Univ. Ariz.
Press, Tucson. 424 pp.
Cummins, G. B., and Hiratsuka, Y. 2003. Illustrated genera of rust fungi. 3rd ed. APS Press, St.
Paul, MN. 225 pp.
Harada, Y. 1994. Materials for the rust flora of Japan VI. Mycoscience 35:295–299.
Heath, M. C. 1992. Host species specificity of the goldenrod rust fungus and the existence of rust
resistance within some goldenrod species. Can. J. Bot. 70:2461–2466.
Hiratsuka, N., Sato, S., Katsuya, K., Kakishima, M., Hiratsuka, Y., Kaneko, S., Ono, Y., Sato,
T., Harada, Y., Hiratsuka, T., and Nakayama, K. 1992. The rust flora of Japan. Tsukuba
Shuppankai, Takezono, Ibaraki, Jap. 1205 pp.
Kaneko, S. 1981. The species of Coleosporium, the causes of pine needle rusts, in the Japanese
Archipelago. Rep. Tottori Mycol. Inst. 19. 151 pp.
Kaneko, S., Katsuya, K., Kakishima, M., and Ono, Y. 1995. Proceedings of the fourth IUFRO
Rusts of Pines Working Party conference, Tsukuba, Japan, 1994. For. & For. Products Res.
Inst. Univ. Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Jap. 197 pp.
Mains, E. B. 1938. Host specialization in Coleosporium solidaginis and C. campanulae. Pap.
Mich. Acad. Sci. Arts Lett. 23:171–175.
McCain, J. W., Hennen, J. F., and Ono, Y. 1990. New host species and state distribution records
for North American rust fungi (Uredinales). Mycotaxon 39:281–300.
Mihail, J. D., Bruhn, J. N., Meyer, T. R., and Bell, F. W. 2002. Pine needle rust effect on Pinus
banksiana in response to interspecific plant competition and telial host density. Can. J. For.
Res. 32:1372–1380.
Nicholls, T. H., Patton, R. F., and Van Arsdel, E. P. 1968. Life cycle and seasonal development
of Coleosporium pine needle rust in Wisconsin. Phytopathology 58:822–829.
Ouellette, G. B. 1966. Coleosporium viburni on jack pine and its relationship with C. asterum.
Can. J. Bot. 44:1117–1120.
Ziller, W. G. 1974. The tree rusts of western Canada. Can. For. Serv. Pub. 1329. 272 pp.
-----------------Stem and cone rusts of pines, Plate 145, page 291
Overview of North American Cronartium rusts
Arthur, J. C. 1934. Manual of the rusts in the United States and Canada. Purdue Res. Found.,
Lafayette, IN. 438 pp.
Boyce, J. S. 1943. Host relationships and distribution of conifer rusts in the United States and
Canada. Trans. Conn. Acad. Arts Sci. 35:329–482.
Boyce, J. S. 1961. Forest pathology. 3rd ed. McGraw-Hill, New York. 572 pp.
165
Cummins, G. B., and Hiratsuka, Y. 2003. Illustrated genera of rust fungi. 3rd ed. APS Press, St.
Paul, MN. 225 pp.
Hansen, E. M., and Lewis, K. J., eds. 1997. Compendium of conifer diseases. APS Press, St.
Paul, MN. 101 pp.
Hiratsuka, Y., and Powell, J. M. 1976. Pine stem rusts of Canada. Can. For. Serv. North. For.
Res. Cent., Edmonton, Tech. Rep. No. 4. 103 pp.
Jalkanen, R., Crane, P. E., Walla, J. A., and Aalto, T., eds. 1998. Proceedings of the first IUFRO
Rusts of Forest Trees Working Party conference, 1998, Saariselkä, Finland. Finn. For. Res.
Inst. Res. Pap. 712. 309 pp.
Kaneko, S. 2000. Cronartium orientale, sp. nov., segregation of the pine gall rust in eastern Asia
from Cronartium quercuum. Mycoscience 41:115–122.
Kaneko, S., Katsuya, K., Kakishima, M., and Ono, Y. 1995. Proceedings of the fourth IUFRO
Rusts of Pines Working Party conference, Tsukuba, Japan, 1994. For. & For. Products Res.
Inst. Univ. Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Jap. 197 pp.
Krebill, R. G. 1968. Histology of canker rusts in pines. Phytopathology 58:155–164.
Mims, C. W., Liljebjelke, K. A., and Covert, S. F. 1996. Ultrastructure of telia and teliospores of
the rust fungus Cronartium quercuum f.sp. fusiforme. Mycologia 88:47–56.
Peterson, R. S. 1967. The Peridermium species on pine stems. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 94:511–
542.
Peterson, R. S. 1968. Limb rusts of pine: the causal fungi. Phytopathology 58:309–315.
Peterson, R. S. 1973. Studies of Cronartium (Uredinales). Rep. Tottori Mycol. Inst. 10:203–223.
Peterson, R. S., and Jewell, F. F. 1968. Status of American stem rusts of pine. Annu. Rev.
Phytopathol. 6:23–40.
Vogler, D. R., and Bruns, T. D. 1998. Phylogenetic relationships among the pine stem rust fungi
(Cronartium and Peridermium spp.). Mycologia 90:244–257.
Woo, J. Y., and Martin, N. E. 1981. Scanning electron microscopy of Cronartium ribicola
infecting Ribes leaves. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 11:7–15.
Ziller, W. G. 1974. The tree rusts of western Canada. Can. For. Serv. Pub. 1329. 272 pp.
-----------------Stem and cone rusts of pines, continued, Plate 146, page 293
White pine blister rust
Arsdel, E. P. Van. 1961. Growing white pine in the Lake States to avoid blister rust. USDA For.
Serv. Lake States For. Exp. Stn. Stn. Pap. 92. 11 pp.
Arsdel, E. P. Van. 1967. The nocturnal diffusion and transport of spores. Phytopathology
57:1221–1229.
Arsdel, E. P. Van, Riker, A. J., and Patton, R. F. 1956. Effects of temperature and moisture on
the spread of white pine blister rust. Phytopathology 46:307–318.
Bega, R. V. 1959. The capacity and period of maximum production of sporidia in Cronartium
ribicola. Phytopathology 49:54–57.
Bingham, R. T. 1983. Blister rust resistant western white pine for the Inland Empire: the story of
the first 25 years of the research and development program. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech.
Rep. INT-146. 45 pp.
Bingham, R. T., Hoff, R. J., and McDonald, G. I., sci. dir. and prog. coord. 1972. Biology of rust
resistance in forest trees: Proc. NATO-IUFRO Adv. Study Inst., 1969. USDA Misc. Pub.
1221. 681 pp.
166
Blodgett, J. T., and Sullivan, K. F. 2004. First report of white pine blister rust on Rocky
Mountain bristlecone pine. Plant Dis. 84:311.
Charlton, J. W. 1963. Relating climate to eastern white pine blister rust infection hazard. USDA
For. Serv., East. Reg., Upper Darby, PA. 38 pp.
Colley, R. H. 1918. Parasitism, morphology, and cytology of Cronartium ribicola. J. Agric. Res.
15:619–659.
Et-touil, K., Bernier, L., Beaulieu, J., Bérubé, J. A., Hopkin, A., and Hamelin, R. C. 1999.
Genetic structure of Cronartium ribicola populations in eastern Canada. Phytopathology
89:915–919.
Gitzendanner, M. A., White, E. E., Foord, B. M., Dupper, G. E., Hodgskiss, P. D., and Kinloch,
B. B. Jr. 1996. Genetics of Cronartium ribicola. III. Mating system. Can. J. Bot. 74:1852–
1859.
Hagle, S. K., McDonald, G. I., and Norby, E. A. 1989. White pine blister rust in northern Idaho
and western Montana: alternatives for integrated management. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech.
Rep. INT-261. 35 pp.
Hamelin, R. C., Dusabenyagasani, M., and Et-touil, K. 1998. Fine-level genetic structure of
white pine blister rust populations. Phytopathology 88:1187–1191.
Hamelin, R. C., Hunt, R. S., Geils, B. W., Jensen, G. D., Jacobi, V., and Lecours, N. 2000.
Barrier to gene flow between eastern and western populations of Cronartium ribicola in
North America. Phytopathology 90:1073–1078.
Hirt, R. R. 1964. Cronartium ribicola: its growth and reproduction in the tissues of eastern white
pine. State Univ. Coll. For. (Syracuse) Tech. Pub. 86. 30 pp.
Hoff, R. J., Bingham, R. T., and McDonald, G. I. 1980. Relative blister rust resistance of white
pines. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 10:307–316.
Hummer, K. E., and Sniezko, R., conveners. 2000. Ribes, pines, and white pine blister rust.
Proceedings of the conference, Corvallis, Oregon, 1999. HortTechnology 10:511–570.
Hunt, R. S. 1984. Inoculations of Scrophulariaceae with Cronartium ribicola. Can. J. Bot.
62:2523–2524.
Hunt, R. S. 1997. Relative value of slow-canker growth and bark reactions as resistance
responses to white pine blister rust. Can. J. Plant Pathol. 19:352–357.
Hunt, R. S. 1998. Pruning western white pine in British Columbia to reduce white pine blister
rust losses: 10-year results. West. J. Appl. For. 13:60–63.
Hunt, R. S. 2002. Relationship between early family-selection traits and natural blister rust
cankering in western white pine families. Can. J. Plant Pathol. 24:200–204.
Hunt, R. S. 2004. Blister-rust-resistant white pines for British Columbia. Can. For. Serv. BC-X397. 18 pp.
Hunt, R. S. 2004. White pine blister rust. Rec. Res. Devel. Mycol. 1:73–85. Transworld Res.
Network, Kerala, India
Jalkanen, R., Crane, P. E., Walla, J. A., and Aalto, T., eds. 1998. Proceedings of the first IUFRO
Rusts of Forest Trees Working Party conference, 1998, Saariselkä, Finland. Finn. For. Res.
Inst. Res. Pap. 712. 309 pp.
Kaneko, S., Katsuya, K., Kakishima, M., and Ono, Y., eds. 1995. Proceedings of the fourth
IUFRO Rusts of Pines Working Party conference, Tsukuba, Japan, 1994. For. & For.
Products Res. Inst. Univ. Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Jap. 197 pp.
Kinloch, B. B. Jr. 2003. White pine blister rust in North America: past and prognosis.
Phytopathology 93:1044–1047.
167
Kinloch, B. B. Jr., and Dupper, G. E. 1999. Evidence of cytoplasmic inheritance of virulence in
Cronartium ribicola to major gene resistance in sugar pine. Phytopathology 89:192–196.
Kinloch, B. B. Jr., and Dupper, G. E. 2002. Genetic specificity in the white pine–blister rust
pathosystem. Phytopathology 92:278–280.
Kinloch, B. B. Jr., Sniezko, R. A., Barnes, G. D., and Greathouse, T. E. 1999. A major gene for
resistance to white pine blister rust in western white pine from the Western Cascade Range.
Phytopathology 89:861–867.
Kinloch, B. B. Jr., Sniezko, R. A., and Dupper, G. E. 2003. Origin and distribution of Cr2, a
gene for resistance to white pine blister rust in natural populations of western white pine.
Phytopathology 93:691–694.
Kinloch, B. B. Jr., Westfall, R. D., White, E. E., Gitzendanner, M. A., Dupper, G. E., Foord, B.
M., and Hodgskiss, P. D. 1998. Genetics of Cronartium ribicola. IV. Population structure in
western North America. Can. J. Bot. 76:91–98.
Krebill, R. G. 1968. Histology of canker rusts in pines. Phytopathology 58:155–164.
Liebhold, A. M., MacDonald, W. L., Bergdahl, D., and Mastro, V. C. 1995. Invasion by exotic
forest pests: a threat to forest ecosystems. For. Sci. Monogr. 30. 49 pp.
Maloy, O. C. 1997. White pine blister rust control in North America: a case history. Annu. Rev.
Phytopathol. 35:87–109.
McDonald, G. I., and Hoff, R. J. 2001. Blister rust: an introduced plague. Pages 193–220 in:
Whitebark pine communities: ecology and restoration. D. F. Tomback, S. F. Arno, and R. E.
Keane, eds. Island Press, Washington, DC.
Mielke, J. L. 1943. White pine blister rust in western North America. Yale Univ. Sch. For. Bull.
52. 155 pp.
Ostrofsky, W. D., Rumpf, T., Struble, D., and Bradbury, R. 1988. Incidence of white pine blister
rust in Maine after 70 years of a Ribes eradication program. Plant Dis. 72:967–970.
Patton, R. F., and Johnson, D. W. 1970. Mode of penetration of needles of eastern white pine by
Cronartium ribicola. Phytopathology 60:977–982.
Patton, R. F., and Spear, R. N. 1989. Histopathology of colonization in leaf tissue of Castilleja,
Pedicularis, Phaseolus, and Ribes species by Cronartium ribicola. Phytopathology 79:539–
547.
Peterson, R. S., and Jewell, F. F. 1968. Status of American stem rusts of pine. Annu. Rev.
Phytopathol. 6:23–40.
Spaulding, P. 1922. Investigations of the white-pine blister rust. USDA Bull. 957. 100 pp.
Stephan, B. R., and Hyun, S. K. 1983. Studies on the specialization of Cronartium ribicola and
its differentiation on the alternate hosts Ribes and Pedicularis. Z. Pflanzenkr. Pflanzenschutz
90:670–678.
Struckmeyer, B. E., and Riker, A. J. 1951. Wound-periderm formation in white-pine trees
resistant to blister rust. Phytopathology 41:276–281.
Tainter, F. H., and Baker, F. A. 1996. Principles of forest pathology. Wiley, New York. 805 pp.
Vogler, D. R., and Bruns, T. D. 1998. Phylogenetic relationships among the pine stem rust fungi
(Cronartium and Peridermium spp.). Mycologia 90:244–257.
Welch, B. L., and Martin, N. E. 1974. Invasion mechanisms of Cronartium ribicola in Pinus
monticola bark. Phytopathology 64:1541–1546.
Wicker, E. F. 1981. Natural control of white pine blister rust by Tuberculina maxima.
Phytopathology 71:997–1000.
168
Woo, J. Y., and Martin, N. E. 1981. Scanning electron microscopy of Cronartium ribicola
infecting Ribes leaves. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 11:7–15.
Woo, K. S., Fins, L., McDonald, G. I., and Wiese, M. V. 2001. Differences in needle
morphology between blister rust resistant and susceptible western white pine stocks. Can. J.
For. Res. 31:1880–1886.
Xu, M.-O., Walla, J. A., and Zhao, W.-X., eds. 2003. Proceedings of the second IUFRO Rusts of
Forest Trees Working Party conference, Yangling, China, 2002. For. Res. 16 (Suppl.):1–228.
Zambino, P. J. 2000. Evaluating white pine blister rust resistance in Ribes after artificial
inoculation. HortTechnology 10:544-545.
Ziller, W. G. 1974. The tree rusts of western Canada. Can. For. Serv. Pub. 1329. 272 pp.
-----------------Stem and cone rusts of pines, continued, Plate 147, page 295
Fusiform rust
Anderson, R. L., McClure, J. P., Cost, N., and Uhler, R. J. 1986. Estimating fusiform rust losses
in five southeast states. South. J. Appl. For. 10:237–240.
Brawner, J. T., Carter, D. R., Huber, D. A., and White, T. L. 1999. Projected gains in rotationage volume and value from fusiform rust resistant slash and loblolly pines. Can. J. For. Res.
29:737–742.
Bridgwater, F. E., and Smith, W. D. 2002. Decline in values of slash pine stands infected with
fusiform rust. South. J. Appl. For. 26:134–139.
Burdsall, H. H. Jr., and Snow, G. A. 1977. Taxonomy of Cronartium quercuum and C.
fusiforme. Mycologia 69:503–508.
Czabator, F. J. 1971. Fusiform rust of southern pines – a critical review. USDA For. Serv. Res.
Pap. SO-65. 39 pp.
Dhakal, L. P., White, T. L., and Hodge, G. R. 1996. Realized genetic gains from slash pine tree
improvement. Silvae Genet. 45:190–197.
Dinus, R. J., and Schmidt, R. S., eds. 1977. Management of fusiform rust in southern pines.
Symp. Proc., Univ. Fla., Gainesville. 163 pp.
Dwinell, L. D. 1974. Susceptibility of southern oaks to Cronartium fusiforme and Cronartium
quercuum. Phytopathology 64:400–403.
Froelich, R. C., and Snow, G. A. 1986. Predicting site hazard to fusiform rust. For. Sci. 32:21–
35.
Garrett, P. W., and Trew, F. 1986. Resistance of pitch  loblolly pine hybrids to fusiform rust
(Cronartium quercuum f.sp. fusiforme). Plant Dis. 70:564–565.
Hamelin, R. C., Doudrick, R. L., and Nance, W. L. 1994. Genetic diversity in Cronartium
quercuum f.sp. fusiforme on loblolly pines in southern U.S. Curr. Genet. 26:359–363.
Hansen, E. M., and Lewis, K. J., eds. 1997. Compendium of conifer diseases. APS Press, St.
Paul, MN. 101 pp.
Hodge, G. R., White, T. L., Schmidt, R. A., and Allen, J. E. 1993. Stability of rust infection
ratios for resistant and susceptible slash and loblolly pine across rust hazard levels. South. J.
Appl. For. 17:188–192.
Hollis, C. A., and Schmidt, R. A. 1977. Site factors related to fusiform rust incidence in north
Florida slash pine plantations. For. Sci. 23:69–77.
Kuhlman, E. G. 1992. Interaction of virulent single-gall rust isolates of Cronartium quercuum
f.sp. fusiforme and resistant families of loblolly pine. For. Sci. 38:641–651.
169
Kuhlman, E. G., Amerson, H. V., Jordan, A. P., and Pepper, W. D. 1997. Inoculum density and
expression of major gene resistance to fusiform rust disease in loblolly pine. Plant Dis.
81:597–600.
Kuhlman, E. G., and Matthews, F. R. 1993. Variation in virulence among single-aeciospore
isolates from single-gall isolates of Cronartium quercuum f.sp. fusiforme. Can. J. For. Res.
23:67–71.
Kuhlman, E. G., and Pepper, W. D. 1994. Temperature effects on basidiospore germination and
on infection of slash pine seedlings by Cronartium quercuum f.sp. fusiforme. Phytopathology
84:735–739.
Kuhlman, E. G., and Powers, H. R. Jr. 1988. Resistance response in half-sib loblolly pine
progenies after inoculation with Cronartium quercuum f.sp. fusiforme. Phytopathology
78:484–487.
McKeand, S. E., Li, B., and Amerson, H. V. 1999. Genetic variation in fusiform rust resistance
in loblolly pine across a wide geographic range. Silvae Genet. 48:255–260.
Miller, T., Cowling, E. B., Powers, H. R. Jr., and Blalock, T. E. 1976. Types of resistance and
compatibility in slash pine seedlings infected by Cronartium fusiforme. Phytopathology
66:1229–1235.
Miller, T., Patton, R. F., and Powers, H. R. Jr. 1980. Mode of infection and early colonization of
slash pine seedlings by Cronartium quercuum f.sp. fusiforme. Phytopathology 70:1206–
1208.
Mims, C. W., Liljebjelke, K. A., and Covert, S. F. 1996. Ultrastructure of telia and teliospores of
the rust fungus Cronartium quercuum f.sp. fusiforme. Mycologia 88:47–56.
Peterson, R. S. 1967. The Peridermium species on pine stems. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 94:511–
542.
Powers, H. R. Jr., Lin, D., and Hubbes, M. 1989. Interspecific and intraspecific differentiation
within the genus Cronartium by isozyme and protein pattern analysis. Plant Dis. 73:691–
694.
Powers, H. R., Miller, T., and Belanger, R. P. 1993. Management strategies to reduce losses
from fusiform rust. South. J. Appl. For. 17:146–149.
Powers, H. R. Jr., Schmidt, R. A., and Snow, G. A. 1981. Current status and management of
fusiform rust on southern pines. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 19:353–371.
Schmidt, R. A., Gramacho, K. P., Miller, T., and Young, C. H. 2000. Components of partial
resistance in the slash pine–fusiform rust pathosystem. Phytopathology 90:1005–1010.
Schmidt, R. A., Holley, R. C., Klapproth, M. C., and Miller, T. 1986. Temporal and spatial
patterns of fusiform rust epidemics in young plantations of susceptible and resistant slash
and loblolly pines. Plant Dis. 70:661–666.
Spaine, P. C., and Kaneko, S. 1996. Nuclear behavior during basidiospore germination in
Cronartium quercuum f.sp. fusiforme. Mycologia 88:892–896.
Squillace, A. E., Dinus, R. J., Hollis, C. A., and Schmidt, R. A. 1978. Relation of oak abundance,
seed source, and temperature to geographic patterns of fusiform rust incidence. USDA For.
Serv. Res. Pap. SE-186. 20 pp.
Stelzer, H. E., Doudrick, R. L., Kubisiak, T. L., and Nelson, C. D. 1999. Prescreening slash pine
and Cronartium pedigrees for evaluation of complementary gene action in fusiform rust
disease. Plant Dis. 83:385–389.
Tainter, F. H., and Anderson, R. L. 1993. Twenty-six new pine hosts of fusiform rust. Plant Dis.
77:17–20.
170
Vogler, D. R., and Bruns, T. D. 1998. Phylogenetic relationships among the pine stem rust fungi
(Cronartium and Peridermium spp.). Mycologia 90:244–257.
Wilcox, P. L., Amerson, H. V., Kuhlman, E. G., Liu, B., O'Malley, D. M., and Sederoff, R. R.
1996. Detection of a major gene for resistance to fusiform rust disease in loblolly pine by
genomic mapping. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93:3859–3864.
-----------------Pine-oak gall rusts
Burdsall, H. H. Jr., and Snow, G. A. 1977. Taxonomy of Cronartium quercuum and C.
fusiforme. Mycologia 69:503–508.
Gross, H. L. 1983. Negligible cull and growth loss of jack pine associated with globose gall rust.
For. Chron. 59:308–311.
Jalkanen, R., Crane, P. E., Walla, J. A., and Aalto, T., eds. 1998. Proceedings of the first IUFRO
Rusts of Forest Trees Working Party conference, 1998, Saariselkä, Finland. Finn. For. Res.
Inst. Res. Pap. 712. 309 pp.
Jewell, F. F., and Walker, N. M. 1967. Histology of Cronartium quercuum galls on shortleaf
pine. Phytopathology 57:545–550.
Kaneko, S. 2000. Cronartium orientale, sp. nov., segregation of the pine gall rust in eastern Asia
from Cronartium quercuum. Mycoscience 41:115–122.
Kaneko, S., Katsuya, K., Kakishima, M., and Ono, Y. 1995. Proceedings of the fourth IUFRO
Rusts of Forest Trees Working Party conference, Tsukuba, Japan, 1994. For. & For. Products
Res. Inst. Univ. Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Jap. 197 pp.
Kuhlman, E. G., and Kaneko, S. 1991. Comparisons of basidiospores and urediniospores of
formae speciales of Cronartium quercuum. Mycologia 83:440–445.
Nighswander, J. E., and Patton, R. F. 1965. The epidemiology of the jack pine–oak gall rust
(Cronartium quercuum) in Wisconsin. Can. J. Bot. 43:1561–1581.
Peterson, R. S. 1967. The Peridermium species on pine stems. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 94:511–
542.
Powers, H. R. Jr., Lin, D., and Hubbes, M. 1989. Interspecific and intraspecific differentiation
within the genus Cronartium by isozyme and protein pattern analysis. Plant Dis. 73:691–
694.
Powers, H. R. Jr., Snow, G., Lin, D., and Hubbes, M. 1991. Isozyme analysis as an indicator of
synonymy of the causal agents of gall rust on sand and Virginia pine. Plant Dis. 75:1225–
1227.
Vogler, D. R., and Bruns, T. D. 1998. Phylogenetic relationships among the pine stem rust fungi
(Cronartium and Peridermium spp.). Mycologia 90:244–257.
-----------------Stem and cone rusts of pines, continued, Plate 148, page 297
Sweetfern blister rust
Anderson, N. A., and French, D. W. 1964. Sweetfern rust on jack pine. J. For. 62:467–471.
Baxter, D. V. 1967. Disease in forest plantations: thief of time. Cranbrook Inst. Sci. Bull. 51. 251
pp.
Blanchette, R. A. 1982. Phellinus (Fomes) pini decay associated with sweetfern rust in sapwood
of jack pine. Can. J. For. Res. 12:304–310.
Boyce, J. S. 1961. Forest pathology. 3rd ed. McGraw-Hill, New York. 572 pp.
171
Davis, C., and Meyer, T. 1997. Field guide to tree diseases of Ontario. NODA/NFP Tech. Rep.
TR-46. Can. For. Serv. Great Lakes For. Cent. and Ontario Minist. Nat. Resour., Sault Ste.
Marie. 135 pp.
French, D. W., Smeltzer, D. L. K., and Anderson, N. A. 1983. Effect of stem rust fungi on 45-yrold jack pine. Plant Dis. 67:26–28.
Gross, H. L., Ek, A. R., and Patton, R. F. 1983. Site character and infection hazard for the
sweetfern rust disease in northern Ontario. For. Sci. 29:771–778.
Gross, H. L., Patton, R. F., and Ek, A. R. 1978. Reduced growth, cull, and mortality of jack pine
associated with sweetfern rust cankers. Can. J. For. Res. 8:47–53.
Gross, H. L., Patton, R. F., and Ek, A. R. 1980. Spatial aspects of sweetfern rust disease in
northern Ontario jack pine–sweetfern stands. Can. J. For. Res. 10:199–208.
Hiratsuka, Y., and Powell, J. M. 1976. Pine stem rusts of Canada. Can. For. Serv. North. For.
Res. Cent., Edmonton, Tech. Rep. No. 4. 103 pp.
Hiratsuka, Y., Samoil, J. K., Blenis, P. V., Crane, P. E., and Laishley, B. L., eds. 1991. Rusts of
pine. Proceedings of the IUFRO Rusts of Pine Working Party conference. Can. For. Serv.
Inf. Rep. NOR-X-317. 408 pp.
Hunt, R. S., and Sickle, G. A. Van. 1984. Variation in susceptibility to sweet fern rust among
Pinus contorta and P. banksiana. Can. J. For. Res. 14:672–675.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Krebill, R. G. 1968. Histology of canker rusts in pines. Phytopathology 58:155–164.
Lachmund, H. G. 1929. Cronartium comptoniae Arth. in western North America.
Phytopathology 19:453–466.
Molnar, A. C. 1961. An outbreak of Cronartium comptoniae on Monterey and Bishop pines on
Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Plant Dis. Rep. 45:854–855.
Peterson, R. S. 1966. On sweetfern blister rust. Plant Dis. Rep. 50:744–746.
Peterson, R. S. 1967. The Peridermium species on pine stems. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 94:511–
542.
Sickle, G. A. Van. 1969. Occurrence of Cronartium comptoniae in the Maritime Provinces. Plant
Dis. Rep. 53:369–371.
Smeltzer, D. L. K., and French, D. W. 1981. Factors affecting spread of Cronartium comptoniae
on the sweetfern host. Can. J. For. Res. 11:400–408.
Spaulding, P., and Hansbrough, J. R. 1932. Cronartium comptoniae, the sweetfern blister rust of
pitch pines. USDA Tech. Bull. 217. 21 pp.
Tauer, C. G. 1978. Sweetfern rust resistance in jack pine seedlings: geographic variation. Can. J.
For. Res. 8:416–423.
Vogler, D. R., and Bruns, T. D. 1998. Phylogenetic relationships among the pine stem rust fungi
(Cronartium and Peridermium spp.). Mycologia 90:244–257.
Ziller, W. G. 1955–1970. Studies of western tree rusts. II. Melampsora occidentalis and M.
albertensis, two needle rusts of Douglas-fir. V. The rusts of hemlock and fir caused by
Melampsora epitea. VI. The aecial host ranges of Melampsora albertensis, M. medusae, and
M. occidentalis. VII. Inoculation experiments with pine stem rusts (Cronartium and
Endocronartium). VIII. Inoculation experiments with conifer needle rusts
(Melampsoraceae). Can. J. Bot. 33:177–188; 37:109–119; 43:217–230; 48:1313–1319;
48:1471–1476.
172
Ziller, W. G. 1974. The tree rusts of western Canada. Can. For. Serv. Pub. 1329. 272 pp.
-----------------Stem and cone rusts of pines, continued, Plate 149, page 299
Stalactiform rust
Allen, E. A., Morrison, D. J., and Wallis, G. W. 1996. Common tree diseases of British
Columbia. Nat. Resour. Can., Can. For. Serv., Victoria, BC. 178 pp.
Anderson, N. A., French, D. W., and Anderson, R. L. 1967. The stalactiform rust of jack pine. J.
For. 65:398–402.
Boyce, J. S. 1961. Forest pathology. 3rd ed. McGraw-Hill, New York. 572 pp.
Hiratsuka, Y. 1987. Forest Tree Diseases of the Prairie Provinces. Can. For. Serv., North. For.
Cent., Edmonton. 142 pp.
Hiratsuka, Y., Langor, D. W., and Crane, P. E. 1995. Forest insects and diseases of the prairie
provinces. Can. For. Serv. North. For. Cent. Spec. Rep. 3. 297 pp.
Hiratsuka, Y., and Powell, J. M. 1976. Pine stem rusts of Canada. Can. For. Serv. North. For.
Res. Cent., Edmonton, Tech. Rep. No. 4. 103 pp.
Hiratsuka, Y., Powell, J. M., and Sickle, G. A. Van. 1988. Impact of pine stem rusts of hard
pines in Alberta and the Northwest Territories. Can. For. Serv. Inf. Rep. NOR-X-299. 9 pp.
Hiratsuka, Y., Samoil, J. K., Blenis, P. V., Crane, P. E., and Laishley, B. L., eds. 1991. Rusts of
pine. Proceedings of the IUFRO Rusts of Pine Working Party conference. Can. For. Serv.
Inf. Rep. NOR-X-317. 408 pp.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Kamp, B. J. van der. 1993. Production of uredinia and telia by stalactiform blister rust in British
Columbia. Can. J. Bot. 71:519–521.
Kaneko, S., Katsuya, K., Kakishima, M., and Ono, Y. 1995. Proceedings of the fourth IUFRO
Rusts of Pines Working Party conference, Tsukuba, Japan, 1994. For. & For. Prod. Res. Inst.
Univ. Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Jap. 197 pp.
Mielke, J. L. 1956. The rust fungus (Cronartium stalactiforme) in lodgepole pine. J. For.
54:518–521.
Nevill, R. J., Merler, H., and Borden, J. H. 1989. Reduced volume, grade and value of lodgepole
pine lumber caused by Atropellis canker and stalactiform blister rust. For. Chron. 65:36–41.
Peterson, R. S. 1967. The Peridermium species on pine stems. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 94:511–
542.
Powell, J. M. 1971. Occurrence of Tuberculina maxima on pine stem rusts in western Canada.
Can. Plant Dis. Surv. 51:83–85.
Rocchini, L. A., Lewis, K. J., Lindgren, B. S., and Bennett, R. G. 1999. Association of pitch
moths (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae and Pyralidae) with rust diseases in a lodgepole pine
provenance trial. Can. J. For. Res. 29:1610–1614.
Vogler, D. R., and Bruns, T. D. 1998. Phylogenetic relationships among the pine stem rust fungi
(Cronartium and Peridermium spp.). Mycologia 90:244–257.
Wagener, W. W. 1958. Infection tests with two rusts of Jeffrey pine. Plant Dis. Rep. 42:888–892.
Wu, H. X., and Ying, C. C. 1997. Genetic parameters and selection efficiencies in resistance to
western gall rust, stalactiform blister rust, needle cast, and sequoia pitch moth in lodgepole
pine. For. Sci. 43:571–581.
173
Ziller, W. G. 1955–1970. Studies of western tree rusts. II. Melampsora occidentalis and M.
albertensis, two needle rusts of Douglas-fir. V. The rusts of hemlock and fir caused by
Melampsora epitea. VI. The aecial host ranges of Melampsora albertensis, M. medusae, and
M. occidentalis. VII. Inoculation experiments with pine stem rusts (Cronartium and
Endocronartium). VIII. Inoculation experiments with conifer needle rusts (Melampsoraceae).
Can. J. Bot. 33:177–188; 37:109–119; 43:217–230; 48:1313–1319; 48:1471–1476.
Ziller, W. G. 1974. The tree rusts of western Canada. Can. For. Serv. Pub. 1329. 272 pp.
-----------------Comandra rust
Bergdahl, D. R., and French, D. W. 1976. Epidemiology of comandra rust on jack pine and
comandra in Minnesota. Can. J. For. Res. 6:326–334.
Bergdahl, D. R., and French, D. W. 1976. Relative susceptibility of five pine species, 2 to 36
months of age, to infection by Cronartium comandrae. Can. J. For. Res. 6:319–325.
Boyce, J. S. 1961. Forest pathology. 3rd ed. McGraw-Hill, New York. 572 pp.
Dolezal, W. E., and Tainter, F. H. 1979. Phenology of comandra rust in Arkansas.
Phytopathology 69:41–44.
Geils, B. W., and Jacobi, W. R. 1990. Development of comandra blister rust on lodgepole pine.
Can. J. For. Res. 20:159–165.
Geils, B. W., and Jacobi, W. R. 1993. Effects of comandra blister rust on growth and survival of
lodgepole pine. Phytopathology 83:638–644.
Hedgcock, G. G., and Long, W. H. 1915. A disease of pines caused by Cronartium pyriforme.
USDA Bull. 247. 20 pp.
Hiratsuka, Y. 1987. Forest tree diseases of the prairie provinces. Can. For. Serv. Inf. Rep. Nor-X286. 142 pp.
Hiratsuka, Y., Langor, D. W., and Crane, P. E. 1995. Forest insects and diseases of the prairie
provinces. Can. For. Serv. North. For. Cent. Spec. Rep. 3. 297 pp.
Hiratsuka, Y., and Powell, J. M. 1976. Pine stem rusts of Canada. Can. For. Serv. North. For.
Res. Cent., Edmonton, Tech. Rep. No. 4. 103 pp.
Hiratsuka, Y., Powell, J. M., and Sickle, G. A. Van. 1988. Impact of pine stem rusts of hard
pines in Alberta and the Northwest Territories. Can. For. Serv. Inf. Rep. NOR-X-299. 9 pp.
Hiratsuka, Y., Samoil, J. K., Blenis, P. V., Crane, P. E., and Laishley, B. L., eds. 1991. Rusts of
pine. Proceedings of the IUFRO Rusts of Pine Working Party conference. Can. For. Serv.
Inf. Rep. NOR-X-317. 408 pp.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Jacobi, W. R., Geils, B. W., Taylor, J. E., and Zentz, W. R. 1993. Predicting the incidence of
comandra blister rust on lodgepole pine: site, stand, and alternate-host influences.
Phytopathology 83:630–637.
Jalkanen, R., Crane, P. E., Walla, J. A., and Aalto, T., eds. 1998. Proceedings of the first IUFRO
Rusts of Forest Trees Working Party conference, 1998, Saariselkä, Finland. Finn. For. Res.
Inst. Res. Pap. 712. 309 pp.
Johnson, D. W. 1986. Comandra rust. USDA For. Serv. For. Insect Dis. Leafl. 62. Internet pub.
174
Kaneko, S., Katsuya, K., Kakishima, M., and Ono, Y. 1995. Proceedings of the fourth IUFRO
Rusts of Pines Working Party conference, Tsukuba, Japan, 1994. For. & For. Prod. Res. Inst.
Univ. Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Jap. 197 pp.
Kauffman, B. W., Applegate, H. W., Cordell, C. E., and Thor, E. 1980. Susceptibility of eight
pine species to comandra blister rust in Tennessee. Plant Dis. 64:375–377.
Krebill, R. G. 1968. Cronartium comandrae in the Rocky Mountain states. USDA For. Serv.
Res. Pap. INT-50. 28 pp.
Krebill, R. G. 1968. Histology of canker rusts in pines. Phytopathology 58:155–164.
Mead, M. A., Dolezal, W. E., and Tainter, F. H. 1978. Eighteen newly discovered pine hosts of
comandra blister rust fungus. Plant Dis. Rep. 62:885–887.
Peterson, R. S. 1967. The Peridermium species on pine stems. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 94:511–
542.
Powell, J. M. 1971. Incidence and effect of Tuberculina maxima on cankers of the pine stem
rust, Cronartium comandrae. Phytoprotection 52:104–111.
Powell, J. M. 1971. Occurrence of Tuberculina maxima on pine stem rusts in western Canada.
Can. Plant Dis. Surv. 51:83–85.
Powell, J. M. 1972. Seasonal and diurnal periodicity in the release of Cronartium comandrae
aeciospores from stem cankers of lodgepole pine. Can. J. For. Res. 2:78–88.
Powers, H. R. Jr. 1972. Comandra rust on southern pines. J. For. 70:18–20.
Rocchini, L. A., Lewis, K. J., Lindgren, B. S., and Bennett, R. G. 1999. Association of pitch
moths (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae and Pyralidae) with rust diseases in a lodgepole pine
provenance trial. Can. J. For. Res. 29:1610–1614.
Tainter, F. H. 1973. Development of Cronartium comandrae in Comandra umbellata. Can. J.
Bot. 51:1369–1372.
Vogler, D. R., and Bruns, T. D. 1998. Phylogenetic relationships among the pine stem rust fungi
(Cronartium and Peridermium spp.). Mycologia 90:244–257.
Ziller, W. G. 1974. The tree rusts of western Canada. Can. For. Serv. Pub. 1329. 272 pp.
-----------------Stem and cone rusts of pines, continued, Plate 150, page 301
Limb rusts
Cummins, G. B. 1984. Two new rust fungi (Uredinales). Mycotaxon 20:617–618.
Hansen, E. M., and Lewis, K. J., eds. 1997. Compendium of conifer diseases. APS Press, St.
Paul, MN. 101 pp.
Mielke, J. L. 1952. The rust fungus Cronartium filamentosum in Rocky Mountain ponderosa
pine. J. For. 50:365–373.
Peterson, R. S. 1966. Limb rust damage to pine. USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. INT-31. 10 pp.
Peterson, R. S. 1967. The Peridermium species on pine stems. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 94:511–
542.
Peterson, R. S. 1968. Limb rusts of pine: the causal fungi. Phytopathology 58:309–315.
Peterson, R. S., and Shurtleff, R. G. Jr. 1965. Mycelium of limb rust fungi. Am. J. Bot. 52:519–
525.
Vogler, D. R., and Bruns, T. D. 1998. Phylogenetic relationships among the pine stem rust fungi
(Cronartium and Peridermium spp.). Mycologia 90:244–257.
Wagener, W. W. 1958. Infection tests with two rusts of Jeffrey pine. Plant Dis. Rep. 42:888–
892.
175
Ziller, W. G. 1955–1970. Studies of western tree rusts. II. Melampsora occidentalis and M.
albertensis, two needle rusts of Douglas-fir. V. The rusts of hemlock and fir caused by
Melampsora epitea. VI. The aecial host ranges of Melampsora albertensis, M. medusae, and
M. occidentalis. VII. Inoculation experiments with pine stem rusts (Cronartium and
Endocronartium). VIII. Inoculation experiments with conifer needle rusts
(Melampsoraceae). Can. J. Bot. 33:177–188; 37:109–119; 43:217–230; 48:1313–1319;
48:1471–1476.
-----------------Cone rusts
Barnard, E. L., and Miller, T. 1999. Southern cone rust: a growing problem in need of attention?
USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-30:569–572.
Hedgcock, G. G., and Hahn, G. G. 1922. Two important pine cone rusts and their new cronartial
stages. Phytopathology 12:109–122.
Hedgcock, G. G., and Siggers, P. V. 1949. A comparison of the pine-oak rusts. USDA Tech.
Bull. 978. 30 pp.
Peterson, R. S. 1967. The Peridermium species on pine stems. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 94:511–
542.
Rayachhetry, M. B., Webb, R. S., Kimbrough, J. W., and Miller, T. 1995. Haustorial
morphology of Cronartium conigenum in naturally infected cones of three Pinus species
from Guatemala. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 25:152–158.
Rayachhetry, M. B., Webb, R. S., Miller, T., and Kimbrough, J. W. 1995. Histology of Pinus
maximinoi cones infected by Cronartium conigenum. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 25:100–108.
Shukla, A. N., Schmidt, R. A., and Miller, T. 2001. Symptoms in slash pine seedlings following
inoculation with the cone rust fungus Cronartium strobilinum. For. Pathol. 31:345–352.
Vogler, D. R., and Bruns, T. D. 1998. Phylogenetic relationships among the pine stem rust fungi
(Cronartium and Peridermium spp.). Mycologia 90:244–257.
-----------------Stem and cone rusts of pines, continued, Plate 151, page 303
Western gall rust
Allen, E. A., Blenis, P. V., and Hiratsuka, Y. 1990. Histological evidence of resistance to
Endocronartium harknessii in Pinus contorta var. latifolia. Can. J. Bot. 68:1728–1737.
Anderson, G. W., and French, D. W. 1965. Differentiation of Cronartium quercuum and
Cronartium coleosporioides on the basis of aeciospore germ tubes. Phytopathology 55:171–
173.
Anderson, G. W., and French, D. W. 1965. Western gall rust in the Lake States. For. Sci.
11:139–141.
Byler, J. W., Cobb, F. W. Jr., and Parmeter, J. R. Jr. 1972. Effects of secondary fungi on the
epidemiology of western gall rust. Can. J. Bot. 50:1061–1066.
Byler, J. W., Cobb, F. W. Jr., and Parmeter, J. R. Jr. 1972. Occurrence and significance of fungi
inhabiting galls caused by Peridermium harknessii. Can. J. Bot. 50:1275–1282.
Cummins, G. B., and Hiratsuka, Y. 2003. Illustrated genera of rust fungi. 3rd ed. APS Press, St.
Paul, MN. 225 pp.
Currie, C. R., and Hiratsuka, Y. 1996. Evaluating insect mediated dispersal of Scytalidium
uredinicola for biological control of western gall rust. Can. J. For. Res. 26:1754–1760.
176
Hart, J. H., Mosher, D. G., and Ajewole, R. 1978. Occurrence of Endocronartium harknessii and
Cronartium quercuum on Scots and jack pine in Michigan's Lower Peninsula. Plant Dis.
Rep. 62:779–782.
Hiratsuka, Y. 1969. Endocronartium, a new genus for autoecious pine stem rusts. Can. J. Bot.
47:1493–1495.
Hiratsuka, Y. 1973. The nuclear cycle and the terminology of spore states in the Uredinales.
Mycologia 65:432–443.
Hiratsuka, Y., and Powell, J. M. 1976. Pine stem rusts of Canada. Can. For. Serv. North. For.
Res. Cent., Edmonton, Tech. Rep. No. 4. 103 pp.
Hiratsuka, Y., Samoil, J. K., Blenis, P. V., Crane, P. E., and Laishley, B. L., eds. 1991. Rusts of
pine. Proceedings of the IUFRO Rusts of Pine Working Party conference. Can. For. Serv.
Inf. Rep. NOR-X-317. 408 pp.
Jalkanen, R., Crane, P. E., Walla, J. A., and Aalto, T., eds. 1998. Proceedings of the first IUFRO
Rusts of Forest Trees Working Party conference, 1998, Saariselkä, Finland. Finn. For. Res.
Inst. Res. Pap. 712. 309 pp.
Kaneko, S., Katsuya, K., Kakishima, M., and Ono, Y. 1995. Proceedings of the fourth IUFRO
Rusts of Pines Working Party conference, Tsukuba, Japan, 1994. For. & For. Prod. Research
Inst. Univ. Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Jap. 197 pp.
Meinecke, E. P. 1929. Experiments with repeating pine rusts. Phytopathology 19:327–342.
Merrill, W., and Kistler, B. R. 1976. Phenology and control of Endocronartium harknessii in
Pennsylvania. Phytopathology 66:1246–1248.
Moltzan, B. D., Blenis, P. V., and Hiratsuka, Y. 2001. Effects of spore availability, spore
germinability, and shoot susceptibility on gall rust infection of pine. Plant Dis. 85:1193–
1199.
Peterson, G. W. 1973. Dispersal of aeciospores of Peridermium harknessii in central Nebraska.
Phytopathology 63:170–172.
Peterson, G. W. 1981. Pine and juniper diseases in the Great Plains. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech.
Rep. RM-86. 47 pp.
Peterson, R. S. 1960. Development of western gall rust in lodgepole pine. Phytopathology
50:876–881.
Peterson, R. S. 1967. The Peridermium species on pine stems. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 94:511–
542.
Têtu-Bernier, P., Allen, E., and Hiratsuka, Y. 1983. Bibliography of western gall rust. Can. For.
Serv. Inf. Rep. NOR-X-250. 10 pp.
True, R. P. 1938. Gall development on Pinus sylvestris attacked by the Woodgate Peridermium
and morphology of the parasite. Phytopathology 28:24–49.
Tsuneda, A., Hiratsuka, Y., and Maruyama, P. J. 1980. Hyperparasitism of Scytalidium
uredinicola on western gall rust, Endocronartium harknessii. Can. J. Bot. 58:1154–1159.
Vogler, D. R., and Bruns, T. D. 1998. Phylogenetic relationships among the pine stem rust fungi
(Cronartium and Peridermium spp.). Mycologia 90:244–257.
Vogler, D. R., Cobb, F. W. Jr., Geils, B. W., and Nelson, D. L. 1996. Isozyme diversity among
hard pine stem rust fungi in the western United States. Can. J. Bot. 74:1058–1080.
Vogler, D. R., Epstein, L., and Cobb, F. W. Jr. 1997. Nuclear behaviour and evolution of two
populations of the western gall rust fungus. Mycol. Res. 101:791–797.
Walla, J. A., Tuskan, G. A., and Lundquist, J. E. 1991. Comparison of white- and orange-spored
Peridermium harknessii in native North Dakota Pinus ponderosa. Mycologia 83:251–256.
177
Walla, J. A., Tuskan, G. A., Lundquist, J. E., and Wang, C. 1997. Expression of inoculum and
family specific responses in the ponderosa pine–western gall rust pathosystem. Plant Dis.
81:57–62.
White, E. E., Allen, E. A., Ying, C. C., and Foord, B. M. 2000. Seedling inoculation
distinguishes lodgepole pine families most and least susceptible to gall rust. Can. J. For. Res.
30:841–843.
Wu, H. X., and Ying, C. C. 1998. Stability of resistance to western gall rust and needle cast in
lodgepole pine provenances. Can. J. For. Res. 28:439–449.
Zalasky, H. 1976. Xylem in galls of lodgepole pine caused by western gall rust, Endocronartium
harknessii. Can. J. Bot. 54:1586–1590.
Ziller, W. G. 1974. The tree rusts of western Canada. Can. For. Serv. Pub. 1329. 272 pp.
-----------------Trunk and limb rots of hardwoods, Plate 152, page 305
Overview of wood types and decay processes
Adaskaveg, J. E., and Ogawa, J. M. 1990. Wood decay pathology of fruit and nut trees in
California. Plant Dis. 74:341–352.
Aho, P. E., Seidler, R. J., Evans, H. J., and Raju, P. N. 1974. Distribution, enumeration, and
identification of nitrogen-fixing bacteria associated with decay in living white fir trees.
Phytopathology 64:1413–1420.
Blanchette, R. A. 1991. Delignification by wood-decay fungi. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 29:381–
398.
Blanchette, R. A. 1995. Degradation of the lignocellulose complex in wood. Can. J. Bot.
73:S999–S1010.
Blanchette, R. A., and Biggs, A. R., eds. 1992. Defense mechanisms of woody plants against
fungi. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York. 458 pp.
Blanchette, R. A., Otjen, L., Effland, M. J., and Eslyn, W. E. 1985. Changes in structural and
chemical components of wood delignified by fungi. Wood Sci. Technol. 19:35–46.
Boddy, L. 1991. Importance of wood decay fungi in forest ecosystems. Pages 501–540 in:
Handbook of applied mycology. Vol. 1. Soil and plants. D. K. Akora, B. Rai, K. G. Mukerji,
and G. R. Knudsen, eds. Marcel Dekker, New York.
Bruce, A., and Palfreyman, J. W., eds. 1998. Forest products biotechnology. Taylor & Francis,
London. 326 pp.
Boyce, J. S. 1961. Forest pathology. 3rd ed. McGraw-Hill, New York. 572 pp.
Clausen, C. A. 1996. Bacterial associations with decaying wood: a review. Int. Biodeter.
Biodegrad. 37:101–107.
Green, F. I., and Highley, T. L. 1997. Mechanism of brown-rot decay: paradigm or paradox? Int.
Biodeter. Biodegrad. 39:113–124.
Hendrickson, O. Q. 1991. Abundance and activity of N2-fixing bacteria in decaying wood. Can.
J. For. Res. 21:1299–1304.
Highley, T. L., Bar-Lev, S. S., Kirk, T. K., and Larsen, M. J. 1983. Influence of O2 and CO2 on
wood decay by heartrot and saprot fungi. Phytopathology 73:630–633.
Larsen, M. J., Jurgensen, M. F., and Harvey, A. E. 1978. N2 fixation associated with wood
decayed by some common fungi in western Montana. Can. J. For. Res. 8:341–345.
178
Martinez, A. T., Hatakka, A., Lundell, T., and Jeffries, T. W. 2002. Molecular biology and
structure-function of lignin-degrading heme peroxidases. Rec. Adv. Lignin Biodegrad.
Biosyn. 30:425–444.
Merrill, W., and Cowling, E. B. 1966. Role of nitrogen in wood deterioration: amount and
distribution of nitrogen in fungi. Phytopathology 56:1083–1090.
Merrill, W., French, D. W., and Wood, F. A. 1964. Decay of wood by species of the Xylariaceae.
Phytopathology 54:56–58.
Pearce, R. B. 2000. Decay development and its restriction in trees. J. Arboric. 26:1–11.
Rayner, A. D. M., and Boddy, L. 1988. Fungal decomposition of wood: its biology and ecology.
Wiley, Chichester, UK. 587 pp.
Scheffer, T. C., and Cowling, E. B. 1966. Natural resistance of wood to microbial deterioration.
Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 4:147–170.
Schultz, T. P., Harms, W. B., Fisher, T. H., McMurtrey, K. D., Minn, J., and Nicholas, D. D.
1995. Durability of angiosperm heartwood: the importance of extractives. Holzforschung
49:29–34.
Schwarze, F. W. M. R., Engels, J., and Mattheck, C. 2000. Fungal strategies of wood decay in
trees. English trans. W. Linnard, of Holzzersetzende Pilze in Bäumen: Strategien der
Holzzersetzung. Springer, Berlin, New York. 185 pp.
Shigo, A. L., and Marx, H. G. 1979. Tree decay. An expanded concept. USDA Agric. Inf. Bull.
419. 73 pp.
Tainter, F. H., and Baker, F. A. 1996. Principles of forest pathology. Wiley, New York. 805 pp.
Wagener, W. W., and Davidson, R. W. 1954. Heart rots in living trees. Bot. Rev. 20:61–134.
Zabel, R. A., and Morrell, J. J. 1992. Wood microbiology: decay and its prevention. Academic
Press, San Diego. 476 pp.
-----------------Representative decay fungi: Stereum gausapatum
Berry, F. H., and Lombard, F. F. 1978. Basidiomycetes associated with decay of living oak trees.
USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. NE-413. 8 pp.
Boddy, L., and Rayner, A. D. M. 1982. Population structure, inter-mycelial interactions, and
infection biology of Stereum gausapatum. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 78:337–351.
Boddy, L., and Rayner, A. D. M. 1984. Internal spread of fungi inoculated into attached oak
branches. New Phytol. 98:155–164.
Chamuris, G. P. 1985. On distinguishing Stereum gausapatum from the "S. hirsutum complex."
Mycotaxon 22:1–12.
Davidson, R. W. 1934. Stereum gausapatum, cause of heart rot of oaks. Phytopathology 24:831–
832.
Davidson, R. W. 1935. Decay in living sprout oak trees. Plant Dis. Rep. 19:94–95.
Davidson, R. W., Campbell, W. A., and Vaughan, D. B. 1942. Fungi causing decay of living
oaks in the eastern United States and their cultural identification. USDA Tech. Bull. 765. 65
pp.
Eriksson, J., Ryvarden, L., Hjortstam, K., and Larsson, K. H. 1973–1988. The Corticiaceae of
North Europe. Vols. 1–8. Fungiflora, Oslo.
Hepting, G. H. 1971. Diseases of forest and shade trees of the United States. USDA Agric.
Handb. 386. 658 pp.
179
Hepting, G. H., and Hedgcock, G. G. 1937. Decay in merchantable oak, yellow poplar, and
basswood in the Appalachian region. USDA Tech. Bull. 570. 29 pp.
Lentz, P. L. 1955. Stereum and allied genera of fungi in the upper Mississippi Valley. USDA
Monogr. 24. 74 pp.
Pearce, R. B., and Rutherford, J. 1981. A wound-associated suberized barrier to the spread of
decay in the sapwood of oak (Quercus robur L.). Physiol. Plant Pathol. 19:359–369.
Roth, E. R., and Sleeth, B. 1939. Butt rot in unburned sprout oak stands. USDA Tech. Bull. 684.
42 pp.
Toole, E. R. 1959. Decay after fire injury to southern bottom-land hardwoods. USDA Tech.
Bull. 1189. 25 pp.
-----------------Hericium erinaceus
Berry, F. H., and Lombard, F. F. 1978. Basidiomycetes associated with decay of living oak trees.
USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. NE-413. 8 pp.
Ginns, J. 1985. Hericium in North America: cultural characteristics and mating behavior. Can. J.
Bot. 63:1551–1563.
Hepting, G. H. 1971. Diseases of forest and shade trees of the United States. USDA Agric.
Handb. 386. 658 pp.
Hepting, G. H., and Hedgcock, G. G. 1937. Decay in merchantable oak, yellow poplar, and
basswood in the Appalachian region. USDA Tech. Bull. 570. 29 pp.
McCracken, F. I. 1970. Spore production of Hericium erinaceus. Phytopathology 60:1639–1641.
Toole, E. R. 1959. Decay after fire injury to southern bottom-land hardwoods. USDA Tech.
Bull. 1189. 25 pp.
-----------------Phellinus igniarius complex
Campbell, W. A., and Davidson, R. W. 1941. Cankers and decay of yellow birch associated with
Fomes igniarius var. laevigatus. J. For. 39:559–560.
Fischer, M. 1995. Phellinus igniarius and its closest relatives in Europe. Mycol. Res. 99:735–
744.
Gilbertson, R. L. 1979. The genus Phellinus (Aphyllophorales, Hymenochaetaceae) in western
North America. Mycotaxon 9:51–89.
Gilbertson, R. L., and Ryvarden, L. 1986, 1987. North American polypores. Vol. I: Albatrellus–
Lindtneria. Vol. II: Megasporaporia–Wrightoporia. Fungiflora, Oslo. 885 pp.
Hennon, P. E., and Hansen, E. M. 1987. Nuclear behavior of Phellinus arctostaphyli, P.
igniarius and P. tremulae. Mycologia 79:501–507.
Hunt, R. S., and Etheridge, D. E. 1995. True heart-rots of the Pacific region. Can. For. Serv. Pac.
For. Cent. For. Pest Leafl. 55. 8 pp.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Niemelä, T. 1972–1975. On Fennoscandian polypores. II. Phellinus laevigatus (Fr.) Bourd. &
Galz. and P. lundellii Niemelä n. sp. III. Phellinus tremulae (Bond.) Bond. & Borisov. IV.
Phellinus igniarius, P. nigricans, and P. populicola n. sp. Ann. Bot. Fenn. 9:41–59; 11:202–
215; 12:93–122.
180
Ryvarden, L. 1976, 1978. The Polyporaceae of North Europe. Vol. 1: Albatrellus–Incrustoporia.
Vol. 2: Inonotus–Tyromyces. Fungiflora, Oslo. 577 pp.
Schwarze, F. W. M. R., Engels, J., and Mattheck, C. 2000. Fungal strategies of wood decay in
trees. English trans. W. Linnard, of Holzzersetzende Pilze in Bäumen: Strategien der
Holzzersetzung. Springer, Berlin, New York. 185 pp.
Shigo, A. L. 1963. Fungi associated with the discolorations around rot columns caused by Fomes
igniarius. Plant Dis. Rep. 47:820–823.
Shigo, A. L. 1974. Relative abilities of Phialophora melinii, Fomes connatus, and F. igniarius to
invade freshly wounded tissues of Acer rubrum. Phytopathology 64:708–710.
True, R. P., Tryon, E. H., and King, J. F. 1955. Cankers and decays of birch associated with two
Poria species. J. For. 53:412–415.
U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Fungal
Databases. Beltsville, MD. Internet resource.
Wagner, T., and Fischer, M. 2001. Natural groups and a revised system for the European poroid
Hymenochaetales (Basidiomycota) supported by nLSU rDNA sequence data. Mycol. Res.
105:773–782.
Zhao, J.-D., and Zhang, X.-Q. 1992. The polypores of China. Bibl. Mycol. No. 145. 524 pp.
-----------------Trunk and limb rots of hardwoods, continued, Plate 153, page 307
Phellinus tremulae
Basham, J. T. 1958. Decay of trembling aspen. Can. J. Bot. 36:491–505.
Gilbertson, R. L. 1979. The genus Phellinus (Aphyllophorales, Hymenochaetaceae) in western
North America. Mycotaxon 9:51–89.
Gilbertson, R. L., and Ryvarden, L. 1986, 1987. North American polypores. Vol. I: Albatrellus–
Lindtneria. Vol. II: Megasporaporia–Wrightoporia. Fungiflora, Oslo. 885 pp.
Good, H. M., and Nelson, J. I. 1962. Fungi associated with Fomes igniarius var. populinus in
living poplar trees and their probable significance in decay. Can. J. Bot. 40:615–624.
Hennon, P. E., and Hansen, E. M. 1987. Nuclear behavior of Phellinus arctostaphyli, P.
igniarius and P. tremulae. Mycologia 79:501–507.
Hinds, T. E. 1985. Diseases. Pages 87–106 in: Aspen: ecology and management in the western
United States. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-119. 283 pp.
Holmer, L., Nitare, L., and Stenlid, J. 1994. Population structure and decay pattern of Phellinus
tremulae in Populus tremula as determined by somatic incompatibility. Can. J. Bot.
72:1391–1396.
Hunt, R. S., and Etheridge, D. E. 1995. True heart-rots of the Pacific region. Can. For. Serv. Pac.
For. Cent. For. Pest Leafl. 55. 8 pp.
Lindsey, J. P., and Gilbertson, R. L. 1978. Basidiomycetes that decay aspen in North America.
Cramer, Vaduz, Austria. 406 pp.
Mallett, K. I., and Myrholm, C. L. 1995. The mating system of Phellinus tremulae. Mycologia
87:597–603.
Manion, P. D., and French, D. W. 1969. The role of glucose in stimulating germination of Fomes
igniarius var. populinus basidiospores. Phytopathology 59:293–296.
Niemelä, T. 1972–1975. On Fennoscandian polypores. II. Phellinus laevigatus (Fr.) Bourd. &
Galz. and P. lundellii Niemelä n. sp. III. Phellinus tremulae (Bond.) Bond. & Borisov. IV.
181
Phellinus igniarius, P. nigricans, and P. populicola n. sp. Ann. Bot. Fenn. 9:41–59; 11:202–
215; 12:93–122.
Overholts, L. O. 1953. The Polyporaceae of the United States, Alaska, and Canada. Univ. Mich.
Press, Ann Arbor. 466 pp.
Riley, C. G. 1952. Studies in forest pathology. IX. Fomes igniarius decay of poplar. Can. J. Bot.
30:710–734.
Ryvarden, L., and Gilbertson, R. L. 1993, 1994. European polypores. Part 1: Abortiporus–
Lindtneria. Part 2: Meripilus–Tyromyces. Fungiflora, Oslo. 743 pp.
Wagner, T., and Fischer, M. 2001. Natural groups and a revised system for the European poroid
Hymenochaetales (Basidiomycota) supported by nLSU rDNA sequence data. Mycol. Res.
105:773–782.
Wall, R. E., and Kuntz, J. E. 1964. Water-soluble substances in dead branches of aspen (Populus
tremuloides Michx.) and their effects on Fomes igniarius. Can. J. Bot. 42:969–977.
Wikström, C. 1976. Occurrence of Phellinus tremulae (Bond.) Bond. and Borisov as a primary
parasite in Populus tremula L. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 6:321–328.
Wikström, C., and Unestam, T. 1976. Decay pattern of Phellinus tremulae (Bond.) Bond. et
Borisov in Populus tremula L. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 6:291–301.
-----------------Phellinus robiniae, P. everhartii, P. weirianus
Gilbertson, R. L. 1979. The genus Phellinus (Aphyllophorales, Hymenochaetaceae) in western
North America. Mycotaxon 9:51–89.
Gilbertson, R. L., and Ryvarden, L. 1986, 1987. North American polypores. Vol. I: Albatrellus–
Lindtneria. Vol. II: Megasporaporia–Wrightoporia. Fungiflora, Oslo. 885 pp.
Hepting, G. H., and Hedgcock, G. G. 1937. Decay in merchantable oak, yellow poplar, and
basswood in the Appalachian region. USDA Tech. Bull. 570. 29 pp.
McCracken, F. I. 1978. Spore release of some decay fungi of southern hardwoods. Can. J. Bot.
56:426–431.
Overholts, L. O. 1953. The Polyporaceae of the United States, Alaska, and Canada. Univ. Mich.
Press, Ann Arbor. 466 pp.
Schrenk, H. von. 1901. A disease of the black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.). Mo. Bot. Gard.
Annu. Rep. 12:21–31.
Schwarze, F. W. M. R., Engels, J., and Mattheck, C. 2000. Fungal strategies of wood decay in
trees. English trans. W. Linnard, of Holzzersetzende Pilze in Bäumen: Strategien der
Holzzersetzung. Springer, Berlin, New York. 185 pp.
U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Fungal
Databases. Beltsville, MD. Internet resource.
Wagner, T., and Fischer, M. 2001. Natural groups and a revised system for the European poroid
Hymenochaetales (Basidiomycota) supported by nLSU rDNA sequence data. Mycol. Res.
105:773–782.
-----------------Climacodon septentrionalis
Baxter, D. V. 1925. The biology and pathology of some of the hardwood heart-rotting fungi.
Am. J. Bot. 12:522–576.
182
Ginns, J. H., and Lefebvre, M. N. L. 1993. Lignicolous, corticioid fungi (Basidiomycota) of
North America: systematics, distribution, and ecology. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 247 pp.
Miller, L. W., and Boyle, J. S. 1943. The Hydnaceae of Iowa. Univ. Iowa Stud. Nat. Hist.
18(2):1–92.
Nordin, V. J. 1954. Studies in forest pathology XIII. Decay in sugar maple in the Ottawa-Huron
and Algoma Extension forest region of Ontario. Can. J. Bot. 32:221–258.
U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Fungal
Databases. Beltsville, MD. Internet resource.
-----------------Bjerkandera adusta
Domanski, S. 1982. Bjerkandera adusta on young Quercus rubra and Quercus robur injured by
late spring frosts in the Upper Silesia industrial district of Poland. Eur. J. For. Pathol.
12:406–413.
Gilbertson, R. L., and Ryvarden, L. 1986, 1987. North American polypores. Vol. I: Albatrellus–
Lindtneria. Vol. II: Megasporaporia–Wrightoporia. Fungiflora, Oslo. 885 pp.
Grosclaude, C. 1992. Decay caused by wood destroying fungi on plane trees. Cryptog. Mycol.
13:181–191.
Grosclaude, C., Olivier, R., Romiti, C., and Pizzuto, J. C. 1992. About planes. The xylophagous
ability of some basidiomycete fungi. Phytoma No. 436:64–66.
Nordin, V. J. 1954. Studies in forest pathology XIII. Decay in sugar maple in the Ottawa-Huron
and Algoma Extension forest region of Ontario. Can. J. Bot. 32:221–258.
Overholts, L. O. 1953. The Polyporaceae of the United States, Alaska, and Canada. Univ. Mich.
Press, Ann Arbor. 466 pp.
Ryvarden, L., and Gilbertson, R. L. 1993, 1994. European polypores. Part 1: Abortiporus–
Lindtneria. Part 2: Meripilus–Tyromyces. Fungiflora, Oslo. 743 pp.
U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Fungal
Databases. Beltsville, MD. Internet resource.
Zhao, J.-D., and Zhang, X.-Q. 1992. The polypores of China. Bibliotheca Mycol. 145:1–524.
-----------------Fomes fomentarius
Cheng, D., Yanaguchi, T., Wang, Z., and Pan, X. 2000. Genetic differentiation between two
morphological types of Fomes fomentarius based on isozyme analysis. Mycosystema 19:81–
86.
Gilbertson, R. L., and Ryvarden, L. 1986, 1987. North American polypores. Vol. I: Albatrellus–
Lindtneria. Vol. II: Megasporaporia–Wrightoporia. Fungiflora, Oslo. 885 pp.
Grosclaude, C. 1992. Decay caused by wood destroying fungi on plane trees. Cryptog. Mycol.
13:181–191.
Grosclaude, C., Olivier, R., Romiti, C., and Pizzuto, J. C. 1992. About planes. The xylophagous
ability of some basidiomycete fungi. Phytoma No. 436:64–66.
Hilborn, M. T. 1942. The biology of Fomes fomentarius. Maine Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull. 409:161–
214.
Intini, M., Paoletti, E., and Lombardi, M. 1998. Incidence and characteristics of Fomes
fomentarius on trees in an urban park. Monti e Boschi 49:29–33.
183
Merrill, W., and Cowling, E. B. 1966. Role of nitrogen in wood deterioration: amount and
distribution of nitrogen in fungi. Phytopathology 56:1083–1090.
Overholts, L. O. 1953. The Polyporaceae of the United States, Alaska, and Canada. Univ. Mich.
Press, Ann Arbor. 466 pp.
Plank, S., and Wolkinger, F. 1976. Études du cours des hyphes de Fomes fomentarius dans le
bois d'Aesculus hippocastanum au microscope électronique à balayage. Can. J. Bot.
54:2231–2238.
Rockett, T. R., and Kramer, C. L. 1974. Periodicity and total spore germination by lignicolous
basidiomycetes. Mycologia 66:817–829.
Ryvarden, L., and Gilbertson, R. L. 1993, 1994. European polypores. Part 1: Abortiporus–
Lindtneria. Part 2: Meripilus–Tyromyces. Fungiflora, Oslo. 743 pp.
Scholian, U. 1996. The tinder fungus (Fomes fomentarius) and its use. Schweiz. Z. Forstwesen
147:647–665.
Schwarze, F. W. M. R., Engels, J., and Mattheck, C. 2000. Fungal strategies of wood decay in
trees. English trans. W. Linnard, of Holzzersetzende Pilze in Bäumen: Strategien der
Holzzersetzung. Springer, Berlin, New York. 185 pp.
Shigo, A. L., and Sharon, E. M. 1970. Mapping columns of discolored and decayed tissues in
sugar maple, Acer saccharum. Phytopathology 60:232–237.
Tsuneda, I., and Kennedy, L. L. 1980. Basidiospore germination and substrate preference in
Fomes fomentarius and Fomitopsis cajanderi. Mycologia 72:204–208.
U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Fungal
Databases. Beltsville, MD. Internet resource.
Zhao, J.-D., and Zhang, X.-Q. 1992. The polypores of China. Bibliotheca Mycol. 145:1–524.
-----------------Globifomes graveolens
Davidson, R. W., Campbell, W. A., and Vaughan, D. B. 1942. Fungi causing decay of living
oaks in the eastern United States and their cultural identification. U. S. Dep. Agric. Tech.
Bull. 785. 65 pp.
Gilbertson, R. L., and Ryvarden, L. 1986, 1987. North American polypores. Vol. I: Albatrellus–
Lindtneria. Vol. II: Megasporaporia–Wrightoporia. Fungiflora, Oslo. 885 pp.
Graves, A. H. 1919. Some diseases of trees in greater New York. Mycologia 11:111–124.
Murrill, W. A. 1904. The Polyporaceae of North America—VIII. Hapalopilus, Pycnoporus, and
new monotypic genera. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 31:424–425.
Overholts, L. O. 1953. The Polyporaceae of the United States, Alaska, and Canada. Univ. Mich.
Press, Ann Arbor. 466 pp.
U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Fungal
Databases. Beltsville, MD. Internet resource.
-----------------Trunk and limb rots of hardwoods, continued, Plate 154, page 309
Perenniporia fraxinophila
Flott, J. J., and Gilbertson, R. L. 1991. Cultural studies of four North American species of
Perenniporia (Aphyllophorales: Polyporaceae). Mycol. Res. 95:1113–1122.
Gilbertson, R. L., and Ryvarden, L. 1986, 1987. North American polypores. Vol. I: Albatrellus–
Lindtneria. Vol. II: Megasporaporia–Wrightoporia. Fungiflora, Oslo. 885 pp.
184
Overholts, L. O. 1953. The Polyporaceae of the United States, Alaska, and Canada. Univ. Mich.
Press, Ann Arbor. 466 pp.
Riffle, J. W., Sharon, E. M., and Harrell, M. O. 1984. Incidence of Fomes fraxinophilus on green
ash in Nebraska woodlands. Plant Dis. 68:322–324.
Schrenk, H. von. 1903. A disease of white ash caused by Polyporus fraxinophilus. USDA Bur.
Plant Indus. Bull. 32. 20 pp.
U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Fungal
Databases. Beltsville, MD. Internet resource.
Walla, J. A., and Riffle, J. W. 1981. Fomes fraxinophilus on green ash in North Dakota
windbreaks. Plant Dis. 65:669–670.
-----------------Oxyporus populinus
Baldwin, H. I., Boyce, J. S., Brown, R. C., Cline, A. C., Filley, W. O., Reynolds, H. A., and
Turner, G. W. C., eds. 1940. Important tree pests of the Northeast. Mass. For. Park Assoc.,
Boston. 194 pp.
Baxter, D. V. 1948. Some resupinate polypores from the region of the Great Lakes. XVIII. Pap.
Mich. Acad. Sci. 32 (1946):189–211.
Gilbertson, R. L., and Ryvarden, L. 1986, 1987. North American polypores. Vol. I: Albatrellus–
Lindtneria. Vol. II: Megasporaporia–Wrightoporia. Fungiflora, Oslo. 885 pp.
Overholts, L. O. 1953. The Polyporaceae of the United States, Alaska, and Canada. Univ. Mich.
Press, Ann Arbor. 466 pp.
Ryvarden, L., and Gilbertson, R. L. 1993, 1994. European polypores. Part 1: Abortiporus–
Lindtneria. Part 2: Meripilus–Tyromyces. Fungiflora, Oslo. 743 pp.
Shigo, A. L. 1974. Relative abilities of Phialophora melinii, Fomes connatus, and F. igniarius to
invade freshly wounded tissues of Acer rubrum. Phytopathology 64:708–710.
Shigo, A. L., and Sharon, E. M. 1970. Mapping columns of discolored and decayed tissues in
sugar maple, Acer saccharum. Phytopathology 60:232–237.
U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Fungal
Databases. Beltsville, MD. Internet resource.
-----------------Trametes versicolor
Adaskaveg, J. E., and Ogawa, J. M. 1990. Wood decay pathology of fruit and nut trees in
California. Plant Dis. 74:341–352.
Bergdahl, D. R., and French, D. W. 1985. Association of wood decay fungi with decline and
mortality of apple trees in Minnesota. Plant Dis. 69:887–890.
Campbell, W. A., and Davidson, R. W. 1940. Top rot in glaze-damaged black cherry and sugar
maple on the Allegany Plateau. J. For. 38:963–965.
Davis, S. H. Jr., and Peterson, J. L. 1980. Trunk decay on Greenspire linden. J. Arboric. 6:258–
260.
Gilbertson, R. L., and Ryvarden, L. 1986, 1987. North American polypores. Vol. I: Albatrellus–
Lindtneria. Vol. II: Megasporaporia–Wrightoporia. Fungiflora, Oslo. 885 pp.
Grosclaude, C. 1992. Decay caused by wood destroying fungi on plane trees. Cryptog. Mycol.
13:181–191.
185
Kile, G. A. 1976. The effect of seasonal pruning and time since pruning upon changes in apple
sapwood and its susceptibility to invasion by Trametes versicolor. Phytopathol. Z. 87:231–
240.
Kile, G. A., and Wade, G. C. 1974. Trametes versicolor on apple. I. Host-pathogen relationship.
Phytopathol. Z. 81:328–338.
Overholts, L. O. 1953. The Polyporaceae of the United States, Alaska, and Canada. Univ. Mich.
Press, Ann Arbor. 466 pp.
Rockett, T. R., and Kramer, C. L. 1974. Periodicity and total spore germination by lignicolous
basidiomycetes. Mycologia 66:817–829.
Ryvarden, L., and Gilbertson, R. L. 1993, 1994. European polypores. Part 1: Abortiporus–
Lindtneria. Part 2: Meripilus–Tyromyces. Fungiflora, Oslo. 743 pp.
Schrenk, H. von. 1914. A trunk disease of the lilac. Ann. Mo. Bot. Gard. 1:253–262.
U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Fungal
Databases. Beltsville, MD. Internet resource.
Williams, E. N. D., Todd, N. K., and Rayner, A. D. M. 1981. Spatial development of populations
of Coriolus versicolor. New Phytol. 89:307–319.
-----------------Polyporus squamosus
Buller, A. H. R. 1906. The biology of Polyporus squamosus, Huds., a timber destroying fungus.
J. Econ. Biol. 1:101–138.
Burk, W. R., and Rex, R. E. 1974. Polyporus squamosus in Utah. Mycotaxon 1:135–136.
Campbell, A. H., and Munson, R. G. 1936. Zone lines in plant tissues. III. The black lines
formed by Polyporus squamosus (Huds.) Fr. Ann. Appl. Biol. 23:453–464.
Corner, E. J. H. 1953. The construction of polypores—1. Introduction: Polyporus sulphureus, P.
squamosus, P. betulinus, and Polystictus microcyclus. Phytomorphology 3:157–167.
Gilbertson, R. L., and Ryvarden, L. 1986, 1987. North American polypores. Vol. I: Albatrellus–
Lindtneria. Vol. II: Megasporaporia–Wrightoporia. Fungiflora, Oslo. 885 pp.
Graff, P. W. 1936. North American polypores—I. Polyporus squamosus and its varieties.
Mycologia 28:154–170.
Overholts, L. O. 1953. The Polyporaceae of the United States, Alaska, and Canada. Univ. Mich.
Press, Ann Arbor. 466 pp.
Ryvarden, L., and Gilbertson, R. L. 1993, 1994. European polypores. Part 1: Abortiporus–
Lindtneria. Part 2: Meripilus–Tyromyces. Fungiflora, Oslo. 743 pp.
U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Fungal
Databases. Beltsville, MD. Internet resource.
-----------------Laetiporus species
Adaskaveg, J. E., and Ogawa, J. M. 1990. Wood decay pathology of fruit and nut trees in
California. Plant Dis. 74:341–352.
Banik, M. T., and Burdsall, H. H. Jr. 1999. Incompatibility between Laetiporus cincinnatus and
L. sulphureus in culture. Mycotaxon 70:461–469.
Banik, M. T., and Burdsall, H. H. Jr. 2000. Incompatibility groups among North American
populations of Laetiporus sulphureus sensu lato. Mycologia 92:649–655.
186
Berry, F. H., and Lombard, F. F. 1978. Basidiomycetes associated with decay of living oak trees.
USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. NE-413. 8 pp.
Burdsall, H. H. Jr., and Banik, M. T. 2001. The genus Laetiporus in North America. Harvard
Pap. Bot. 6:43–55.
Corner, E. J. H. 1953. The construction of polypores—1. Introduction: Polyporus sulphureus, P.
squamosus, P. betulinus, and Polystictus microcyclus. Phytomorphology 3:157–167.
Davidson, R. W., Campbell, W. A., and Vaughan, D. B. 1942. Fungi causing decay of living
oaks in the eastern United States and their cultural identification. USDA Tech. Bull. 765. 65
pp.
Foster, R. E., and Foster, A. T. 1951. Studies in forest pathology. VIII. Decay of western
hemlock on the Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia. Can. J. Bot. 29:479–521.
Gibbs, J. N., and Greig, B. J. W. 1990. Survey of parkland trees after the great storm of October
16, 1987. Arboric. J. 14:321–347.
Gilbertson, R. L. 1981. North American wood-rotting fungi that cause brown rots. Mycotaxon
12:372–416.
Gilbertson, R. L., and Ryvarden, L. 1986, 1987. North American polypores. Vol. I: Albatrellus–
Lindtneria. Vol. II: Megasporaporia–Wrightoporia. Fungiflora, Oslo. 885 pp.
Hepting, G. H., and Hedgcock, G. G. 1937. Decay in merchantable oak, yellow poplar, and
basswood in the Appalachian region. USDA Tech. Bull. 570. 29 pp.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Laflamme, G., Bérubé, J. A., and Bussières, G., eds. 2003. Root and butt rots of forest trees.
Can. For. Serv. Laurentian For. Cent. Inf. Rep. LAU-X-126. 450 pp.
McCracken, F. I. 1978. Spore release of some decay fungi of southern hardwoods. Can. J. Bot.
56:426–431.
Nordin, V. J. 1954. Studies in forest pathology XIII. Decay in sugar maple in the Ottawa-Huron
and Algoma Extension forest region of Ontario. Can. J. Bot. 32:221–258.
Overholts, L. O. 1953. The Polyporaceae of the United States, Alaska, and Canada. Univ. Mich.
Press, Ann Arbor. 466 pp.
Rogers, S. O., Holdenrieder, O., and Sieber, T. N. 1999. Intraspecific comparisons of Laetiporus
sulphureus isolates from broadleaf and coniferous trees in Europe. Mycol. Res. 103:1245–
1251.
Ryvarden, L., and Gilbertson, R. L. 1993, 1994. European polypores. Part 1: Abortiporus–
Lindtneria. Part 2: Meripilus–Tyromyces. Fungiflora, Oslo. 743 pp.
Schwarze, F. W. M. R., Engels, J., and Mattheck, C. 2000. Fungal strategies of wood decay in
trees. English trans. W. Linnard, of Holzzersetzende Pilze in Bäumen: Strategien der
Holzzersetzung. Springer, Berlin, New York. 185 pp.
U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Fungal
Databases. Beltsville, MD. Internet resource.
-----------------Piptoporus betulinus
Adams, T. J. H., Todd, N. K., and Rayner, A. D. M. 1981. Antagonism between dikaryons of
Piptoporus betulinus. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 76:510–513.
187
Corner, E. J. H. 1953. The construction of polypores—1. Introduction: Polyporus sulphureus, P.
squamosus, P. betulinus, and Polystictus microcyclus. Phytomorphology 3:157–167.
Gilbertson, R. L. 1981. North American wood-rotting fungi that cause brown rots. Mycotaxon
12:372–416.
Gilbertson, R. L., and Ryvarden, L. 1986, 1987. North American polypores. Vol. I: Albatrellus–
Lindtneria. Vol. II: Megasporaporia–Wrightoporia. Fungiflora, Oslo. 885 pp.
MacDonald, J. A. 1937. A study of Polyporus betulinus (Bull.) Fries. Ann. Appl. Biol. 24:289–
310.
Overholts, L. O. 1953. The Polyporaceae of the United States, Alaska, and Canada. Univ. Mich.
Press, Ann Arbor. 466 pp.
Rockett, T. R., and Kramer, C. L. 1974. Periodicity and total spore germination by lignicolous
basidiomycetes. Mycologia 66:817–829.
Ryvarden, L., and Gilbertson, R. L. 1993, 1994. European polypores. Part 1: Abortiporus–
Lindtneria. Part 2: Meripilus–Tyromyces. Fungiflora, Oslo. 743 pp.
Schwarze, F. 1993. Piptoporus betulinus (Bull.: Fr.) Karsten. Mycologist 7:122–123.
U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Fungal
Databases. Beltsville, MD. Internet resource.
-----------------Canker-rots of hardwoods, Plate 155, page 311
Spiculosa canker
Campbell, W. A., and Davidson, R. W. 1942. A species of Poria causing rot and cankers of
hickory and oak. Mycologia 34:17–26.
Gilbertson, R. L., and Ryvarden, L. 1986, 1987. North American polypores. Vol. I: Albatrellus–
Lindtneria. Vol. II: Megasporaporia–Wrightoporia. Fungiflora, Oslo. 885 pp.
McCracken, F. I. 1978. Canker-rots in southern hardwoods. USDA For. Serv. For. Insect Dis.
Leafl. 33. 4 pp.
Niemelä, T. 1972–1975. On Fennoscandian polypores. II. Phellinus laevigatus (Fr.) Bourd. &
Galz. and P. lundellii Niemelä n. sp. III. Phellinus tremulae (Bond.) Bond. & Borisov. IV.
Phellinus igniarius, P. nigricans, and P. populicola n. sp. Ann. Bot. Fenn. 9:41–59; 11:202–
215; 12:93–122.
Toole, E. R. 1954. Rot and cankers on oak and honeylocust caused by Poria spiculosa. J. For.
52:941–942.
-----------------Canker-rots of hardwoods, continued, Plate 156, page 313
Canker-rots of birch
Blanchette, R. A. 1982. Progressive stages of discoloration and decay associated with the
canker-rot fungus, Inonotus obliquus, in birch. Phytopathology 72:1272–1277.
Campbell, W. A., and Davidson, R. W. 1938. A Poria as the fruiting stage of the fungus causing
sterile conks on birch. Mycologia 30:553–560.
Gilbertson, R. L., and Ryvarden, L. 1986, 1987. North American polypores. Vol. I: Albatrellus–
Lindtneria. Vol. II: Megasporaporia–Wrightoporia. Fungiflora, Oslo. 885 pp.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
188
Ryvarden, L., and Gilbertson, R. L. 1993, 1994. European polypores. Part 1: Abortiporus–
Lindtneria. Part 2: Meripilus–Tyromyces. Fungiflora, Oslo. 743 pp.
Shigo, A. L. 1969. How Poria obliqua and Polyporus glomeratus incite cankers. Phytopathology
59:1164–1165.
True, R. P., Tryon, E. H., and King, J. F. 1955. Cankers and decays of birch associated with two
Poria species. J. For. 53:412–415.
U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Fungal
Databases. Beltsville, MD. Internet resource.
Zabel, R. A. 1976. Basidiocarp development in Inonotus obliquus and its inhibition by stem
treatments. For. Sci. 22:431–437.
-----------------Canker-rots of hardwoods, continued, Plate 157, page 315
Hispidus canker
Davidson, R. W., Campbell, W. A., and Vaughan, D. B. 1942. Fungi causing decay of living
oaks in the eastern United States and their cultural identification. USDA Tech. Bull. 765. 65
pp.
Florida Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services, Division of Plant Industry. 1962–
present. Plant Pathology Circulars 1– .
Gilbertson, R. L. 1976. The genus Inonotus (Aphylloporales: Hymenochaetaceae) in Arizona.
Mem. N.Y. Bot. Gard. 28:67–85.
Gilbertson, R. L., and Ryvarden, L. 1986, 1987. North American polypores. Vol. I: Albatrellus–
Lindtneria. Vol. II: Megasporaporia–Wrightoporia. Fungiflora, Oslo. 885 pp.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
McCracken, F. I. 1978. Canker-rots in southern hardwoods. USDA For. Serv. For. Insect Dis.
Leafl. 33. 4 pp.
McCracken, F. I. 1988. Microorganisms associated with canker rots and heart rot of oak. Eur. J.
For. Pathol. 18:391–396.
McCracken, F. I., and Toole, E. R. 1969. Sporophore development and sporulation of Polyporus
hispidus. Phytopathology 59:884–885.
McCracken, F. I., and Toole, E. R. 1974. Felling infected oaks in natural stands reduces
dissemination of Polyporus hispidus spores. Phytopathology 64:265–266.
Overholts, L. O. 1953. The Polyporaceae of the United States, Alaska, and Canada. Univ. Mich.
Press, Ann Arbor. 466 pp.
Ryvarden, L., and Gilbertson, R. L. 1993, 1994. European polypores. Part 1: Abortiporus–
Lindtneria. Part 2: Meripilus–Tyromyces. Fungiflora, Oslo. 743 pp.
Schwarze, F. 2001. Development and prognosis of decay in the sapwood of living trees. Arboric.
J. 25:321–337.
Schwarze, F. W. M. R., and Baum, S. 2000. Mechanisms of reaction zone penetration by decay
fungi in wood of beech (Fagus sylvatica). New Phytol. 146:129–140.
Schwarze, F. W. M. R., Engels, J., and Mattheck, C. 2000. Fungal strategies of wood decay in
trees. English trans. W. Linnard, of Holzzersetzende Pilze in Bäumen: Strategien der
Holzzersetzung. Springer, Berlin, New York. 185 pp.
189
Schwarze, F. W. M. R., and Fink, S. 1997. Reaction zone penetration and prolonged persistence
of xylem rays in London plane wood degraded by the basidiomycete Inonotus hispidus.
Mycol. Res. 101:1207–1214.
Schwarze, F. W. M. R., Lonsdale, D., and Fink, S. 1995. Soft rot and multiple T-branching by
the basidiomycete Inonotus hispidus in ash and London plane. Mycol. Res. 99:813–820.
Sleeth, B., and Bidwell, C. B. 1937. Polyporus hispidus and a canker of oaks. J. For. 35:778–
785.
Toole, E. R. 1955. Polyporus hispidus on southern bottomland oaks. Phytopathology 45:177–
180.
U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Fungal
Databases. Beltsville, MD. Internet resource.
Zhao, J.-D., and Zhang, X.-Q. 1992. The polypores of China. Bibliotheca Mycol. 145:1–524.
-----------------Heart rot and canker-rot caused by Inonotus andersonii
Berry, F. H., and Lombard, F. F. 1978. Basidiomycetes associated with decay of living oak trees.
USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. NE-413. 8 pp.
Campbell, W. A., and Davidson, R. W. 1939. Poria andersonii and Polyporus glomeratus, two
distinct heart-rotting fungi. Mycologia 31:161–168.
Fairweather, M. L., and Gilbertson, R. L. 1992. Inonotus andersonii: a wood decay fungus of
oak trees in Arizona. Pages 195–198 in: Ecology and management of oak and associated
woodlands: perspectives in the southwestern United States and northern Mexico. USDA For.
Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-218. 224 pp.
Gilbertson, R. L. 1976. The genus Inonotus (Aphylloporales: Hymenochaetaceae) in Arizona.
Mem. N.Y. Bot. Gard. 28:67–85.
Gilbertson, R. L., and Ryvarden, L. 1986, 1987. North American polypores. Vol. I: Albatrellus–
Lindtneria. Vol. II: Megasporaporia–Wrightoporia. Fungiflora, Oslo. 885 pp.
McCracken, F. I. 1988. Microorganisms associated with canker rots and heart rot of oak. Eur. J.
For. Pathol. 18:391–396.
Overholts, L. O. 1953. The Polyporaceae of the United States, Alaska, and Canada. Univ. Mich.
Press, Ann Arbor. 466 pp.
Ryvarden, L., and Gilbertson, R. L. 1993, 1994. European polypores. Part 1: Abortiporus–
Lindtneria. Part 2: Meripilus–Tyromyces. Fungiflora, Oslo. 743 pp.
U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Fungal
Databases. Beltsville, MD. Internet resource.
Zhao, J.-D., and Zhang, X.-Q. 1992. The polypores of China. Bibliotheca Mycol. 145:1–524.
-----------------Canker-rot caused by Inonotus glomeratus
Campbell, W. A., and Davidson, R. W. 1939. Poria andersonii and Polyporus glomeratus, two
distinct heart-rotting fungi. Mycologia 31:161–168.
Campbell, W. A., and Davidson, R. W. 1939. Sterile conks of Polyporus glomeratus and
associated cankers on beech and red maple. Mycologia 31:606–611.
Gilbertson, R. L., and Ryvarden, L. 1986, 1987. North American polypores. Vol. I: Albatrellus–
Lindtneria. Vol. II: Megasporaporia–Wrightoporia. Fungiflora, Oslo. 885 pp.
190
Good, H. M., and Nelson, C. D. 1951. A histological study of sugar maple decayed by Polyporus
glomeratus Peck. Can. J. Bot. 29:215–223.
Nordin, V. J. 1954. Studies in forest pathology XIII. Decay in sugar maple in the Ottawa-Huron
and Algoma Extension forest region of Ontario. Can. J. Bot. 32:221–258.
Overholts, L. O. 1953. The Polyporaceae of the United States, Alaska, and Canada. Univ. Mich.
Press, Ann Arbor. 466 pp.
Shigo, A. L. 1969. How Poria obliqua and Polyporus glomeratus incite cankers. Phytopathology
59:1164–1165.
U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Fungal
Databases. Beltsville, MD. Internet resource.
-----------------Canker-rots of hardwoods, continued, Plate 158, page 317
Sapwood rots and cankers caused by Cerrena unicolor
Adaskaveg, J. E., and Ogawa, J. M. 1990. Wood decay pathology of fruit and nut trees in
California. Plant Dis. 74:341–352.
Blanchette, R. A., Otjen, L., Effland, M. J., and Eslyn, W. E. 1985. Changes in structural and
chemical components of wood delignified by fungi. Wood Sci. Technol. 19:35–46.
Campbell, W. A. 1939. Daedalea unicolor decay and associated cankers of maples and other
hardwoods. J. For. 37:974–977.
Enebak, S. A., and Blanchette, R. A. 1989. Canker formation and decay in sugar maple and
paper birch infected by Cerrena unicolor. Can. J. For. Res. 19:225–231.
Gilbertson, R. L., and Ryvarden, L. 1986, 1987. North American polypores. Vol. I: Albatrellus–
Lindtneria. Vol. II: Megasporaporia–Wrightoporia. Fungiflora, Oslo. 885 pp.
Overholts, L. O. 1953. The Polyporaceae of the United States, Alaska, and Canada. Univ. Mich.
Press, Ann Arbor. 466 pp.
Ryvarden, L., and Gilbertson, R. L. 1993, 1994. European polypores. Part 1: Abortiporus–
Lindtneria. Part 2: Meripilus–Tyromyces. Fungiflora, Oslo. 743 pp.
Spaulding, P., and Bratton, A. W. 1946. Decay following glaze storm damage in woodlands of
central New York. J. For. 44:515–519.
Stillwell, M. A. 1964. The fungus associated with woodwasps occurring in beech in New
Brunswick. Can. J. Bot. 42:495–496.
-----------------Sapwood rot caused by Schizophyllum commune
Adaskaveg, J. E., and Ogawa, J. M. 1990. Wood decay pathology of fruit and nut trees in
California. Plant Dis. 74:341–352.
Bergdahl, D. R., and French, D. W. 1985. Association of wood decay fungi with decline and
mortality of apple trees in Minnesota. Plant Dis. 69:887–890.
Cooke, W. B. 1961. The genus Schizophyllum. Mycologia 53:575–599.
Davis, S. H. Jr., and Peterson, J. L. 1980. Trunk decay on Greenspire linden. J. Arboric. 6:258–
260.
Essig, F. M. 1922. The morphology, development, and economic aspects of Schizophyllum
commune Fries. Univ. Calif. (Berkeley) Pub. Bot. 7:447–498.
191
James, T. Y., Moncalvo, J. M., Li, S., and Vilgalys, R. 2001. Polymorphism at the ribosomal
DNA spacers and its relation to breeding structure of the widespread mushroom
Schizophyllum commune. Genetics 157:149–161.
James, T. Y., Porter, D., Hamrick, J. L., and Vilgalys, R. 1999. Evidence for limited
intercontinental gene flow in the cosmopolitan mushroom, Schizophyllum commune.
Evolution 53:1665–1677.
Koske, R. E., and Tessier, B. 1986. Growth of some wood and litter-decay basidiomycetes at
reduced water potential. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 86:156–168.
Kothe, E. 1999. Mating types and pheromone recognition in the homobasidiomycete
Schizophyllum commune. Fungal Genet. Biol. 27:146–152.
National Mycological Herbarium (Canada). 1973–present. Fungi Canadenses No. 1– . Agric.
Can. Res. Branch Biosyst. Res. Inst., Ottawa.
Nordin, V. J. 1954. Studies in forest pathology XIII. Decay in sugar maple in the Ottawa-Huron
and Algoma Extension forest region of Ontario. Can. J. Bot. 32:221–258.
Putterill, V. A. 1922. The biology of Schizophyllum commune Fries with special reference to its
parasitism. S.Afr. Dep. Agric. Sci. Bull. 25. 35 pp.
Spaulding, P., and Bratton, A. W. 1946. Decay following glaze storm damage in woodlands of
central New York. J. For. 44:515–519.
Wessels, J. G. H. 2000. Hydrophobins, unique fungal proteins. Mycologist 14:153–159.
Willig, J., and Schlechte, G. B. 1995. Fungus succession on wood after windthrow in a natural
beech forest reserve. Allg. Forst Z. 50:814–818.
-----------------Sapwood decay and silverleaf caused by Chondrostereum purpureum, Plate 159, page 319
Allen, E. A., Morrison, D. J., and Wallis, G. W. 1996. Common tree diseases of British
Columbia. Can. For. Serv., Victoria, BC. 178 pp.
Bishop, G. C. 1979. Infection of cherry trees and production of a toxin that causes foliar silvering
by different isolates of Chondrostereum purpureum. Austral. J. Agric. Res. 30:659–665.
Brooks, F. T. 1911, 1913. Silver leaf disease. I, II. J. Agric. Sci. 4:133–144; 5:288–308.
Brooks, F. T., and Bailey, M. A. 1919. Silver leaf disease. III. J. Agric. Sci. 9:189.
Brooks, F. T., and Brenchley, G. H. 1931. Silver leaf disease. VI. J. Pomol. 9:1–15.
Brooks, F. T., and Moore, W. C. 1926. Silver leaf disease. V. J. Pomol. 5:11–97.
Brooks, F. T., and Storey, H. H. 1923. Silver leaf disease. IV. J. Pomol. Hortic. Sci. 3:117–141.
Dumas, M. T., Wood, J. E., Mitchell, E. G., and Boyonoski, N. W. 1997. Control of stump
sprouting of Populus tremuloides and P. grandidentata by inoculation with Chondrostereum
purpureum. Biol. Control 10:37–41.
Dye. M. H. 1972. Silver-leaf disease of fruit trees. N.Z. Minist. Agric. Fish. Bull 104. 20 pp.
Dye, M. H. 1974. Basidiocarp development and spore release by Stereum purpureum in the field.
N.Z. J. Agric. Res. 17:93–100.
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
Gosselin, L., Jobidon, R., and Bernier, L. 1999. Genetic variability and structure of Canadian
populations of Chondrostereum purpureum, a potential biophytocide. Mol. Ecol. 8:113–122.
Hasui, Y., Fukui, Y., Kikuchi, J., Kato, N., Miyairi, K., and Okuno, T. 1998. Isolation,
characterization, and sugar chain structure of endoPG Ia, Ib, and Ic from Stereum
purpureum. Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 62:852–857.
192
Heimann, M. 1976. The spread of the fungal parasite silver leaf (Stereum purpureum) by natural
root grafting. Deutsche Baumschule 28:34–37.
Jong, M. D. de. 2000. The BioChon story: deployment of Chondrostereum purpureum to
suppress stump sprouting in hardwoods. Mycologist 14:58–62.
Jong, M. D. de, Scheepens, P. C., and Zadoks, J. C. 1990. Risk analysis for biological control: a
Dutch case study in biocontrol of Prunus serotina by the fungus Chondrostereum
purpureum. Plant Dis. 74:189–194.
Lentz, P. L. 1955. Stereum and allied genera of fungi in the upper Mississippi Valley. U. S. Dep.
Agric. Monogr. 24. 74 pp. + illus.
McLaughlin, J. A., and Setliff, E. C. 1990. Chondrostereum purpureum associated with decline
of Betula papyrifera in Thunder Bay, Ontario. Plant Dis. 74:331.
Miyairi, K., Fujita, K., Okuno, T., and Sawai, K. 1977. A toxic protein causative of silver-leaf
disease symptoms on apple trees. Agric. Biol. Chem. 41:1897–1902.
Ogawa, J. M., and English, H. 1991. Diseases of temperate zone tree fruit and nut crops. Univ.
Cal. Div. Agric. Nat. Resour. Pub. 3345. 461 pp.
Pitt, D. G., Dumas, M. T., Wall, R. E., Thompson, D. G., Lanteigne, L., Hintz, W., Sampson, G.,
and Wagner, R. G. 1999. Chondrostereum purpureum as a biological control agent in forest
vegetation management. I. Efficacy on speckled alder, red maple, and aspen in eastern
Canada. Can. J. For. Res. 29:841–851.
Pouzar, Z. 1959. New genera of higher fungi. III. Česká Mykol. 13:10–19.
Ramsfield, T. D., Becker, E. M., Rathlef, S. M., Tang, Y., Vrain, T. C., Shamoun, S. F., and
Hintz, W. E. 1996. Geographic variation of Chondrostereum purpureum detected by
polymorphisms in the ribosomal DNA. Can. J. Bot. 74:1919–1929.
Setliff, E. C. 2002. The wound pathogen Chondrostereum purpureum, its history and incidence
on trees in North America. Austral. J. Bot. 50:645–651.
Spiers, A. G. 1985. Factors affecting basidiospore release by Chondrostereum purpureum in
New Zealand. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 15:111–126.
Spiers, A. G., Brewster, D. T., Bus, V. G., and Hopcroft, D. H. 1998. Seasonal variation in
susceptibility of xylem tissue of Malus, Pyrus, Prunus, and Salix species to Chondrostereum
purpureum in New Zealand. Mycol. Res. 102:881–890.
Spiers, A. G., Edwards, W. R. N., and Hopcroft, D. H. 1987. Effects of silverleaf infection on
ultrastructure of foliage of Prunus, Rosa and Populus. N.Z. J. Bot. 25:411–423.
Spiers, A. G., and Hopcroft, D. H. 1988. Factors affecting Chondrostereum purpureum infection
of Salix. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 18:257–278.
Spiers, A. G., and Hopcroft, D. H. 1988. Ultrastructural studies of basidial and basidiospore
development and basidiospore release in Chondrostereum purpureum. Eur. J. For. Pathol.
18:367–381.
U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Fungal
Databases. Beltsville, MD. Internet resource.
Wall, R. E. 1991. Pathological effects of Chondrostereum purpureum in inoculated yellow birch
and beech. Can. J. Plant Pathol. 13:81–87.
Wall, R. E., Macey, D. E., and Sela, E. 1996. Virulence and interfertility of Chondrostereum
purpureum isolates. Biol. Control 7:205–211.
-----------------Trunk rots of conifers, Plate 160, page 321
193
Heart rot caused by Fomitopsis pinicola
Buckland, D. C., Foster, R. E., and Nordin, V. J. 1949. Studies in forest pathology. VII. Decay in
western hemlock and fir in the Franklin River area, British Columbia. Can. J. Res. C27:312–
331.
Etheridge, D. E. 1973. Wound parasites causing tree decay in British Columbia. Can. For. Serv.
Pac. For. Res. Cent., For. Pest Leafl. 62. 15 pp.
Foster, R. E., and Foster, A. T. 1951. Studies in forest pathology. VIII. Decay of western
hemlock on the Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia. Can. J. Bot. 29:479–521.
Gilbertson, R. L. 1981. North American wood-rotting fungi that cause brown rots. Mycotaxon
12:372–416.
Gilbertson, R. L., and Ryvarden, L. 1986, 1987. North American polypores. Vol. I: Albatrellus–
Lindtneria. Vol. II: Megasporaporia–Wrightoporia. Fungiflora, Oslo. 885 pp.
Harrington, T. C., Furniss, M. M., and Shaw, C. G. 1981. Dissemination of hymenomycetes by
Dendroctonus pseudotsugae (Coleoptera: Scolytidae). Phytopathology 71:551–554.
Hirt, R. R., and Eliason, E. J. 1938. The development of decay in living trees inoculated with
Fomes pinicola. J. For. 36:705–709.
Hogberg, N., Holdenrieder, O., and Stenlid, J. 1999. Population structure of the wood decay
fungus Fomitopsis pinicola. Heredity 83:354–360.
Jurgensen, M. G., Larsen, J. J., Spano, S. D., Harvey, A. E., and Gale, M. R. 1984. Nitrogen
fixation associated with increased wood decay in Douglas-fir residue. For. Sci. 30:1038–
1044.
Kimmey, J. W. 1964. Heart rots of western hemlock. USDA For. Serv. For. Pest Leafl. 90. 7 pp.
Kimmey, J. W., and Bynum, H. H. 1961. Heart rots of red and white firs. USDA For. Serv. For.
Pest Leafl. 52. 4 pp.
Larsen, M. J., Jurgensen, M. F., and Harvey, A. E. 1978. N2 fixation associated with wood
decayed by some common fungi in western Montana. Can. J. For. Res. 8:341–345.
Mounce, I. 1929. Studies in forest pathology. II. The biology of Fomes pinicola (Sw.) Cooke.
Can. Dep. Agric. Bull., n.s., 111. 75 pp.
Overholts, L. O. 1953. The Polyporaceae of the United States, Alaska, and Canada. Univ. Mich.
Press, Ann Arbor. 466 pp.
Partridge, A. D., and Miller, D. L. 1974. Major wood decays in the inland Northwest. Ida. Res.
Found., Moscow, Nat. Resour. Ser. No. 3. 125 pp.
Pettey, T. M., and Shaw, C. G. 1986. Isolation of Fomitopsis pinicola from in-flight bark beetles
(Coleoptera: Scolytidae). Can. J. Bot. 64:1507–1509.
Ryvarden, L., and Gilbertson, R. L. 1993, 1994. European polypores. Part 1: Abortiporus–
Lindtneria. Part 2: Meripilus–Tyromyces. Fungiflora, Oslo. 743 pp.
Schwarze, F. 2001. Development and prognosis of decay in the sapwood of living trees. Arboric.
J. 25:321–337.
Schwarze, F. W. M. R., and Baum, S. 2000. Mechanisms of reaction zone penetration by decay
fungi in wood of beech (Fagus sylvatica). New Phytol. 146:129–140.
Schwarze, F. W. M. R., Engels, J., and Mattheck, C. 2000. Fungal strategies of wood decay in
trees. English trans. W. Linnard, of Holzzersetzende Pilze in Bäumen: Strategien der
Holzzersetzung. Springer, Berlin, New York. 185 pp.
U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Fungal
Databases. Beltsville, MD. Internet resource.
------------------
194
Heart rot caused by Echinodontium tinctorium
Aho, P. E., and Filip, G. M. 1982. Incidence of wounding and Echinodontium tinctorium
infection in advanced white fir regeneration. Can. J. For. Res. 12:705–708.
Aho, P. E., Filip, G. M., and Lombard, F. F. 1987. Decay fungi and wounding in advance grand
and white fir regeneration. For. Sci. 33:347–355.
Etheridge, D. E. 1973. Wound parasites causing tree decay in British Columbia. Can. For. Serv.
Pac. For. Res. Cent., For. Pest Leafl. 62. 15 pp.
Etheridge, D. E., and Craig, H. M. 1976. Factors influencing infection and initiation of decay by
the Indian paint fungus (Echinodontium tinctorium) in western hemlock. Can. J. For. Res.
6:299–318.
Gross, H. L. 1964. The Echinodontiaceae. Mycopathol. Mycol. Appl. 24:1–26.
Harvey, A. E., Larsen, M. J., Jurgensen, M. F., and Jones, E. A. 1989. Nitrogenase activity
associated with decayed wood of living northern Idaho conifers. Mycologia 81:765–771.
Hunt, R. S., and Etheridge, D. E. 1995. True heart-rots of the Pacific region. Can. For. Serv. Pac.
For. Cent. For. Pest Leafl. 55. 8 pp.
Maloy, O. 1991. Review of Echinodontium tinctorium 1895–1990. Wash. State Univ. Exten.
Bull. EB1592. 29 pp.
Partridge, A. D., and Miller, D. L. 1974. Major wood decays in the inland Northwest. Ida. Res.
Found., Moscow, Nat. Resour. Ser. No. 3. 125 pp.
Thomas, G. P. 1958. Studies in forest pathology. XVIII. The occurrence of the Indian paint
fungus, Echinodontium tinctorium E. & E., in British Columbia. Can. Dep. Agric. Pub. 1041.
30 pp.
U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Fungal
Databases. Beltsville, MD. Internet resource.
Wilson, A. D. 1990. The genetics of sexual incompatibility in the Indian paint fungus,
Echinodontium tinctorium. Mycologia 82:332–341.
Wilson, A. D. 1991. Somatic incompatibility in dikaryotic-monokaryotic and dikaryotic pairings
of Echinodontium tinctorium. Can. J. Bot. 69:2716–2723.
-----------------Trunk rots of conifers, continued, Plate 161, page 323
Heart rot caused by Phellinus pini
Basham, J. T. 1975. Heart rot of jack pine in Ontario. IV. Heartwood-inhabiting fungi: their
entry and interactions within living trees. Can. J. For. Res. 5:706–721.
Blanchette, R. A. 1980. Wood decomposition by Phellinus (Fomes) pini: a scanning electron
microscopy study. Can. J. Bot. 58:1496–1503.
Blanchette, R. A. 1982. Decay and canker formation by Phellinus pini in white and balsam fir.
Can. J. For. Res. 12:538–544.
Blanchette, R. A. 1982. Phellinus (Fomes) pini decay associated with sweetfern rust in sapwood
of jack pine. Can. J. For. Res. 12:304–310.
Boyce, J. S. 1961. Forest pathology. 3rd ed. McGraw-Hill, New York. 572 pp.
Fischer, M. 1994. Pairing tests in the Phellinus pini group. Mycologia 86:524–539.
Fischer, M. 1996. Molecular and microscopical studies in the Phellinus pini group. Mycologia
88:230–238.
195
Gilbertson, R. L., and Ryvarden, L. 1986, 1987. North American polypores. Vol. I: Albatrellus–
Lindtneria. Vol. II: Megasporaporia–Wrightoporia. Fungiflora, Oslo. 885 pp.
Groot, R. C. De. 1966. Phenolic extractives in lateral branches and injured leaders of Pinus
strobus L. Can. J. Bot. 44:57–61.
Haddow, W. R. 1938. On the classification, nomenclature, hosts, and geographical range of
Trametes pini (Thore) Fries. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 22:182–193.
Haddow, W. R. 1938. The disease caused by Trametes pini (Thore) Fries in white pine (Pinus
strobus L.). Trans. R. Can. Inst. 29:21–80.
Harvey, A. E., Larsen, M. J., Jurgensen, M. F., and Jones, E. A. 1989. Nitrogenase activity
associated with decayed wood of living northern Idaho conifers. Mycologia 81:765–771.
Hiley, W. E. 1919. The fungal diseases of the common larch. Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford, UK.
204 pp.
Hunt, R. S. 1997. Differential medium for Phellinus pini and Inonotus tomentosus. Can. J. Plant
Pathol. 19:307–309.
Hunt, R. S., Ekramoddoullah, A. K. M., and Zamani, A. 1999. Production of a polyclonal
antibody to Phellinus pini and examination of its potential use in diagnostic assays. Eur. J.
For. Pathol. 29:259–272.
Hunt, R. S., and Etheridge, D. E. 1995. True heart-rots of the Pacific region. Can. For. Serv. Pac.
For. Cent. For. Pest Leafl. 55. 8 pp.
Larsen, M. J. 2000. Phellinus gilbertsonii sp. nov. from western North America causing heart rot
of coastal Douglas-fir. Folia Cryptog. Estonica 37:51–54.
Partridge, A. D., and Miller, D. L. 1974. Major wood decays in the inland Northwest. Ida. Res.
Found., Moscow, Nat. Resour. Ser. No. 3. 125 pp.
Percival, W. C. 1933. A contribution to the biology of Fomes pini (Thore) Lloyd (Trametes pini
[Thore] Fries). N.Y. State Coll. For. Tech. Pub. 40. 72 pp.
Ryvarden, L., and Gilbertson, R. L. 1993, 1994. European polypores. Part 1: Abortiporus–
Lindtneria. Part 2: Meripilus–Tyromyces. Fungiflora, Oslo. 743 pp.
Sawahata, T., and Hayashi, Y. 2002. Pairing tests and morphological studies of Phellinus pini–
complex in Japan. Nihon Kingakkai Kaiho 43:51–59.
-----------------Canker rot caused by Phellinus cancriformans
Aho, P. E., Seidler, R. J., Evans, H. J., and Raju, P. N. 1974. Distribution, enumeration, and
identification of nitrogen-fixing bacteria associated with decay in living white fir trees.
Phytopathology 64:1413–1420.
Blanchette, R. A. 1982. Decay and canker formation by Phellinus pini in white and balsam fir.
Can. J. For. Res. 12:538–544.
Fischer, M. 1994. Pairing tests in the Phellinus pini group. Mycologia 86:524–539.
Fischer, M. 1996. Molecular and microscopical studies in the Phellinus pini group. Mycologia
88:230–238.
Gilbertson, R. L., and Ryvarden, L. 1986, 1987. North American polypores. Vol. I: Albatrellus–
Lindtneria. Vol. II: Megasporaporia–Wrightoporia. Fungiflora, Oslo. 885 pp.
Larsen, M. J., Lombard, F. F., and Aho, P. E. 1979. A new variety of Phellinus pini associated
with cankers and decay in white firs in southwestern Oregon and northern California. Can. J.
For. Res. 9:31–38.
196
Owens, C. E. 1936. Studies on the wood-rotting fungus, Fomes pini. I. Variations in morphology
and growth habit. Am. J. Bot. 23:144–149.
Ryvarden, L., and Gilbertson, R. L. 1993, 1994. European polypores. Part 1: Abortiporus–
Lindtneria. Part 2: Meripilus–Tyromyces. Fungiflora, Oslo. 743 pp.
-----------------Armillaria root rots, Plates 162–164, pages 325–329
Banik, M. T., and Burdsall, H. H. Jr. 1998. Assessment of compatibility among Armillaria
cepistipes, A. sinapina, and North American biological species X and XI, using culture
morphology and molecular biology. Mycologia 90:798–805.
Baumgartner, K., and Rizzo, D. M. 2001. Distribution of Armillaria species in California.
Mycologia 93:821–830.
Baumgartner, K., and Rizzo, D. M. 2001. Ecology of Armillaria spp. in mixed-hardwood forests
of California. Plant Dis. 85:947–951.
Bérubé, J. A., and Dessureault, M. 1988. Morphological characterization of Armillaria ostoyae
and Armillaria sinapina sp. nov. Can. J. Bot. 66:2027–2034.
Bérubé, J. A., and Dessureault, M. 1989. Morphological studies on the Armillaria mellea
complex: two new species, A. gemina and A. calvescens. Mycologia 81:216–225. [Includes
key to North American taxa then known.]
Bliss, D. E. 1946. The relation of soil temperature to the development of Armillaria root rot.
Phytopathology 36:302–318.
Chillali, M., Idder, I. H., Guillaumin, J. J., Mohammed, C., Lung-Escarmant, B., and Botton, B.
1998. Variation in the ITS and IGS regions of ribosomal DNA among the biological species
of European Armillaria. Mycol. Res. 102:533–540.
Coetzee, M. P. A., Wingfield, B. D., Harrington, T. C., Dalevi, D., Coutinho, T. A., and
Wingfield, M. J. 2000. Geographical diversity of Armillaria mellea s.s. based on
phylogenetic analysis. Mycologia 92:105–113.
Delatour, C., Guillaumin, J. J., Lung-Escarmant, B., and Marçais, B. 1998. Root and butt rots of
forest trees: 9th International Conference on Root and Butt Rots, Carcans-Maubuisson,
France, 1997. Inst. Natl. Recher. Agron. (INRA), Paris. 459 pp.
Entry, J. A., Cromack, K. Jr., Hansen, E., and Waring, R. 1991. Response of western coniferous
seedlings to infection by Armillaria ostoyae under limited light and nitrogen. Phytopathology
81:89–94.
Entry, J. A., Martin, N. E., Kelsey, R. G., and Cromack, K. Jr. 1992. Chemical constituents in
root bark of five species of western conifer saplings and infection by Armillaria ostoyae.
Phytopathology 82:393–397.
Feiler, S., Tesche, M., Zentsch, W., Schmidt, P. A., and Bellmann, C. 1992. Investigations on
water relations of spruce infected by Armillaria sp. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 22:329–336.
Fox, R. T. V., ed. 2000. Armillaria root rot: biology and control of honey fungus. Intercept,
Andover, UK. 222 pp.
Frontz, T. M., Davis, D. D., Bunyard, B. A., and Royse, D. J. 1998. Identification of Armillaria
species isolated from bigtooth aspen based on rDNA RFLP analysis. Can. J. For. Res.
28:141–149.
Guillaumin, J. J., Mohammed, C., Anselmi, N., Courtecuisse, R., Gregory, S. C., Holdenrieder,
O., Intini, M., Lung-Escarmant, B., Marxmüller, H., Morrison, D., Rishbeth, J.,
197
Termorshuizen, A. J., Tirro, A., and van Dam, B. 1993. Geographical distribution and
ecology of the Armillaria species in western Europe. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 23:321–341.
Harrington, T. C., and Rizzo, D. M. 1993. Identification of Armillaria species from New
Hampshire. Mycologia 85:365–368.
Harrington, T. C., and Wingfield, B. D. 1995. A PCR-based identification method for species of
Armillaria. Mycologia 87:280–288.
Hartig, R. 1874. Wichtige Krankheiten der Waldbäume. Beiträge zur Mycologie und
Phytopathologie für Botaniker und Forstmänner. J. Springer, Berlin. 127 pp. English trans.
1975, W. Liese, D. H. Lambert, and W. Merrill. Am. Phytopathol. Soc., St. Paul, MN. 120
pp.
Hartig, R. 1882. Lehrbuch der Baumkrankheiten. J. Springer, Berlin. 198 pp. + illus. English
trans. 1894, W. Somerville and H. M. Ward. Macmillan, London. 331 pp.
Hartig, R. 1894. Textbook of the diseases of trees. English trans. W. Somerville and H. M. Ward.
Macmillan, London. 331 pp.
Hiratsuka, Y., Langor, D. W., and Crane, P. E. 1995. Forest insects and diseases of the prairie
provinces. Can. For. Serv. North. For. Cent. Spec. Rep. 3. 297 pp.
Jacobs, K. A., MacDonald, J. D., Cobb, F. W. Jr., and Wells, K. 1994. Identification of
Armillaria species in California. Mycologia 86:113–116.
Klein, G. H. W., and Blenis, P. V. 1991. Spread of Armillaria ostoyae in juvenile lodgepole pine
stands in west central Alberta. Can. J. For. Res. 21:20–24.
Laflamme, G., Bérubé, J. A., and Bussières, G., eds. 2003. Root and butt rots of forest trees. Can.
For. Serv. Laurentian For. Cent. Inf. Rep. LAU-X-126. 450 pp.
McLaughlin, J. A. 2001. Distribution, hosts, and site relationships of Armillaria spp. in central
and southern Ontario. Can. J. For. Res. 31:1481–1490.
Mohammed, C., Guillaumin, J. J., and Berthelay, S. 1994. Armillaria species identified in China
and Japan. Mycol. Res. 98:607–613.
Morrison, D. J. 1981. Armillaria root disease. A guide to disease diagnosis, development, and
management in British Columbia. Can. For. Serv. Pac. For. Res. Cent. BC-X-203. 15 pp.
Morrison, D. J. 1982. Effects of soil organic matter on rhizomorph growth by Armillaria mellea.
Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 78:201–207.
Morrison, D. J., Chu, D., and Johnson, A. L. S. 1985. Species of Armillaria in British Columbia.
Can. J. Plant Pathol. 7:242–246.
Morrison, D. J., and Pellow, K. W. 2002. Variation in virulence among isolates of Armillaria
ostoyae. For. Pathol. 32:99–107.
Morrison, D. J., Pellow, K. W., Nemec, A. F. L., Norris, D. J., and Semenoff, P. 2001. Effects of
selective cutting on the epidemiology of Armillaria root disease in the southern interior of
British Columbia. Can. J. For. Res. 31:59–70.
Morrison, D. J., Wallis, G. M., and Weir, L. C. 1988. Control of Armillaria and Phellinus root
diseases: 20-year results from the Skimikin stump removal experiment. Can. For. Serv. Pac.
For. Cent. Inf. Rep. BC-X-302. 16 pp.
Ogawa, J. M., and English, H. 1991. Diseases of temperate zone tree fruit and nut crops. Univ.
Cal. Div. Agric. Nat. Resour. Pub. 3345. 461 pp.
Patton, R. F. 1978. Penetration and colonization of oak roots by Armillaria mellea in Wisconsin.
Eur. J. For. Pathol. 8:259–267.
Raabe, R. D. 1979. Resistance or susceptibility of certain plants to Armillaria root rot. Univ.
Calif. Div. Agric. Sci. Leafl. 2591. 11 pp.
198
Rishbeth, J. 1978. Effects of soil temperature and atmosphere on growth of Armillaria
rhizomorphs. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 70:213–220.
Rishbeth, J. 1978. Infection foci of Armillaria mellea in first-rotation hardwoods. Ann. Bot.
42:1131–1139.
Rishbeth, J. 1988. Stump infection by Armillaria in first-rotation conifers. Eur. J. For. Pathol.
18:401–408.
Rizzo, D. M., Blanchette, R. A., and May, G. 1995. Distribution of Armillaria ostoyae genets in
a Pinus resinosa–Pinus banksiana forest. Can. J. Bot. 73:776–787.
Rizzo, D. M., and Harrington, T. C. 1992. Nuclear migration in diploid-haploid pairings of
Armillaria ostoyae. Mycologia 84:863–869.
Robinson, R. M., and Morrison, D. J. 2001. Lesion formation and host response to infection by
Armillaria ostoyae in the roots of western larch and Douglas-fir. For. Pathol. 31:371–385.
Rosso, P., and Hansen, E. 1998. Tree vigour and the susceptibility of Douglas-fir to Armillaria
root disease. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 28:43–52.
Schwarze, F. W. M. R., Engels, J., and Mattheck, C. 2000. Fungal strategies of wood decay in
trees. English trans. W. Linnard, of Holzzersetzende Pilze in Bäumen: Strategien der
Holzzersetzung. Springer, Berlin, New York. 185 pp.
Shaw, C. G. III, and Kile, G. A., eds. 1991. Armillaria root disease. USDA Agric. Handb. 691.
233 pp.
Shaw, C. G. III, and Roth, L. F. 1976. Persistence and distribution of a clone of Armillaria
mellea in a ponderosa pine forest. Phytopathology 66:1210–1213.
Shigo, A. L., and Tippett, J. T. 1981. Compartmentalization of decayed wood associated with
Armillaria mellea in several tree species. USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. NE-488. 20 pp.
Sierra, A. P., Whitehead, D. S., and Whitehead, M. P. 1999. Investigation of a PCR-based
method for the routine identification of British Armillaria species. Mycol. Res. 103:1631–
1636.
Smith, M. L., Bruhn, J. N., and Anderson, J. B. 1992. The fungus Armillaria bulbosa is among
the largest and oldest living organisms. Nature 356:428–431.
Solla, A., Tomlinson, F., and Woodward, S. 2002. Penetration of Picea sitchensis root bark by
Armillaria mellea, Armillaria ostoyae and Heterobasidion annosum. For. Pathol. 32:55–70.
Stanosz, G. R., and Patton, R. F. 1990. Stump colonization by Armillaria in Wisconsin aspen
stands following clearcutting. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 20:339–346.
Terashima, K., Kawashima, Y., Cha, J., and Miura, K. 1998. Identification of Armillaria species
from Hokkaido by analysis of the intergenic spacer (IGS) region of ribosomal DNA using
PCR-RFLP. Mycoscience 39:179–183.
Thomas, H. E. 1934. Studies on Armillaria mellea (Vahl) Quel., infection, parasitism, and host
resistance. J. Agric. Res. 48:187–218.
Volk, T. J., and Burdsall, H. H. 1995. A nomenclatural study of Armillaria and Armillariella
species: Basidiomycotina, Tricholomataceae. Fungiflora, Oslo. 121 pp.
Wargo, P. M., and Houston, D. R. 1974. Infection of defoliated sugar maple trees by Armillaria
mellea. Phytopathology 64:817–822.
Watling, R., Kile, G. A., and Gregory, N. M. 1982. The genus Armillaria—nomenclature,
typification, the identity of Armillaria mellea, and species differentiation. Trans. Br. Mycol.
Soc. 78:271–285.
199
White, E. E., Dubetz, C. P., Cruickshank, M. G., and Morrison, D. J. 1998. DNA diagnostic for
Armillaria species in British Columbia: within and between species variation in the IGS-1
and IGS-2 regions. Mycologia 90:125–131.
Worrall, J. J. 1994. Population structure of Armillaria species in several forest types. Mycologia
86:401–407.
-----------------Armillaria root rots, continued, Plate 164, page 329
Mushroom root rot
Beckman, T. G. 1998. Developing Armillaria resistant rootstocks for peach. Acta Hortic. No.
465:219–224.
Bruhn, J. N., Wetteroff, J. J. Jr., Mihail, J. D., Kabrick, J. M., and Pickens, J. B. 2000.
Distribution of Armillaria species in upland Ozark Mountain forests with respect to site,
overstory species composition and oak decline. For. Pathol. 30:43–60.
Chillali, M., Idder, I. H., Guillaumin, J. J., Mohammed, C., Lung-Escarmant, B., and Botton, B.
1998. Variation in the ITS and IGS regions of ribosomal DNA among the biological species
of European Armillaria. Mycol. Res. 102:533–540.
Fox, R. T. V., ed. 2000. Armillaria root rot: biology and control of honey fungus. Intercept Ltd.,
Andover, UK. 222 pp.
Gibson, I. A. S., and Corbett, D. C. M. 1964. Variation in isolates from Armillaria root disease in
Nyasaland. Phytopathology 54:122–123.
Grillo, R., Korhonen, K., Hantula, J., and Hietala, A. M. 2000. Genetic evidence for somatic
haploidization in developing fruit bodies of Armillaria tabescens. Fungal Genet. Biol.
30:135–145.
Harrington, T. C., and Wingfield, B. D. 1995. A PCR-based identification method for species of
Armillaria. Mycologia 87:280–288.
Mihail, J. D., Bruhn, J. N., and Leininger, T. D. 2002. The effects of moisture and oxygen
availability on rhizomorph generation by Armillaria tabescens in comparison with A. gallica
and A. mellea. Mycol. Res. 106:697–704.
Rhoads, A. S. 1950. Clitocybe root rot of woody plants in the southeastern United States. USDA
Circ. 853. 25 pp.
Rhoads, A. S. 1956. The occurrence and destructiveness of Clitocybe root rot of woody plants in
Florida. Lloydia 19:193–240.
Ross, E. W. 1970. Sand pine root rot—pathogen: Clitocybe tabescens. J. For. 68:156–158.
Shaw, C. G. I., and Kile, G. A. 1991. Armillaria root disease. USDA Agric. Handb. 691. 233 pp.
Sierra, A. P., Whitehead, D. S., and Whitehead, M. P. 1999. Investigation of a PCR-based
method for the routine identification of British Armillaria species. Mycol. Res. 103:1631–
1636.
Volk, T. J., and Burdsall, H. H. 1995. A nomenclatural study of Armillaria and Armillariella
species: Basidiomycotina, Tricholomataceae. Fungiflora, Oslo. 121 pp.
Watling, R., Kile, G. A., and Gregory, N. M. 1982. The genus Armillaria – nomenclature,
typification, the identity of Armillaria mellea, and species differentiation. Trans. Br. Mycol.
Soc. 78:271–285.
Weaver, D. J. 1974. Effect of root injury on the invasion of peach roots by Clitocybe tabescens.
Mycopathol. Mycol. Appl. 52:313–317.
------------------
200
Root and butt rots caused by Heterobasidion species, Plates 165–166, pages 331–333
Bahnweg, G., Moller, E. M., Anegg, S., Langebartels, C., Wienhaus, O., and Sandermann, H. Jr.
2002. Detection of Heterobasidion annosum s.l. [(Fr.) Bref.] in Norway spruce by
polymerase chain reaction. J. Phytopathol. 150:382–389.
Bendz-Hellgren, M., and Stenlid, J. 1997. Decreased volume growth of Picea abies in response
to Heterobasidion annosum infection. Can. J. For. Res. 27:1519–1524.
Blanchette, R. A., and Biggs, A. R., eds. 1992. Defense mechanisms of woody plants against
fungi. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York. 458 pp.
Chase, T. E., and Ullrich, R. C. 1990. Five genes determining intersterility in Heterobasidion
annosum. Mycologia 82:73–81.
Delatour, C., Guillaumin, J. J., Lung-Escarmant, B., and Marçais, B. 1998. Root and butt rots of
forest trees: 9th International Conference on Root and Butt Rots, Carcans-Maubuisson,
France, 1997. Inst. Natl. Recher. Agron. (INRA), Paris. 459 pp.
Englerth, G. H. 1942. Decay of western hemlock in western Oregon and Washington. Yale Univ.
Sch. For. Bull. 50. 53 pp.
Froelich, R. C., Cowling, E. B., Collicott, L. V., and Dell, R. R. 1977. Fomes annosus reduces
height and diameter growth of planted slash pine. For. Sci. 23:299–306.
Garbelotto, M., Cobb, F. W., Bruns, T. D., Otrosina, W. J., Popenuck, T., and Slaughter, G.
1999. Genetic structure of Heterobasidion annosum in white fir mortality centers in
California. Phytopathology 89:546–554.
Garbelotto, M., Lee, H. K., Slaughter, G., Popenuck, T., Cobb, F. W., and Bruns, T. D. 1997.
Heterokaryosis is not required for virulence of Heterobasidion annosum. Mycologia 89:92–
102.
Garbelotto, M., Otrosina, W. J., Cobb, F. W., and Bruns, T. D. 1998. The European S and F
intersterility groups of Heterobasidion annosum may represent sympatric protospecies. Can.
J. Bot. 76:397–409.
Gilbertson, R. L., and Ryvarden, L. 1986, 1987. North American polypores. Vol. I: Albatrellus–
Lindtneria. Vol. II: Megasporaporia–Wrightoporia. Fungiflora, Oslo. 885 pp.
Hanlin, R. T. 1982. Conidiogenesis in Spiniger meineckellus. Mycologia 74:236–241.
Hansen, E. M., Stenlid, J., and Johansson, M. 1993. Genetic control of somatic incompatibility in
the root-rotting basidiomycete Heterobasidion annosum. Mycol. Res. 97:1229–1233.
Hartig, R. 1874. Wichtige Krankheiten der Waldbäume. Beiträge zur Mycologie und
Phytopathologie für Botaniker und Forstmänner. J. Springer, Berlin. 127 pp. English trans.
1975, W. Liese, D. H. Lambert, and W. Merrill. Am. Phytopathol. Soc., St. Paul, MN. 120
pp.
Hartig, R. 1894. Textbook of the diseases of trees. English trans. W. Somerville and H. M.
Ward. Macmillan, London. 331 pp.
Heneen, W. K., Gustafsson, M., Brismar, K., and Karlsson, G. 1994. Interactions between
Norway spruce (Picea abies) and Heterobasidion annosum. II. Infection of woody roots.
Can. J. Bot. 72:884–889.
Heneen, W. K., Gustafsson, M., Karlsson, G., and Brismar, K. 1994. Interactions between
Norway spruce (Picea abies) and Heterobasidion annosum. I. Infection of nonsuberized and
young suberized roots. Can. J. Bot. 72:872–883.
201
Heslin, M. C., Stuart, M. R., Murchú, P. O., and Donnelly, D. M. X. 1983. Fomannoxin, a
phytotoxic metabolite of Fomes annosus: in vitro production, host toxicity, and isolation
from naturally infected Sitka spruce heartwood. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 13:11–23.
Hiley, W. E. 1919. The fungal diseases of the common larch. Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford, UK.
204 pp.
Hsiang, T., Edmonds, R. L., and Driver, C. H. 1989. Conidia of Heterobasidion annosum from
Tsuga heterophylla forests in western Washington. Can. J. Bot. 67:1262–1266.
James, R. L., Cobb, F. W. Jr., Miller, P. R., and Parmeter, J. R. Jr. 1980. Effects of oxidant air
pollution on susceptibility of pine roots to Fomes annosus. Phytopathology 70:560–563.
James, R. L., Cobb, F. W. Jr., Wilcox, W. W., and Rowney, D. L. 1980. Effects of
photochemical oxidant injury of ponderosa and Jeffrey pines on susceptibility of sapwood
and freshly cut stumps to Fomes annosus. Phytopathology 70:704–708.
Johansson, M. 1988. Pectic enzyme activity of spruce (S) and pine (P) strains of Heterobasidion
annosum (Fr.) Bref. Physiol. Mol. Plant Pathol. 33:333–349.
Joseph, G., Kelsey, R. G., and Thies, W. G. 1998. Hydraulic conductivity in roots of ponderosa
pine infected with black-stain (Leptographium wageneri) or annosus (Heterobasidion
annosum) root disease. Tree Physiol. 18:333–339.
Kadlec, Z., Stary, P., and Zumr, V. 1992. Field evidence for the large pine weevil, Hylobius
abietis as a vector of Heterobasidion annosum. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 22:316–318.
Kuhlman, E. G., Hodges, C. S. Jr., and Froelich, R. C. 1976. Minimizing losses to Fomes
annosus in the southern United States. USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. SE-151. 16 pp.
Laflamme, G., Bérubé, J. A., and Bussières, G., eds. 2003. Root and butt rots of forest trees.
Can. For. Serv. Laurentian For. Cent. Inf. Rep. LAU-X-126. 450 pp.
Lindberg, M., and Johansson, M. 1991. Growth of Heterobasidion annosum through bark of
Picea abies. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 21:377–388.
Lindberg, M., and Johansson, M. 1992. Resistance of Picea abies seedlings to infection by
Heterobasidion annosum in relation to drought stress. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 22:115–124.
Maijala, P., Harrington, T. C., and Raudaskoski, M. 2003. A peroxidase gene family and gene
trees in Heterobasidion and related genera. Mycologia 95:209–221.
Olson, Å., and Stenlid, J. 2000. Functional units in root diseases: lessons from Heterobasidion
annosum. Pages 139–156 in: Ganoderma diseases of perennial crops. J. Flood, P. D. Bridge,
and M. Holderness, eds. CABI Pub., Wallingford, UK.
Otrosina, W. J., and Scharpf, R. F., eds. 1989. Proceedings of the symposium on research and
management of annosus root disease (Heterobasidion annosum) in western North America.
Monterey, CA, 1989. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-116. 177 pp.
Pratt, J. E., Gibbs, J. N., and Webber, J. F. 1999. Registration of Phlebiopsis gigantea as a forest
biocontrol agent in the UK: recent experience. Biocontrol Sci. Technol. 9:113–118.
Rishbeth, J. 1950, 1951. Observations on the biology of Fomes annosus, with particular
reference to East Anglian pine plantations. I. The outbreaks of disease and ecological status
of the fungus. II. Spore production, stump infection, and saprophytic activity in stumps. Ann.
Bot., n.s., 14:365–383; 15:1–21.
Rizzo, D. M., and Slaughter, G. W. 2001. Root disease and canopy gaps in developed areas of
Yosemite Valley, California. For. Ecol. Manag. 146:159–167.
Robbins, K. 1984. Annosus root disease in eastern conifers. U. S. For. Serv. For. Insect Dis.
Leafl. 76. Internet pub.
202
Ross, E. W. 1973. Fomes annosus in the southeastern United States. USDA Tech. Bull. 1459. 26
pp.
Schmitt, C. L., Parmeter, J. L., and Kleijunas, J. T. 2000. Annosus root rot of western conifers.
USDA For. Serv. For. Insect Dis. Leafl. 172. 10 pp. Internet pub.
Schulze, S. 1999. Rapid detection of European Heterobasidion annosum intersterility groups and
intergroup gene flow using taxon-specific competitive-priming PCR (TSCP-PCR). J.
Phytopathol. 147:125–127.
Schulze, S., and Bahnweg, G. 1998. Critical review of identification techniques for Armillaria
spp. and Heterobasidion annosum root and butt rot diseases. J. Phytopathol. 146:61–72.
Schwarze, F. W. M. R., Engels, J., and Mattheck, C. 2000. Fungal strategies of wood decay in
trees. English trans. W. Linnard, of Holzzersetzende Pilze in Bäumen: Strategien der
Holzzersetzung. Springer, Berlin, New York. 185 pp.
Shain, L. 1967. Resistance of sapwood in stems of loblolly pine to infection by Fomes annosus.
Phytopathology 57:1034–1045.
Shain, L. 1971. The response of sapwood of Norway spruce to infection by Fomes annosus.
Phytopathology 61:301–307.
Shigo, A. L. 1979. Compartmentalization of decay associated with Heterobasidion annosum in
roots of Pinus resinosa. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 9:341–347.
Solla, A., Tomlinson, F., and Woodward, S. 2002. Penetration of Picea sitchensis root bark by
Armillaria mellea, Armillaria ostoyae and Heterobasidion annosum. For. Pathol. 32:55–70.
Stalpers, J. A. 1996. The Aphyllophoraceous fungi—II. Keys to the species of the Hericiales.
Stud. Mycol. No 40. 185 pp.
Stenlid, J., and Johansson, M. 1987. Infection of roots of Norway spruce (Picea abies) by
Heterobasidion annosum. II. Early changes in phenolic content and toxicity. Eur. J. For.
Pathol. 17:217–226.
Swedjemark, G., Johannesson, H., and Stenlid, J. 1999. Intraspecific variation in Heterobasidion
annosum for growth in sapwood of Picea abies and Pinus sylvestris. Eur. J. For. Pathol.
29:249–258.
Tainter, F. H., and Baker, F. A. 1996. Principles of forest pathology. Wiley, New York. 805 pp.
Woodward, S., Stenlid, J., Karjalainen, R., and Hutterman, A. 1998. Heterobasidion annosum:
biology, ecology, impact and control. CAB International, Wallingford, UK. 589 pp.
-----------------Red root and butt rots of conifers, Plates 167–168, pages 335–337
Barnard, E. L., Blakeslee, G. M., English, J. T., Oak, S. W., and Anderson, R. L. 1985.
Pathogenic fungi associated with sand pine root disease in Florida. Plant Dis. 69:196–199.
Barnard, E. L., and Dixon, W. N. 1983. Insects and diseases: important problems of Florida's
forest and shade tree resources. Fla. Dep. Agric. Consum. Serv. Bull. 196-A. 120 pp.
Bohaychuk, W. P., and Whitney, R. D. 1973. Environmental factors influencing basidiospore
discharge in Polyporus tomentosus. Can. J. Bot. 51:801–815.
Boyce, J. S. Jr. 1967. Red root and butt rot in planted slash pines. J. For. 65:493–494.
Germain, H., Laflamme, G., Bernier, L., Boulet, B., and Hamelin, R. C. 2002. DNA
polymorphism and molecular diagnosis in Inonotus spp. Can. J. Plant Pathol. 24:194–199.
Gilbertson, R. L., and Ryvarden, L. 1986, 1987. North American polypores. Vol. I: Albatrellus–
Lindtneria. Vol. II: Megasporaporia–Wrightoporia. Fungiflora, Oslo. 885 pp.
203
Ginns, J. H. 1986. Compendium of plant disease and decay fungi in Canada. Can. Gov. Pub.
Cent., Ottawa. 416 pp.
Haddow, W. R. 1941. On the history and diagnosis of Polyporus tomentosus Fries, Polyporus
circinatus Fries, and Polyporus dualis Peck. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 25:179–190.
Hiratsuka, Y., Langor, D. W., and Crane, P. E. 1995. Forest insects and diseases of the prairie
provinces. Can. For. Serv. North. For. Cent. Spec. Rep. 3. 297 pp.
Hobbs, S. D., and Partridge, A. D. 1979. Wood decays, root rots, and stand composition along an
elevation gradient. For. Sci. 25:31–42.
Hunt, R. S. 1997. Differential medium for Phellinus pini and Inonotus tomentosus. Can. J. Plant
Pathol. 19:307–309.
Hunt, R. S., and Ekramoddoullah, A. K. 1996. Protein patterns distinguish among Canadian
isolates of Inonotus tomentosus, I. circinatus and Phellinus pini. Mycologia 88:395–402.
Hunt, R. S., and Unger, L. 1994. Tomentosus root disease. Can. For. Serv. Pac. For. Cent. For.
Pest Leafl. 77. 8 pp.
Laflamme, G., Bérubé, J. A., and Bussières, G., eds. 2003. Root and butt rots of forest trees. Can.
For. Serv. Laurentian For. Cent. Inf. Rep. LAU-X-126. 450 pp.
Lewis, K. J., and Hansen, E. M. 1991. Survival of Inonotus tomentosus in stumps and subsequent
infection of young stands in north central British Columbia. Can. J. For. Res. 21:1049–1057.
Lewis, K. J., and Hansen, E. M. 1991. Vegetative compatibility groups and protein
electrophoresis indicate a role for basidiospores in spread of Inonotus tomentosus in spruce
forests of British Columbia. Can. J. Bot. 69:1756–1763.
Lewis, K. J., Morrison, D. J., and Hansen, E. M. 1992. Spread of Inonotus tomentosus from
infection centres in spruce forests in British Columbia. Can. J. For. Res. 22:68–72.
Myren, D. T., and Patton, R. F. 1971. Establishment and spread of Polyporus tomentosus in pine
and spruce plantations in Wisconsin. Can. J. Bot. 49:1033–1040.
Ryvarden, L., and Gilbertson, R. L. 1993, 1994. European polypores. Part 1: Abortiporus–
Lindtneria. Part 2: Meripilus–Tyromyces. Fungiflora, Oslo. 743 pp.
Tkacz, B. M., and Baker, F. A. 1991. Survival of Inonotus tomentosus in spruce stumps after
logging. Plant Dis. 75:788–790.
U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Fungal
Databases. Beltsville, MD. Internet resource.
Wagner, T., and Fischer, M. 2001. Natural groups and a revised system for the European poroid
Hymenochaetales (Basidiomycota) supported by nLSU rDNA sequence data. Mycol. Res.
105:773–782.
Whitney, R. D. 1962. Studies in forest pathology. XXIV. Polyporus tomentosus Fr. as a major
factor in stand-opening disease of white spruce. Can. J. Bot. 40:1631–1658.
Whitney, R. D. 1966. Germination and inoculation tests with basidiospores of Polyporus
tomentosus. Can. J. Bot. 44:1333–1343.
Whitney, R. D. 1977. Polyporus tomentosus root rot of conifers. Can. For. Serv. For. Tech. Rep.
18. 11 pp.
Whitney, R. D. 1993. Damage by tomentosus root rot in white spruce plantations in Ontario, and
the effects of thinning on the disease. For. Chron. 69:445–449.
Whitney, R. D. 1995. Root-rotting fungi in white spruce, black spruce, and balsam fir in northern
Ontario. Can. J. For. Res. 25:1209–1230.
Whitney, R. D., and Bohaychuk, W. P. 1976. Pathogenicity of Polyporus tomentosus and P.
tomentosus var. circinatus on seedlings of 11 conifer species. Can. J. For. Res. 6:129–131.
204
-----------------Brown root and butt rot of conifers, Plate 169, page 339
Allen, E. A., Morrison, D. J., and Wallis, G. W. 1996. Common tree diseases of British
Columbia. Can. For. Serv., Victoria, BC. 178 pp.
Barrett, D. K. 1970. Armillaria mellea as a possible factor predisposing roots to infection by
Polyporus schweinitzii. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 55:459–462.
Barrett, D. K. 1985. Basidiospores of Phaeolus schweinitzii: a source of soil infestation. Eur. J.
For. Pathol. 15:417–425.
Barrett, D. K., and Greig, B. J. W. 1985. The occurrence of Phaeolus schweinitzii in the soils of
Sitka spruce plantations with broadleaved and non-woodland histories. Eur. J. For. Pathol.
15:412–417.
Barrett, D. K., and Uscuplic, M. 1971. The field distribution of interacting strains of Polyporus
schweinitzii and their origin. New Phytol. 70:581–598.
Baxter, D. V. 1967. Disease in forest plantations: thief of time. Cranbrook Inst. Sci. Bull. 51. 251
pp.
Blakeslee, G. M., and Oak, S. W. 1980. Residual naval stores stumps as reservoirs of inoculum
for infection of slash pines by Phaeolus schweinitzii. Plant Dis. 64:167.
Boyce, J. S. 1961. Forest pathology. 3rd ed. McGraw-Hill, New York. 572 pp.
Davis, C., and Meyer, T. 1997. Field guide to tree diseases of Ontario. NODA/NFP Tech. Rep.
TR-46. Can. For. Serv. Great Lakes For. Cent. and Ontario Minist. Nat. Resour., Sault Ste.
Marie. 135 pp.
Dewey, F. M., Barrett, D. K., Vose, I. R., and Lamb, C. J. 1984. Immuno-fluorescence
microscopy for the detection and identification of propagules of Phaeolus schweinitzii in
infested soil. Phytopathology 74:291–296.
Gilbertson, R. L., and Ryvarden, L. 1986, 1987. North American polypores. Vol. I: Albatrellus–
Lindtneria. Vol. II: Megasporaporia–Wrightoporia. Fungiflora, Oslo. 885 pp.
Hobbs, S. D., and Partridge, A. D. 1979. Wood decays, root rots, and stand composition along an
elevation gradient. For. Sci. 25:31–42.
Laflamme, G., Bérubé, J. A., and Bussières, G., eds. 2003. Root and butt rots of forest trees.
Can. For. Serv. Laurentian For. Cent. Inf. Rep. LAU-X-126. 450 pp.
Phillips, D. H., and Burdekin, D. A. 1982. Diseases of forest and ornamental trees. Macmillan,
London. 435 pp.
Wagner, T., and Fischer, M. 2001. Natural groups and a revised system for the European poroid
Hymenochaetales (Basidiomycota) supported by nLSU rDNA sequence data. Mycol. Res.
105:773–782.
Wean, R. E. 1937. The parasitism of Polyporus schweinitzii on seedling Pinus strobus.
Phytopathology 27:1124–1142.
Woodward, S., and Pearce, R. B. 1988. The role of stilbenes in resistance of Sitka spruce (Picea
sitchensis (Bong.) Carr.) to entry of fungal pathogens. Physiol. Mol. Plant Pathol. 33:127–
149.
York, H. H., Wean, R. E., and Childs, T. W. 1936. Some results of investigations on Polyporus
schweinitzii Fr. Science 84:160–161.
-----------------Laminated root rot of conifers, Plate 170, page 341
205
Bae, H. H., Hansen, E. M., and Strauss, S. H. 1994. Restriction fragment length polymorphisms
demonstrate single origin of infection centers in Phellinus weirii. Can. J. Bot. 72:440–447.
Bloomberg, W. J. 1990. Effect of stand conditions on advance of Phellinus weirii in Douglas-fir
plantations. Phytopathology 80:553–559.
Bloomberg, W. J., and Reynolds, G. 1982. Factors affecting transfer and spread of Phellinus
weirii mycelium in roots of second-growth Douglas-fir. Can. J. For. Res. 12:424–427.
Bloomberg, W. J., and Reynolds, G. 1985. Growth loss and mortality in laminated root rot
infection centers in second-growth Douglas-fir on Vancouver Island. For. Sci. 31:497–508.
Buckland, D. C., Molnar, A. C., and Wallis, G. W. 1954. Yellow laminated root rot of Douglasfir. Can. J. Bot. 32:69–81.
Dai, Y-C. 1999. Phellinus sensu lato (Aphyllophorales, Hymenochaetaceae) in East Asia. Acta
Bot. Fenn. 166:1–115.
Dai, Y-C., and Qin, G-F. 1998. Phellinidium sulphurascens—a forest pathogen in China. Fungal
Sci. 13:101–107.
Delatour, C., Guillaumin, J. J., Lung-Escarmant, B., and Marçais, B. 1998. Root and butt rots of
forest trees: 9th International Conference on Root and Butt Rots, Carcans-Maubuisson,
France, 1997. Inst. Natl. Recher. Agron. (INRA), Paris. 459 pp.
Filip, G. M., and Schmitt, C. L. 1979. Susceptibility of native conifers to laminated root rot east
of the Cascade range in Oregon and Washington. For. Sci. 25:261–265.
Goheen, D. J., and Filip. G. M. 1980. Root pathogen complexes in Pacific Northwest forests.
Plant Dis. 64:793–794.
Hansen, E. M. 1979. Nuclear condition and vegetative characteristics of homocaryotic and
heterocaryotic isolates of Phellinus weirii. Can. J. Bot. 57:1579–1582.
Hansen, E. M. 1979. Sexual and vegetative incompatibility reactions in Phellinus weirii. Can. J.
Bot. 57:1573–1578.
Hansen, E. M. 1986. Inoculation of Douglas-fir roots with isolates of Phellinus weirii on sites
differing in root rot severity. Can. J. For. Res. 16:619–623.
Hansen, E. M., and Goheen, E. M. 2000. Phellinus weirii and other native root pathogens as
determinants of forest structure and process in western North America. Annu. Rev.
Phytopathol. 38:515–539.
Hobbs, S. D., and Partridge, A. D. 1979. Wood decays, root rots, and stand composition along an
elevation gradient. For. Sci. 25:31–42.
Hutchins, A. S., Fay, H., and Knutson, D. 1985. A selective medium for Phellinus weirii. Can. J.
For. Res. 15:746–748.
Larsen, M. J., Lombard, F. F., and Clark, J. W. 1994. Phellinus sulphurascens and the closely
related P. weirii in North America. Mycologia 86:121–130.
McCauley, K. J., and Cook, S. A. 1980. Phellinus weirii infestation of two mountain hemlock
forests in the Oregon Cascades. For. Sci. 26:23–29.
McDougall, D. N., and Blanchette, R. A. 1996. Metal ion adsorption by pseudosclerotial plates
of Phellinus weirii. Mycologia 88:98–103.
Morrison, D. J., Wallis, G. M., and Weir, L. C. 1988. Control of Armillaria and Phellinus root
diseases: 20-year results from the Skimikin stump removal experiment. Can. For. Serv. Pac.
For. Cent. Inf. Rep. BX-X-302. 16 pp.
Nelson, E. E., and Sturrock, R. N. 1993. Susceptibility of western conifers to laminated root rot
(Phellinus weirii) in Oregon and British Columbia field tests. West. J. Appl. For. 8:67–70.
206
Oren, R., Thies, W. G., and Waring, R. H. 1985. Tree vigor and stand growth of Douglas-fir as
influenced by laminated root rot. Can. J. For. Res. 15:985–988.
Ryvarden, L., and Gilbertson, R. L. 1993, 1994. European polypores. Part 1: Abortiporus–
Lindtneria. Part 2: Meripilus–Tyromyces. Fungiflora, Oslo. 743 pp.
Thies, W. G. 1983. Determination of growth reduction in Douglas-fir infected by Phellinus
weirii. For. Sci. 29:305–315.
Thies, W. G., and Sturrock, R. N. 1995. Laminated root rot in western North America. USDA
For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-349. 32 pp.
Wallis, G. W. 1976. Growth characteristics of Phellinus (Poria) weirii in soil and on root and
other surfaces. Can. J. For. Res. 6:229–232.
Wallis, G. W., and Bloomberg, W. J. 1981. Estimating the total extent of Phellinus weirii root
rot centers using above- and below-ground disease indicators. Can. J. For. Res. 11:827–830.
Wallis, G. W., and Reynolds, G. 1965. The initiation and spread of Poria weirii root rot of
Douglas-fir. Can. J. Bot. 43:1–9.
-----------------Root and butt rots caused by Inonotus dryadeus and Oxyporus latemarginatus, Plate 171,
page 343
Root rot caused by Inonotus dryadeus
Campbell, W. A., and Miller, J. H. 1952. Windthrow of root-rotted oak shade trees. Plant Dis.
Rep. 36:490.
Dai, Y. C. 1999. Phellinus sensu lato (Aphyllophorales, Hymenochaetaceae) in East Asia. Acta
Bot. Fenn. 166:1–115.
Davidson, R. W., Campbell, W. A., and Vaughan, D. B. 1942. Fungi causing decay of living
oaks in the eastern United States and their cultural identification. USDA Tech. Bull. 765. 65
pp.
Fergus, C. L. 1956. Some observations about Polyporus dryadeus on oak. Plant Dis. Rep.
40:827–829.
Gilbertson, R. L. 1976. The genus Inonotus (Aphylloporales: Hymenochaetaceae) in Arizona.
Mem. N.Y. Bot. Gard. 28:67–85.
Gilbertson, R. L., and Ryvarden, L. 1986, 1987. North American polypores. Vol. I: Albatrellus–
Lindtneria. Vol. II: Megasporaporia–Wrightoporia. Fungiflora, Oslo. 885 pp.
Long, W. H. 1913. Polyporus dryadeus, a root parasite on the oak. J. Agric. Res. 1:239–250.
Long, W. H. 1930. Polyporus dryadeus, a root parasite on white fir. Phytopathology 20:758–
759.
McCracken, F. I. 1978. Spore release of some decay fungi of southern hardwoods. Can. J. Bot.
56:426–431.
Ryvarden, L., and Gilbertson, R. L. 1993, 1994. European polypores. Part 1: Abortiporus–
Lindtneria. Part 2: Meripilus–Tyromyces. Fungiflora, Oslo. 743 pp.
Schwarze, F. W. M. R., Engels, J., and Mattheck, C. 2000. Fungal strategies of wood decay in
trees. English trans. W. Linnard, of Holzzersetzende Pilze in Bäumen: Strategien der
Holzzersetzung. Springer, Berlin, New York. 185 pp.
U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Fungal
Databases. Beltsville, MD. Internet resource.
207
Wagner, T., and Fischer, M. 2001. Natural groups and a revised system for the European poroid
Hymenochaetales (Basidiomycota) supported by nLSU rDNA sequence data. Mycol. Res.
105:773–782.
-----------------Rot caused by Oxyporus latemarginatus
Adaskaveg, J. E., and Ogawa, J. M. 1990. Wood decay pathology of fruit and nut trees in
California. Plant Dis. 74:341–352.
Baxter, D. V. 1936. Some resupinate polypores from the region of the Great Lakes. VII. Pap.
Mich. Acad. Sci. 21:243–267.
DeVay, J. E., Sinden, S. L., Lukezic, F. L., Werenfels, L. F., and Backman, P. A. 1968. Poria
root and crown rot of cherry trees. Phytopathology 58:1239–1241.
Filer, T. H. Jr., Davis, R. G., and Hegwood, C. P. 1979. Hardwood hosts for Poria
latemarginata. (Abstr.) Phytopathology 69:527.
Gilbertson, R. L., and Ryvarden, L. 1986, 1987. North American polypores. Vol. I: Albatrellus–
Lindtneria. Vol. II: Megasporaporia–Wrightoporia. Fungiflora, Oslo. 885 pp.
Lombard, F. F., Davidson, R. W., and Lowe, J. L. 1960. Cultural characteristics of Fomes
ulmarius and Poria ambigua. Mycologia 52:280–294.
Setliff, E. C., Hoch, H. C., and Patton, R. F. 1974. Studies on nuclear division in basidia of Poria
latemarginata. Can. J. Bot. 52:2323–2333.
U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Fungal
Databases. Beltsville, MD. Internet resource.
-----------------Ganoderma root and butt rots and trunk decay, Plate 172, page 345
Overview
Adaskaveg, J. E., and Gilbertson, R. L. 1988. Basidiospores, pilocystidia and other basidiocarp
characters in several species of the Ganoderma lucidum complex. Mycologia 80:493–507.
Adaskaveg, J. E., and Gilbertson, R. L. 1989. Cultural studies of four North American species in
the Ganoderma lucidum complex with comparisons to G. lucidum and G. tsugae. Mycol.
Res. 92:182–191.
Adaskaveg, J. E., Gilbertson, R. L., and Blanchette, R. A. 1990. Comparative studies on
delignification caused by Ganoderma species. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 56:1932–1943.
Buchanan, P. K., Hseu, R. S., and Moncalvo, J. M., eds. 1995. Ganoderma: systematics,
phytopathology and pharmacology. Proceedings of symposium, 5th Int. Mycol. Cong.,
Vancouver, 1994. Coll. Agric., Natl. Taiwan Univ., Taipei. 135 pp.
Corner, E. J. H. 1983. Ad polyporaceas. I. Amauroderma and Ganoderma. Nova Hedwigia 75:1–
182.
Flood, J., Bridge, P. D., and Holderness, M., eds. 2000. Ganoderma diseases of perennial crops.
CABI Pub., Wallingford, UK. 275 pp.
Gilbertson, R. L., and Ryvarden, L. 1986, 1987. North American polypores. Vol. I: Albatrellus–
Lindtneria. Vol. II: Megasporaporia–Wrightoporia. Fungiflora, Oslo. 885 pp.
Gottlieb, A. M., Ferrer, E., and Wright, J. E. 2000. rDNA analyses as an aid to the taxonomy of
species of Ganoderma. Mycol. Res. 104:1033–1045.
Gottlieb, A. M., and Wright, J. E. 1999. Taxonomy of Ganoderma from southern South
America: subgenus Ganoderma. Mycol. Res. 103:661–673.
208
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Moncalvo, J. M., and Ryvarden, L. 1997. A nomenclatural study of the Ganodermataceae Donk.
Synop. Fungorum No. 11. 114 pp.
Moncalvo, J. M., Wang, H., and Hseu, R. 1995. Gene phylogeny of the Ganoderma lucidum
complex based on ribosomal DNA sequences. Comparison with traditional taxonomic
characters. Mycol. Res. 99:1489–1499.
Ryvarden, L., and Gilbertson, R. L. 1993, 1994. European polypores. Part 1: Abortiporus–
Lindtneria. Part 2: Meripilus–Tyromyces. Fungiflora, Oslo. 743 pp.
Steyaert, R. 1967. Considérations générales sur le genre Ganoderma et plus spécialement sur les
espèces européennes. Bull. Soc. R. Bot. Belg. 100:189–211.
U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Fungal
Databases. Beltsville, MD. Internet resource.
-----------------Ganoderma root and butt rot of palms
Adaskaveg, J. E., Blanchette, R. A., and Gilbertson, R. L. 1991. Decay of date palm wood by
white-rot and brown-rot fungi. Can. J. Bot. 69:615–629.
Alfieri, S. A. J., Langdon, K. R., Kimbrough, J. W., El-Gholl, N. E., and Wehlburg, C. 1994.
Diseases and disorders of plants in Florida. Fla. Dep. Agric. Consum. Serv., Div. Plant
Indus., Gainesville. 1114 pp.
Ariffin, D., Idris, A. S., and Abdul, H. H. 1989. Significance of the black line within oil palm
tissue decayed by Ganoderma boninense. Elaeis 1:11–16.
Darus, A., Seman, I. A., and Hassan, A. H. 1991. Histopathological studies on colonization of oil
palm root by Ganoderma boninense. Elaeis 3:289–293.
Elliott, M. L., and Broschat, T. K. 2001. Observations and pathogenicity experiments on
Ganoderma zonatum in Florida. Palms 45:62–72.
Elliott, M. L. Broschat, T. K., Uchida, Y., and Simone, G. W. 2004. Compendium of ornamental
palm diseases and disorders. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 69 pp.
Flood, J., Bridge, P. D., and Holderness, M., eds. 2000. Ganoderma diseases of perennial crops.
CABI Pub., Wallingford, UK. 275 pp.
Florida Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services, Division of Plant Industry. 1962–
present. Plant Pathology Circulars 1– .
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Navaratam, S. J., and Leong, C. K. 1965. Root inoculation of oil palm seedlings with
Ganoderma sp. Plant Dis. Rep. 49:1011–1012.
Peries, O. S. 1974. Ganoderma basal stem rot of coconut: a new record of the disease in Sri
Lanka. Plant Dis. Rep. 58:293–295.
Sariah, M., Hussin, M. Z., Miller, R. N. G., and Holderness, M. 1994. Pathogenicity of
Ganoderma boninense tested by inoculation of oil palm seedlings. Plant Pathol. 43:507–510.
Steyaert, R. 1967. Les Ganoderma palmicoles. Bull. Jard. Bot. Natl. Belg. 37:465–492.
Stayaert, R. 1975. The concept and circumscription of Ganoderma tornatum. Trans. Br. Mycol.
Soc. 65:451–467.
209
Utomo, C., and Niepold, F. 2000. Development of diagnostic methods for detecting Ganodermainfected oil palms. J. Phytopathol. 148:507–514.
-----------------Ganoderma root and butt rots and trunk decay, continued, Plate 173, page 347
Diseases of woody dicots caused by laccate Ganodermas
Adaskaveg, J. E., and Gilbertson, R. L. 1986. Cultural studies and genetics of sexuality of
Ganoderma lucidum and G. tsugae in relation to the taxonomy of the G. lucidum complex.
Mycologia 78:694–705.
Adaskaveg, J. E., and Gilbertson, R. L. 1988. Basidiospores, pilocystidia and other basidiocarp
characters in several species of the Ganoderma lucidum complex. Mycologia 80:493–507.
Adaskaveg, J. E., and Gilbertson, R. L. 1988. Ganoderma meredithae, a new species on pines in
the southeastern United States. Mycotaxon 31:251–257.
Adaskaveg, J. E., and Gilbertson, R. L. 1989. Cultural studies of four North American species in
the Ganoderma lucidum complex with comparisons to G. lucidum and G. tsugae. Mycol.
Res. 92:182–191.
Alfieri, S. A. Jr., Langdon, K. R., Kimbrough, J. W., El-Gholl, N. E., and Wehlburg, C. 1994.
Diseases and disorders of plants in Florida. Fla. Dep. Agric. Consum. Serv., Div. Plant
Indus., Gainesville. 1114 pp.
Buchanan, P. K., Hseu, R. S., and Moncalvo, J. M., eds. 1995. Ganoderma: systematics,
phytopathology and pharmacology. Proceedings of symposium, 5th Int. Mycol. Cong.,
Vancouver, 1994. Coll. Agric. Natl. Taiwan Univ., Taipei. 135 pp.
Flood, J., Bridge, P. D., and Holderness, M., eds. 2000. Ganoderma diseases of perennial crops.
CABI Pub., Wallingford, UK. 275 pp.
Florida Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services, Division of Plant Industry. 1962–
present. Plant Pathology Circulars 1– .
Gilbertson, R. L., and Ryvarden, L. 1986, 1987. North American polypores. Vol. I: Albatrellus–
Lindtneria. Vol. II: Megasporaporia–Wrightoporia. Fungiflora, Oslo. 885 pp.
Gottlieb, A. M., Ferrer, E., and Wright, J. E. 2000. rDNA analyses as an aid to the taxonomy of
species of Ganoderma. Mycol. Res. 104:1033–1045.
Haddow, W. R. 1931. Studies in Ganoderma. J. Arnold Arbor. 12:25–46.
Hepting, G. H. 1971. Diseases of forest and shade trees of the United States. USDA Agric.
Handb. 386. 658 pp.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Lewis, R. Jr. 1981. Hypoxylon spp., Ganoderma lucidum, and Agrilus bilineatus in association
with drought related oak mortality in the South. (Abstr.) Phytopathology 71:890.
McCracken, F. I. 1978. Spore release of some decay fungi of southern hardwoods. Can. J. Bot.
56:426–431.
Overholts, L. O. 1953. The Polyporaceae of the United States, Alaska, and Canada. Univ. Mich.
Press, Ann Arbor. 466 pp.
Pirone, P. P. 1957. Ganoderma lucidum, a parasite of shade trees. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club
84:424–428.
Ryvarden, L., and Gilbertson, R. L. 1993, 1994. European polypores. Part 1: Abortiporus–
Lindtneria. Part 2: Meripilus–Tyromyces. Fungiflora, Oslo. 743 pp.
210
Schwarze, F. W. M. R., Engels, J., and Mattheck, C. 2000. Fungal strategies of wood decay in
trees. English trans. W. Linnard, of Holzzersetzende Pilze in Bäumen: Strategien der
Holzzersetzung. Springer, Berlin, New York. 185 pp.
Steyaert, R. L. 1980. Study of some Ganoderma species. Bull. Jard. Bot. Natl. Belg. 50:135–186.
Toole, E. R. 1966. Root rot caused by Polyporus lucidus. Plant Dis. Rep. 50:945–946.
U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Fungal
Databases. Beltsville, MD. Internet resource.
-----------------Ganodermas on conifers
Adaskaveg, J. E., and Gilbertson, R. L. 1986. Cultural studies and genetics of sexuality of
Ganoderma lucidum and G. tsugae in relation to the taxonomy of the G. lucidum complex.
Mycologia 78:694–705.
Adaskaveg, J. E., and Gilbertson, R. L. 1988. Basidiospores, pilocystidia and other basidiocarp
characters in several species of the Ganoderma lucidum complex. Mycologia 80:493–507.
Adaskaveg, J. E., and Gilbertson, R. L. 1988. Ganoderma meredithae, a new species on pines in
the southeastern United States. Mycotaxon 31:251–257.
Adaskaveg, J. E., and Gilbertson, R. L. 1989. Cultural studies of four North American species in
the Ganoderma lucidum complex with comparisons to G. lucidum and G. tsugae. Mycol.
Res. 92:182–191.
Blanchette, R. A. 1984. Selective delignification of eastern hemlock by Ganoderma tsugae.
Phytopathology 74:153–160.
Buchanan, P. K., Hseu, R. S., and Moncalvo, J. M., eds. 1995. Ganoderma: systematics,
phytopathology and pharmacology. Proceedings of symposium, 5th Int. Mycol. Cong.,
Vancouver, 1994. Coll. Agric. Natl. Taiwan Univ., Taipei. 135 pp.
Englerth, G. H. 1942. Decay of western hemlock in western Oregon and Washington. Yale Univ.
Sch. For. Bull. 50. 53 pp.
Flood, J., Bridge, P. D., and Holderness, M., eds. 2000. Ganoderma diseases of perennial crops.
CABI Pub., Wallingford, UK. 275 pp.
Gilbertson, R. L., and Ryvarden, L. 1986, 1987. North American polypores. Vol. I: Albatrellus–
Lindtneria. Vol. II: Megasporaporia–Wrightoporia. Fungiflora, Oslo. 885 pp.
Overholts, L. O. 1953. The Polyporaceae of the United States, Alaska, and Canada. Univ. Mich.
Press, Ann Arbor. 466 pp.
U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Fungal
Databases. Beltsville, MD. Internet resource.
-----------------Ganoderma root and butt rots and trunk decay, continued, Plate 174, page 349
Diseases caused by Ganoderma applanatum and related fungi
Blanchette, R. A., Otjen, L., Effland, M. J., and Eslyn, W. E. 1985. Changes in structural and
chemical components of wood delignified by fungi. Wood Sci. Technol. 19:35–46.
Brown, T. S. Jr., and Merrill, W. 1973. Germination of basidiospores of Fomes applanatus.
Phytopathology 63:547–550.
Buchanan, P. K., Hseu, R. S., and Moncalvo, J. M., eds. 1995. Ganoderma: systematics,
phytopathology and pharmacology. Proceedings of symposium, 5th Int. Mycol. Cong.,
Vancouver, 1994. Coll. Agric. Natl. Taiwan Univ., Taipei. 135 pp.
211
Childs, J. F. L. 1953. Concentric canker and wood rot of citrus associated with Fomes
applanatus in Florida. Phytopathology 43:99–100.
Englerth, G. H. 1942. Decay of western hemlock in western Oregon and Washington. Yale Univ.
Sch. For. Bull. 50. 53 pp.
Flood, J., Bridge, P. D., and Holderness, M., eds. 2000. Ganoderma diseases of perennial crops.
CABI Pub., Wallingford, UK. 275 pp.
Florance, E. R., and Shaw, C. G. III. 1988. Surface morphology of basidiospores from decay
fungi that are common in Pacific Northwest Forests. Northwest Sci. 62:233–241.
Gilbertson, R. L., and Ryvarden, L. 1986, 1987. North American polypores. Vol. I: Albatrellus–
Lindtneria. Vol. II: Megasporaporia–Wrightoporia. Fungiflora, Oslo. 885 pp.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Merrill, W., and Cowling, E. B. 1966. Role of nitrogen in wood deterioration: amount and
distribution of nitrogen in fungi. Phytopathology 56:1083–1090.
Overholts, L. O. 1953. The Polyporaceae of the United States, Alaska, and Canada. Univ. Mich.
Press, Ann Arbor. 466 pp.
Ross, W. D. 1976. Fungi associated with root diseases of aspen in Wyoming. Can. J. Bot.
54:734–744.
Ryvarden, L., and Gilbertson, R. L. 1993, 1994. European polypores. Part 1: Abortiporus–
Lindtneria. Part 2: Meripilus–Tyromyces. Fungiflora, Oslo. 743 pp.
Schwarze, F. W. M. R., Engels, J., and Mattheck, C. 2000. Fungal strategies of wood decay in
trees. English trans. W. Linnard, of Holzzersetzende Pilze in Bäumen: Strategien der
Holzzersetzung. Springer, Berlin, New York. 185 pp.
Setliff, E. C. 1988. Hyphal deterioration in Ganoderma applanatum. Mycologia 80:447–454.
Tuno, N. 1999. Insect feeding on spores of a bracket fungus, Elfvingia applanata (Pers.) Karst.
(Ganodermataceae, Aphyllophorales). Ecol. Res. 14:97–103.
U.S. Agricultural Research Service, Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Fungal
Databases. Beltsville, MD. Internet resource.
White, J. H. 1919. On the biology of Fomes applanatus (Pers.) Wallr. Trans. R. Can. Inst.
12:133–174.
Yeh, Z., Chen, Z., and Kimbrough, J. W. 2000. Ganoderma australe from Florida. Mycotaxon
75:233–240.
-----------------Downy mildews, Plate 175, page 351
Overview of Oomycetes
Alexopoulos, C. J., Mims, C. W., and Blackwell, M. 1996. Introductory mycology. 4th ed.
Wiley, New York. 868 pp.
Dick, M. W. 2001. Straminipilous fungi: systematics of the peronosporomycetes, including
accounts of the marine straminipilous protists, the plasmodiophorids, and similar organisms.
Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht. 670 pp.
Jennings, D. H., and Lysek, G. 1996. Fungal biology: understanding the fungal lifestyle. BIOS
Scientific Pub., Oxford, UK. 156 pp.
Moore-Landecker, E. 1996. Fundamentals of the fungi. 4th ed. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle
River, NJ. 574 pp.
212
Spencer, D. M., ed. 1981. The downy mildews. Academic Press, New York. 636 pp.
Ulloa, M., and Hanlin, R. T. 2000. Illustrated dictionary of mycology. APS Press, St. Paul,
Minn. 448 pp.
-----------------Downy mildews
Alexopoulos, C. J., Mims, C. W., and Blackwell, M. 1996. Introductory mycology. 4th ed.
Wiley, New York. 868 pp.
Baker, K. F. 1953. Recent epidemics of downy mildew of rose. Plant Dis. Rep. 37:331–337.
Breese, W. A., Shattock, R. C., Williamson, B., and Hackett, C. 1994. In vitro spore germination
and infection of cultivars of Rubus and Rosa by downy mildews from both hosts. Ann. Appl.
Biol. 125:73–85.
Dick, M. W. 2001. Straminipilous fungi: systematics of the peronosporomycetes, including
accounts of the marine straminipilous protists, the plasmodiophorids, and similar organisms.
Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht, The Netherlands. 670 pp.
Hall, G., Cook, R. T. A., and Bradshaw, N. J. 1992. First record of Peronospora sparsa on
Prunus laurocerasus. Plant Pathol. 41:224–227.
Hall, G. S. 1996. Modern approaches to species concepts in downy mildews. Plant Pathol.
45:1009–1026.
Horst, R. K. 1983. Compendium of rose diseases. Am. Phytopathol. Soc., St. Paul, MN. 50 pp.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Shaw, C. G. 1949. Nomenclatorial problems in the Peronosporaceae. Mycologia 41:323–338.
Shaw, C. G. 1951. New species of the Peronosporaceae. Mycologia 43:445–455.
Spencer, D. M., ed. 1981. The downy mildews. Academic Press, New York. 636 pp.
-----------------Diseases caused by Phytophthora species, Plates 176–177, pages 353–355
Overview
Bonants, P. J. M., Hagenaar-de Weerdt, M. W. A., Man in’t Veld, W. A., and Baayen, R. P.
2000. Molecular characterization of natural hybrids of Phytophthora nicotianae and P.
cactorum. Phytopathology 90:867–874.
Brasier, C. M., Cooke, D., and Duncan, J. M. 1999. Origin of a new Phytophthora pathogen
through interspecific hybridization. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 96:5878–5883.
Broembsen, S. L. von, and Deacon, J. W. 1997. Calcium interference with zoospore biology and
infectivity of Phytophthora parasitica in nutrient irrigation solutions. Phytopathology
87:522–528.
Brummer, M., Arend, M., Fromm, J., Schlenzig, A., and Osswald, W. F. 2002. Ultrastructural
changes and immunocytochemical localization of the elicitin quercinin in Quercus robur L.
roots infected with Phytophthora quercina. Physiol. Mol. Plant Pathol. 61:109–120.
Cooke, D. E. L., Drenth, A., Duncan, J. M., Wagels, G., and Brasier, C. M. 2000. A molecular
phylogeny of Phytophthora and related oomycetes. Fungal Genet. Biol. 30:17–32.
Dick, M. W. 2001. Straminipilous fungi: systematics of the peronosporomycetes, including
accounts of the marine straminipilous protists, the plasmodiophorids, and similar organisms.
Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht, The Netherlands. 670 pp.
213
Dubery, I. A., Meyer, D., and Bothma, C. 1994. Purification and characterization of cactorein, a
phytotoxin secreted by Phytophthora cactorum. Phytochemistry 35:307–312.
Erwin, D. C., Bartnicki-Garcia, S., and Tsao, P. H., eds. 1983. Phytophthora: its biology,
taxonomy, ecology, and pathology. Am. Phytopathol. Soc., St. Paul, MN. 392 pp.
Erwin, D. C., and Ribeiro, O. K. 1996. Phytophthora diseases worldwide. APS Press, St. Paul,
MN. 562 pp.
Ferguson, A. J., and Jeffers, S. N. 1999. Detecting multiple species of Phytophthora in container
mixes from ornamental crop nurseries. Plant Dis. 83:1129–1136.
Gerettson, C. L. 1989. A compendium and classification of the species of the genus
Phytophthora de Bary by the canons of traditional taxonomy. For. Commiss. New South
Wales Tech. Pap. 45. 103 pp.
Guest, D. I., Pegg, K. G., and Whiley, A. W. 1995. Control of Phytophthora diseases of tree
crops using trunk-injected phosphonates. Hortic. Rev. 17:299–330.
Halsall, D. M. 1982. A forest soil suppressive to Phytophthora cinnamomi and conducive to
Phytophthora cryptogea. I. Survival, germination and infectivity of mycelium and
chlamydospores. II. Suppression of sporulation. Austral. J. Bot. 30:11–25, 27–37.
Hansen, E. M., Reeser, P. W., Davidson, J. M., Garbelotto, M., Ivors, K., Douhan, L., and Rizzo,
D. M. 2003. Phytophthora nemorosa, a new species causing cankers and leaf blight of forest
trees in California and Oregon, U.S.A. Mycotaxon 88:129–138.
Hansen, E. M., Roth, L. F., Hamm, P. B., and Julis, A. J. 1980. Survival, spread, and
pathogenicity of Phytophthora spp. on Douglas-fir seedlings planted on forest sites.
Phytopathology 70:422–425.
Hansen, E. M., and Sutton, W., eds. 2000. Phytophthora diseases of forest trees. Ore. State
Univ., Corvallis. 152 pp.
Heiser, I., Fromm, J., Giefing, M., Koehl, J., Jung, T., and Osswald, W. 1999. Investigations on
the action of Phytophthora quercina, P. citricola and P. gonapodyides toxins on tobacco
plants. Plant Physiol. Biochem. 37:73–81.
Hoitink, H. A. J., and Boehm, M. J. 1999. Biocontrol within the context of soil microbial
communities: a substrate-dependent phenomenon. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 37:427–446.
Hoitink, H. A. J., Stone, A. G., and Han, D. Y. 1997. Suppression of plant diseases by composts.
HortScience 32:184–187.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Jung, T., Cooke, D. E. L., Blaschke, H., Duncan, J. M., and Osswald, W. 1999. Phytophthora
quercina sp. nov., causing root rot of European oaks. Mycol. Res. 103:785–798.
Jung, T., Nechwatal, J., Cooke, D. E. L., Hartmann, G., Blaschke, M., Osswald, W. F., Duncan,
J. M., and Delatour, C. 2003. Phytophthora pseudosyringae sp. nov., a new species causing
root and collar rot of deciduous tree species in Europe. Mycol. Res. 107:772–789.
Kumar, J., Chaube, H. S., Singh, U. S., and Mukhopadhyay, A. N., eds. 1992. Plant diseases of
international importance. Volume III. Diseases of fruit crops. Prentice-Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, NJ. 456 pp.
Lopez, H. C. J., Perez, J. R. M., Basallote, U. M. J., Bonilla, T. Z., and Melero, V. J. M. 1997.
Effect of soil solarization on the control of Phytophthora root rot in avocado. Plant Pathol.
46:329–340.
Lucas, J. A., Shattock, R. C., Shaw, D. S., and Cooke, L. R., eds. 1991. Phytophthora.
214
Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, UK. 447 pp.
MacDonald, J. D., Ali, S. M. S., Kabashima, J., and Stites, J. 1994. Occurrence of Phytophthora
species in recirculated nursery irrigation effluents. Plant Dis. 78:607–611.
Martin, F. N., and Tooley, P. W. 2003. Phylogenetic relationships of Phytophthora ramorum, P.
nemorosa and P. pseudosyringae, three species recovered from areas in California with
sudden oak death. Mycol. Res. 107:1379–1391.
Messenger, B. J., Menge, J. A., and Pond, E. 2000. Effects of gypsum on zoospores and
sporangia of Phytophthora cinnamomi in field soil. Plant Dis. 84:617–621.
Mezzetti, B., Capasso, R., Evidente, A., Hammerschlag, F. A., Zimmerman, R. H., Cristinzio,
G., and Rosati, P. 1994. Interaction of partially purified phytotoxins from Phytophthora
cactorum on apple cell plasma membrane. J. Phytopathol. 142:219–226.
Mukhopadhyay, A. N., Kumar, J., Chaube, H. S., and Singh, U. S., eds. 1992. Plant diseases of
international importance. Vol. IV. Diseases of sugar, forest, and plantation crops. PrenticeHall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. 376 pp.
Ribeiro, O. K. 1978. A sourcebook of the genus Phytophthora. Cramer, Lehre, Germany. 417
pp.
Schubert, R., Bahnweg, G., Nechwatal, J., Jung, T., Cooke, D. E. L., Duncan, J. M., Muller, S.
G., Langebartels, C., Sandermann, H. Jr., and Osswald, W. 1999. Detection and
quantification of Phytophthora species which are associated with root-rot diseases in
European deciduous forests by species-specific polymerase chain reaction. Eur. J. For.
Pathol. 29:169–188.
Smith, B. J., Shearer, B. L., and Sivasithamparam, K. 1997. Compartmentalization of
Phytophthora cinnamomi in stems of highly susceptible Banksia brownii treated with
phosphonate. Mycol. Res. 101:1101–1107.
Stamps, D. J., Waterhouse, G. M., Newhook, F. J., and Hall, G. S. 1990. Revised tabular key to
the species of Phytophthora. CAB Int., Mycol. Pap. No. 162. 28 pp.
Waterhouse, G. M. 1970. The genus Phytophthora De Bary. 2nd ed. Commonw. Mycol. Inst.
Mycol. Pap. No. 122. 59 pp.
-----------------Diseases caused by Phytophthora species, continued, Plates 177–178, pages 355–357
Shoot blights, diebacks, and fruit rots
Benson, D. M., and Jones, R. K. 1980. Etiology of rhododendron dieback caused by four species
of Phytophthora. Plant Dis. 64:687–691.
Gerlach, W. W. P., Hoitink, H. A. J., and Ellett, C. W. 1974. Shoot blight and stem dieback of
Pieris japonica caused by Phytophthora citricola, P. citrophthora, and Botryosphaeria
dothidea. Phytopathology 64:1368–1370.
Jones, R. K., and Benson, D. M., eds. 2001. Diseases of woody ornamentals and trees in
nurseries. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 482 pp.
Koch, J. 1971. Rhododendron blight caused by Phytophthora cambivora. Friesia 9:418–425.
Kuske, C. R., and Benson, D. M. 1983. Overwintering and survival of Phytophthora parasitica,
causing dieback of rhododendron. Phytopathology 73:1192–1196.
Kuske, C. R., and Benson, D. M. 1983. Survival and splash dispersal of Phytophthora
parasitica, causing dieback of rhododendron. Phytopathology 73:1188–1191.
Reilly, C. C., Hotchkiss, M. W., and Hendrix, F. F. Jr. 1998. Phytophthora shuck and kernel rot,
a new disease of pecan caused by Phytophthora cactorum. Plant Dis. 82:347–349.
215
-----------------Cankers on trunks and limbs
Barnard, E. L., and Mitchell, D. J. 1993. Phytophthora basal canker of red maple. Fla. Dep.
Agric. Consum. Serv. Plant Pathol. Circ. 361. 3 pp.
Bonants, P. J. M., Hagenaar-de Weerdt, M., Man in’t Veld, W. A., and Baayen, R. P. 2000.
Molecular characterization of natural hybrids of Phytophthora nicotianae and P. cactorum.
Phytopathology 90:867–874.
Brasier, C. M., and Strouts, R. G. 1976. New records of Phytophthora on trees in Britain. I.
Phytophthora root rot and bleeding canker of horse chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum L.).
Eur. J. For. Pathol. 6:129–136.
Browne, G. T., and Viveros, M. A. 1999. Lethal cankers caused by Phytophthora spp. in almond
scions: specific etiology and potential inoculum sources. Plant Dis. 83:739–745.
Caroselli, N. E., and Tucker, C. M. 1949. Pit canker of elm. Phytopathology 39:481–488.
Doster, M. A., and Bostock, R. M. 1988. Incidence, distribution, and development of pruning
wound cankers caused by Phytophthora syringae in almond orchards in California.
Phytopathology 78:468–472.
Dubery, I. A., Meyer, D., and Bothma, C. 1994. Purification and characterization of cactorein, a
phytotoxin secreted by Phytophthora cactorum. Phytochemistry 35:307–312.
Hall, G., Dobson, S., and Nicholls, C. 1992. First record of Phytophthora inflata in the United
Kingdom. Plant Pathol. 41:95–97.
Hansen, E. M., Reeser, P. W., Davidson, J. M., Garbelotto, M., Ivors, K., Douhan, L., and Rizzo,
D. M. 2003. Phytophthora nemorosa, a new species causing cankers and leaf blight of forest
trees in California and Oregon, U.S.A. Mycotaxon 88:129–138.
Hansen, E. M., and Sutton, W., eds. 2000. Phytophthora diseases of forest trees. Ore. State
Univ., Corvallis. 152 pp.
Hough, A., Mulder, N. J., and LaGrange, J. M. 1979. Heat treatment for the control of
Phytophthora gummosis in citrus. Plant Dis. Rep. 63:40–43.
Howard, F. L. 1941. The bleeding canker disease of hardwoods and possibilities of control. Proc.
West. Shade Tree Conf. 8:46–55.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Knorr, L. C. 1973. Citrus diseases and disorders. Univ. Presses Fla., Gainesville. 163 pp.
Lilja, A., Karjalainen, R., Parikka, P., Kammiovirta, K., and Nuorteva, H. 1998. Pathogenicity
and genetic variation of Phytophthora cactorum from silver birch and strawberry. Eur. J.
Plant Pathol. 104:529–535.
Mircetich, S. M., Campbell, R. N., and Matheron, M. E. 1977. Phytophthora trunk canker of
coast live oak and cork oak trees in California. Plant Dis. Rep. 61:66–70.
Ogawa, J. M., and English, H. 1991. Diseases of temperate zone tree fruit and nut crops. Univ.
Cal. Div. Agric. Nat. Resour. Pub. 3345. 461 pp.
Plich, M., and Rudnicki, R. M. 1979. Studies of the toxins of Phytophthora cactorum pathogenic
to apple trees. 1. Isolation, some of the properties, and activities of a toxin produced by the
fungus cultured in vitro. Phytopathol. Z. 94:270–278.
Stuntz, D. E., and Seliskar, C. E. 1943. A stem canker of dogwood and madrona. Mycologia
35:207–221.
216
Wood, A. K., and Tainter, F. H. 2002. First report of Phytophthora cinnamomi on Quercus
laurifolia. Plant Dis. 86:441.
-----------------Diseases caused by Phytophthora species, continued, Plates 178–179, pages 357–359
Diseases caused by Phytophthora ramorum
Davidson, J. M., Werres, S., Garbelotto, M., Hansen, E. M., and Rizzo, D. M. 2003. Sudden oak
death and associated diseases caused by Phytophthora ramorum. Plant Health Progr. 7 July
2003. Internet pub.
Garbelotto, M., Davidson, J. M., Ivors, K., Maloney, P. E., Hüberle, D., Koike, S. T., and Rizzo,
D. M. 2003. Bay laurel and native plants other than oaks are the main hosts for the sudden
oak death pathogen, P. ramorum, in California. APSnet feature story, April 2003. Internet
pub.
Ivors, K. L., Hayden, K. J., Bonants, P. J. M., Rizzo, D. M., and Garbelotto, M. 2004. AFLP and
phylogenetic analyses of North American and European populations of Phytophthora
ramorum. Mycol. Res. 108:378–392.
Martin, F. N., and Tooley, P. W. 2003. Phylogenetic relationships of Phytophthora ramorum, P.
nemorosa and P. pseudosyringae, three species recovered from areas in California with
sudden oak death. Mycol. Res. 107:1379–1391.
Rizzo, D. M., Garbelotto, M., Davidson, J. M., Slaughter, G. W., and Koike, S. T. 2002
Phytophthora ramorum as the cause of extensive mortality of Quercus spp. and Lithocarpus
densiflorus in California. Plant Dis. 86:205–214.
Standiford, R., McCreary, D., and Purcell, K. L., tech coords. 2003. Proceedings of the Fifth
Symposium on Oak Woodlands: Oaks in California's Changing Landscape. USDA For. Serv.
Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-184. 846 pp. Internet pub.
Werres, S., Marwitz, R., Man In't Veld, W. A., Cock, A. W. A. M. de, Bonants, P. J. M., Weerdt,
M. de, Themann, K., Iieva, E., and Baayen, R. P. 2001. Phytophthora ramorum sp. nov., a
new pathogen on Rhododendron and Viburnum. Mycol. Res. 105:1155–1165.
-----------------Diseases caused by Phytophthora species, continued, Plates 179–180, pages 359–361
Collar, crown, and foot rots
Baines, R. C. 1939. Phytophthora trunk canker or collar rot of apple trees. J. Agric. Res. 59:159–
184.
Belisario, A., Cacciola, S. O., and Magriano di san Lio, G. 1997. Phytophthora cactorum on
walnut seedlings in Italian nurseries. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 27:137–146.
Bielenin, A., and Jones, A. L. 1988. Prevalence and pathogenicity of Phytophthora spp. from
sour cherry trees in Michigan. Plant Dis. 72:473–476.
Blackwell, E. 1943. The life history of Phytophthora cactorum (Leb. & Cohn) Schroet. Trans.
Br. Mycol. Soc. 26:71–89.
Bonants, P. J. M., Hagenaar-de Weerdt, M., Man in’t Veld, W. A., and Baayen, R. P. 2000.
Molecular characterization of natural hybrids of Phytophthora nicotianae and P. cactorum.
Phytopathology 90:867–874.
Browne, G. T., and Mircetich, S. M. 1996. Effects of month of inoculation on severity of disease
caused by Phytophthora spp. in apple root crowns and excised shoots. Phytopathology
86:290–294.
217
Browne, G. T., Mircetich, S. M., and Cummins, J. N. 1995. Relative resistance of eighteen
selections of Malus spp. to three species of Phytophthora. Phytopathology 85:72–76.
Creager, D. B. 1937. Phytophthora crown rot of dogwood. J. Arnold Arbor. 18:344–348.
Drilias, M. J., Kuntz, J. E., and Worf, G. L. 1982. Collar rot and basal canker of sugar maple. J.
Arboric. 8:29–33.
Dubery, I. A., Meyer, D., and Bothma, C. 1994. Purification and characterization of cactorein, a
phytotoxin secreted by Phytophthora cactorum. Phytochemistry 35:307–312.
Hansen, E. M., and Sutton, W., eds. 2000. Phytophthora diseases of forest trees. Ore. State
Univ., Corvallis. 152 pp.
Horner, I. J., and Wilcox, W. F. 1996. Temporal changes in activity and dormant spore
populations of Phytophthora cactorum in New York apple orchard soils. Phytopathology
86:1133–1139.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Erwin, D. C., and Ribeiro, O. K. 1996. Phytophthora diseases worldwide. APS Press, St. Paul,
MN. 562 pp.
Jeffers, S. N., and Aldwinckle, H. S. 1988. Phytophthora crown rot of apple trees: sources of
Phytophthora cactorum and P. cambivora as primary inoculum. Phytopathology 78:328–
335.
Jeffers, S. N., Aldwinckle, H. S., Burr, T. J., and Arneson, P. A. 1982. Phytophthora and
Pythium species associated with crown rot in New York apple orchards. Phytopathology
72:533–538.
Julis, A. J., Clayton, C. N., and Sutton, T. B. 1978. Detection and distribution of Phytophthora
cactorum and P. cambivora on apple rootstocks. Plant Dis. Rep. 62:516–520.
Knorr, L. C. 1973. Citrus diseases and disorders. Univ. Presses Fla., Gainesville. 163 pp.
Kumar, J., Chaube, H. S., Singh, U. S., and Mukhopadhyay, A. N., eds. 1992. Plant diseases of
international importance. Volume III. Diseases of fruit crops. Prentice-Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, NJ. 456 pp.
Latorre, B. A., and Wilcox, W. F. 1996. Detection of Phytophthora spp. in fruit trees by
immunological assays. Fitopatologia 31:202–206.
Lilja, A., Karjalainen, R., Parikka, P., Kammiovirta, K., and Nuorteva, H. 1998. Pathogenicity
and genetic variation of Phytophthora cactorum from silver birch and strawberry. Eur. J.
Plant Pathol. 104:529–535.
Matheron, M. E., and Matejka, J. C. 1993. Seasonal differences in susceptibility of three citrus
rootstocks to root lesions caused by Phytophthora citrophthora and P. parasitica. Plant Dis.
77:729–732.
Matheron, M. E., and Mircetich, S. M. 1985. Influence of flooding duration on development of
Phytophthora root and crown rot of Juglans hindsii and Paradox walnut rootstocks.
Phytopathology 75:973–976.
Matheron, M. E., and Mircetich, S. M. 1985. Pathogenicity and relative virulence of
Phytophthora spp. from walnut and other plants to rootstocks of English walnut trees.
Phytopathology 75:977–981.
Mircetich, S. M., and Matheron, M. E. 1976. Phytophthora root and crown rot of cherry trees.
Phytopathology 66:549–558.
218
Ogawa, J. M., and English, H. 1991. Diseases of temperate zone tree fruit and nut crops. Univ.
Cal. Div. Agric. Nat. Resour. Pub. 3345. 461 pp.
Plich, M., and Rudnicki, R. M. 1979. Studies of the toxins of Phytophthora cactorum pathogenic
to apple trees. 1. Isolation, some of the properties, and activities of a toxin produced by the
fungus cultured in vitro. Phytopathol. Z. 94:270–278.
Sewell, G. W. F., and Wilson, J. F. 1973. Phytophthora collar rot of apple: seasonal effects on
infection and disease development. Ann. Appl. Biol. 74:149–158.
Sewell, G. W. F., Wilson, J. F., and Dakwa, J. T. 1974. Seasonal variations in the activity in soil
of Phytophthora cactorum, P. syringae, and P. citricola in relation to collar rot disease of
apple. Ann. Appl. Biol. 76:179–186.
Whiteside, J. O. 1971. Some factors affecting the occurrence and development of foot rot on
citrus trees. Phytopathology 61:1233–1238.
Wilcox, W. F., and Ellis, M. A. 1989. Phytophthora root and crown rots of peach trees in the
eastern Great Lakes region. Plant Dis. 73:794–798.
-----------------Root rots and feeder root necroses: Root and crown rot of Port Orford cedar
Hansen, E. M., Goheen, D. J., Jules, E. S., and Ullian, B. 2000. Managing Port-Orford-cedar and
the introduced pathogen Phytophthora lateralis. Plant Dis. 84:4–14.
Hansen, E. M., and Hamm, P. B. 1996. Survival of Phytophthora lateralis in infected roots of
Port Orford cedar. Plant Dis. 80:1075–1078.
Hansen, E. M., and Sutton, W., eds. 2000. Phytophthora diseases of forest trees. Ore. State
Univ., Corvallis. 152 pp.
Murray, M. S., and Hansen, E. M. 1997. Susceptibility of Pacific yew to Phytophthora lateralis.
Plant Dis. 81:1400–1404.
Ostrofsky, W. D., Pratt, R. G., and Roth, L. F. 1977. Detection of Phytophthora lateralis in soil
organic matter and factors that affect its survival. Phytopathology 67:79–84.
Roth, L. F., Harvey, R. D. Jr., and Kliejunas, J. T. 1987. Port-Orford-cedar root disease. USDA
For. Serv. Pac. Northwest Reg. R6 FPM PR 010 91. Internet pub.
Trione, E. J. 1959. The pathology of Phytophthora lateralis on native Chamaecyparis
lawsoniana. Phytopathology 49:306–310.
Tucker, C. M., and Milbrath, J. A. 1942. Root rot of Chamaecyparis caused by a species of
Phytophthora. Mycologia 34:94–103.
Winton, L. M., and Hansen, E. M. 2001. Molecular diagnosis of Phytophthora lateralis in trees,
water, and foliage baits using multiplex polymerase chain reaction. For. Pathol. 31:275–283.
-----------------Diseases caused by Phytophthora species, continued, Plates 181–182, pages 363–365
Root rots and feeder root necroses: diseases caused by Phytophthora cinnamomi
Atkinson, R. G. 1965. Phytophthora species inciting root rot of Chamaecyparis lawsoniana and
other ornamentals in coastal British Columbia. Can. J. Bot. 43:1471–1475.
Benson, D. M. 1982. Cold inactivation of Phytophthora cinnamomi. Phytopathology 72:560–
563.
Benson, D. M. 1990. Landscape survival of fungicide-treated azaleas inoculated with
Phytophthora cinnamomi. Plant Dis. 74:635–637.
219
Benson, D. M. 1991. Detection of Phytophthora cinnamomi in azalea with commercial
serological assay kits. Plant Dis. 75:478–482.
Benson, D. M., and Cochran, F. D. 1980. Resistance of evergreen hybrid azaleas to root rot
caused by Phytophthora cinnamomi. Plant Dis. 64:214–215.
Blaker, N. S., and MacDonald, J. D. 1981. Predisposing effects of soil moisture extremes on the
susceptibility of rhododendron to Phytophthora root and crown rot. Phytopathology 71:831–
834.
Blaker, N. S., and MacDonald, J. D. 1983. Influence of container medium pH on sporangium
formation, zoospore release, and infection of rhododendron by Phytophthora cinnamomi.
Plant Dis. 67:259–263.
Brasier, C. M. 1996. Phytophthora cinnamomi and oak decline in southern Europe.
Environmental constraints including climate change. Ann. Sci. For. 53:347–358.
Burgess, T., McComb, J. A., Colquhoun, I., and Hardy, G. E. S. 1999. Increased susceptibility of
Eucalyptus marginata to stem infection by Phytophthora cinnamomi resulting from root
hypoxia. Plant Pathol. 48:797–806.
Cahill, D. M., and Hardham, A. R. 1994. A dipstick immunoassay for the specific detection of
Phytophthora cinnamomi in soils. Phytopathology 84:1284–1292.
Cahill, D. [M.], Legge, N., Grant, B., and Weste, G. 1989. Cellular and histological changes
induced by Phytophthora cinnamomi in a group of plant species ranging from fully
susceptible to fully resistant. Phytopathology 79:417–424.
Campbell, W. A., and Copeland, O. L. Jr. 1954. Littleleaf disease of shortleaf and loblolly pines.
USDA Circ. 940. 41 pp.
Coelho, A. C., Cravador, A., Bollen, A., Ferraz, J. F. P., Moreira, A. C., Fauconnier, A., and
Godfroid, E. 1997. Highly specific and sensitive non-radioactive molecular identification of
Phytophthora cinnamomi. Mycol. Res. 101:1499–1507.
Crandall, B. S., Gravatt, G. F., and Ryan, M. M. 1945. Root disease of Castanea species and
some coniferous and broadleaf nursery stocks, caused by Phytophthora cinnamomi.
Phytopathology 35:162–180
Davison, E. M., Stukely, M. J. C., Crane, C. E., and Tay, F. C. S. 1994. Invasion of phloem and
xylem of woody stems and roots of Eucalyptus marginata and Pinus radiata by
Phytophthora cinnamomi. Phytopathology 84:335–340.
Dudzinski, M. J., Old, K. M., and Gibbs, R. J. 1993. Pathogenic variability in Australian isolates
of Phytophthora cinnamomi. Austral. J. Bot. 41:721–732.
Eden, M. A., Hill, R. A., and Galpoththage, M. 2000. An efficient baiting assay for
quantification of Phytophthora cinnamomi in soil. Plant Pathol. 49:515–522.
Hamm, P. B., and Hansen, E. M. 1982. Pathogenicity of Phytophthora species to Pacific
Northwest conifers. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 12:167–174.
Hansen, E. M., Hamm, P. B., Julis, A. J., and Roth, L. F. 1979. Isolation, incidence, and
management of Phytophthora in forest tree nurseries in the Pacific Northwest. Plant Dis.
Rep. 63:607–611.
Hansen, E. M., Roth, L. F., Hamm, P. B., and Julis, A. J. 1980. Survival, spread, and
pathogenicity of Phytophthora spp. on Douglas-fir seedlings planted on forest sites.
Phytopathology 70:422–425.
Hansen, E. M., and Sutton, W., eds. 2000. Phytophthora diseases of forest trees. Ore. State
Univ., Corvallis. 152 pp.
220
Hess, N. J., Otrosina, W. J., Jones, J. P., Goddard, A. J., Walkinshaw, C. H., and Haywood, J. D.
1999. Reassessment of loblolly pine decline on the Oakmulgee Ranger District, Talladega
National Forest, Alabama. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-30:560–564.
Hoitink, H. A. J., and Schmitthenner, A. F. 1974. Relative prevalence and virulence of
Phytophthora species involved in rhododendron root rot. Phytopathology 64:1371–1374.
Hoitink, H. A. J., and Schmitthenner, A. F. 1974. Resistance of Rhododendron species and
hybrids to Phytophthora root rot. Plant Dis. Rep. 58:650–653.
Hoitink, H. A. J., VanDoren, D. M. Jr., and Schmitthenner, A. F. 1977. Suppression of
Phytophthora cinnamomi in a composted hardwood bark potting medium. Phytopathology
67:561–565.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Kenerley, C. M., and Bruck, R. I. 1981. Phytophthora root rot of balsam fir and Norway spruce
in North Carolina. Plant Dis. 65:614–615.
Kenerley, C. M., and Bruck, R. I. 1983. Overwintering and survival of Phytophthora cinnamomi
in Fraser fir and cover cropped nursery beds in North Carolina. Phytopathology 73:1643–
1647.
Kumar, J., Chaube, H. S., Singh, U. S., and Mukhopadhyay, A. N., eds. 1992. Plant diseases of
international importance. Volume III. Diseases of fruit crops. Prentice-Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, NJ. 456 pp.
Lopez, H. C. J., Perez, J. R. M., Basallote, U. M. J., Bonilla, T. Z., and Melero, V. J. M. 1997.
Effect of soil solarization on the control of Phytophthora root rot in avocado. Plant Pathol.
46:329–340.
MacDonald, J. D. 1982. Role of environmental stress in the development of Phytophthora root
rots. J. Arboric. 8:217–223.
Marcais, B., Dupuis, F., and Desprez-Loustau, M. L. 1993. Influence of water stress on
susceptibility of red oak (Quercus rubra) to Phytophthora cinnamomi. Eur. J. For. Pathol.
23:295–305.
Marcais, B., Dupuis, F., and Desprez-Loustau, M. L. 1996. Susceptibility of the Quercus rubra
root system to Phytophthora cinnamomi; comparison with chestnut and other oak species.
Eur. J. For. Pathol. 26:133–143.
Marx, D. H., and Davey, C. B. 1969. The influence of ectotrophic mycorrhizal fungi on the
resistance of pine roots to pathogenic infections. IV. Resistance of naturally occurring
mycorrhizae to infections by Phytophthora cinnamomi. Phytopathology 59:559–565.
Maurel, M., Robin, C., Capron, G., and Desprez-Loustau, M. L. 2001. Effects of root damage
associated with Phytophthora cinnamomi on water relations, biomass accumulation, mineral
nutrition and vulnerability to water deficit of five oak and chestnut species. For. Pathol.
31:353–369.
Messenger, B. J., Menge, J. A., and Pond, E. 2000. Effects of gypsum on zoospores and
sporangia of Phytophthora cinnamomi in field soil. Plant Dis. 84:617–621.
Messenger, B. J., Menge, J. A., and Pond, E. 2000. Effects of gypsum soil amendments on
avocado growth, soil drainage, and resistance to Phytophthora cinnamomi. Plant Dis.
84:612–616.
Mistretta, P. A. 1984. Littleleaf disease. USDA For. Serv. For. Insect Dis. Leafl. 20. Internet
pub.
221
Mukhopadhyay, A. N., Kumar, J., Chaube, H. S., and Singh, U. S., eds. 1992. Plant diseases of
international importance. Vol. IV. Diseases of sugar, forest, and plantation crops. PrenticeHall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. 376 pp.
Oak, S. W. 1985. Adoption of littleleaf disease hazard rating for use in forest management in
South Carolina national forests. Pages 246–251 in: Integrated Pest Management Research
Symposium: the proceedings. S. J. Branham and R. C. Thatcher, eds. USDA For. Serv. Gen.
Tech. Rep. SO-56.
Ploetz, R. C., and Schaffer, B. 1989. Effects of flooding and Phytophthora root rot on net gas
exchange and growth of avocado. Phytopathology 79:204–208.
Podger, F. D. 1972. Phytophthora cinnamomi, a cause of lethal disease in indigenous plant
communities in Western Australia. Phytopathology 62:972–981.
Reynolds, K. M., Benson, D. M., and Bruck, R. I. 1985. Epidemiology of Phytophthora root rot
of Fraser fir: root colonization and inoculum production. Phytopathology 75:1004–1009.
Robin, C., and Desprez-Loustau, M. L. 1998. Testing variability in pathogenicity of
Phytophthora cinnamomi. Eur. J. Plant Pathol. 104:465–475.
Sanchez, M. E., Caetano, P., Ferraz, J., and Trapero, A. 2002. Phytophthora disease of Quercus
ilex in south-western Spain. For. Pathol. 32:5–18.
Schreiber, L. R., and Green, R. J. Jr. 1959. Die-back and root rot disease of Taxus spp. in
Indiana. Plant Dis. Rep. 43:814–817.
Shew, H. D., and Benson, D. M. 1983. Influence of soil temperature and inoculum density of
Phytophthora cinnamomi on root rot of Fraser fir. Plant Dis. 67:522–524.
Smith, B. J., Shearer, B. L., and Sivasithamparam, K. 1997. Compartmentalization of
Phytophthora cinnamomi in stems of highly susceptible Banksia brownii treated with
phosphonate. Mycol. Res. 101:1101–1107.
Tainter, F. H., O'Brien, J. G., Hernandez, A., Orozco, F., and Rebolledo, O. 2000. Phytophthora
cinnamomi as a cause of oak mortality in the state of Colima, Mexico. Plant Dis. 84:394–
398.
Weste, G. 1994. Impact of Phytophthora species on native vegetation of Australia and Papua
New Guinea. Australas. Plant Pathol. 23:190–209.
Weste, G. 1997. The changing status of disease caused by Phytophthora cinnamomi in Victorian
open forests, woodlands and heathlands. Australas. Plant Pathol. 26:1–9.
Weste, G., and Marks, G. C. 1987. The biology of Phytophthora cinnamomi in Australasian
forests. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 25:207–229.
White, R. P. 1937. Rhododendron wilt and root rot. N.J. Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull. 615. 32 pp.
Withers, P. C., Cowling, W. A., and Wills, R. T., eds. 1994. Plant diseases in ecosystems: threats
and impacts in south-western Australia. J. R.. Soc. W. Austral. 77:97–186.
Zentmyer, G. A. 1980. Phytophthora cinnamomi and the diseases it causes. Monogr. 10. Am.
Phytopathol. Soc., St. Paul, MN. 96 pp.
-----------------Root rots and feeder root necroses: Other Phytophthora root rots
Balcì, Y., and Halmschlager, E. 2003. Incidence of Phytophthora species in oak forests in
Austria and their possible involvement in oak decline. For. Pathol. 33:157–174.
Balcì, Y., and Halmschlager, E. 2003. Phytophthora species in oak ecosystems in Turkey and
their association with declining oak trees. Plant Pathol. 52:694–702.
Broembsen, S. L. von , and Deacon, J. W. 1997. Calcium interference with zoospore biology and
222
infectivity of Phytophthora parasitica in nutrient irrigation solutions. Phytopathology
87:522–528.
Brummer, M., Arend, M., Fromm, J., Schlenzig, A., and Osswald, W. F. 2002. Ultrastructural
changes and immunocytochemical localization of the elicitin quercinin in Quercus robur L.
roots infected with Phytophthora quercina. Physiol. Mol. Plant Pathol. 61:109–120.
Chastagner, G. A., Hamm, P. B., and Riley, K. L. 1995. Symptoms and Phytophthora spp.
associated with root rot and stem canker of Noble fir Christmas trees in the Pacific
Northwest. Plant Dis. 79:290–293.
Chern, L. L., Ann, P. J., and Young, H. R. 1998. Root and foot rot of loquat in Taiwan caused by
Phytophthora. Plant Dis. 82:651–656.
Ferguson, A. J., and Jeffers, S. N. 1999. Detecting multiple species of Phytophthora in container
mixes from ornamental crop nurseries. Plant Dis. 83:1129–1136.
Fleischmann, F., Schneider, D., Matyssek, R., and Osswald, W. F. 2002. Investigations on net
CO2 assimilation, transpiration and root growth of Fagus sylvatica infested with four
different Phytophthora species. Plant Biol. 4:144–152.
Hamm, P. B., and Hansen, E. M. 1982. Pathogenicity of Phytophthora species to Pacific
Northwest conifers. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 12:167–174.
Hamm, P. B., and Hansen, E. M. 1983. Phytophthora pseudotsugae, a new species causing root
rot of Douglas-fir. Can. J. Bot. 61:2626–2631.
Hansen, E. M., Roth, L. F., Hamm, P. B., and Julis, A. J. 1980. Survival, spread, and
pathogenicity of Phytophthora spp. on Douglas-fir seedlings planted on forest sites.
Phytopathology 70:422–425.
Hansen, E. M., and Sutton, W., eds. 2000. Phytophthora diseases of forest trees. Ore. State
Univ., Corvallis. 152 pp.
Hoitink, H. A. J., and Schmitthenner, A. F. 1969. Rhododendron wilt caused by Phytophthora
citricola. Phytopathology 59:708–709.
Hoitink, H. A. J., and Schmitthenner, A. F. 1974. Relative prevalence and virulence of
Phytophthora species involved in rhododendron root rot. Phytopathology 64:1371–1374.
Jung, T., Blaschke, H., and Neumann, P. 1996. Isolation, identification and pathogenicity of
Phytophthora species from declining oak stands. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 26:253–272.
Jung, T., Blaschke, H., and Osswald, W. 2000. Involvement of soilborne Phytophthora species
in Central European oak decline and the effect of site factors on the disease. Plant Pathol.
49:706–718.
Jung, T., Cooke, D. E. L., Blaschke, H., Duncan, J. M., and Osswald, W. 1999. Phytophthora
quercina sp. nov., causing root rot of European oaks. Mycol. Res. 103:785–798.
Jung, T., Hansen, E. M., Winton, L., Osswald, W., and Delatour, C. 2002. Three new species of
Phytophthora from European oak forests. Mycol. Res. 106:397–411.
Jung, T., Nechwatal, J., Cooke, D. E. L., Hartmann, G., Blaschke, M., Osswald, W. F., Duncan,
J. M., and Delatour, C. 2003. Phytophthora pseudosyringae sp. nov., a new species causing
root and collar rot of deciduous tree species in Europe. Mycol. Res. 107:772–789.
Lopez, H. C. J., Perez, J. R. M., Basallote, U. M. J., Bonilla, T. Z., and Melero, V. J. M. 1997.
Effect of soil solarization on the control of Phytophthora root rot in avocado. Plant Pathol.
46:329–340.
MacDonald, J. D. 1982. Role of environmental stress in the development of Phytophthora root
rots. J. Arboric. 8:217–223.
MacDonald, J. D., Ali, S. M. S., Kabashima, J., and Stites, J. 1994. Occurrence of Phytophthora
223
species in recirculated nursery irrigation effluents. Plant Dis. 78:607–611.
Matheron, M. E., and Mircetich, S. M. 1985. Influence of flooding duration on development of
Phytophthora root and crown rot of Juglans hindsii and paradox walnut rootstocks.
Phytopathology 75:973–976.
Matheron, M. E., and Mircetich, S. M. 1985. Pathogenicity and relative virulence of
Phytophthora spp. from walnut and other plants to rootstocks of English walnut trees.
Phytopathology 75:977–981.
Nechwatal, J., Schlenzig, A., Jung, T., Cooke, D. E. L., Duncan, J. M., and Osswald, W. F. 2001.
A combination of baiting and PCR techniques for the detection of Phytophthora quercina
and P. citricola in soil samples from oak stands. For. Pathol. 31:85–97.
Schubert, R., Bahnweg, G., Nechwatal, J., Jung, T., Cooke, D. E. L., Duncan, J. M., Muller, S.
G., Langebartels, C., Sandermann, H. Jr., and Osswald, W. 1999. Detection and
quantification of Phytophthora species which are associated with root-rot diseases in
European deciduous forests by species-specific polymerase chain reaction. Eur. J. For.
Pathol. 29:169–188.
Shew, H. D., and Benson, D. M. 1981. Fraser fir root rot induced by Phytophthora citricola.
Plant Dis. 65:688–689.
Standish, E. D., MacDonald, J. D., and Humphrey, W. A. 1982. Phytophthora root and crown rot
of junipers in California. Plant Dis. 66:925–928.
Vettraino, A. M., Barzanti, G. P., Bianco, M. C., Ragazzi, A., Capretti, P., Paoletti, E., Luisi, N.,
Anselmi, N., and Vannini, A. 2002. Occurrence of Phytophthora species in oak stands in
Italy and their association with declining oak trees. For. Pathol. 32:19–28.
-----------------Bacterial diseases, Plates 183–184, pages 367–369
Overview
Alfano, J. R., and Collmer, A. 1996. Bacterial pathogens in plants: life up against the wall. Plant
Cell 8:1683–1698.
Bacon, C. W., and White, J. F., eds. 2000. Microbial endophytes. Marcel Dekker, New York.
487 pp.
Beattie, G. A., and Lindow, S. E. 1995. The secret life of foliar bacterial pathogens on leaves.
Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 33:145–172.
Broek, A. V. Van de, and Leyden, J. Van der. 1995. The role of bacterial motility, chemotaxis,
and attachment in bacteria-plant interactions. Mol. Plant-Microbe Interact. 8:800–810.
Cavalier-Smith, T. 2002. The neomuran origin of the Archaebacteria, the negibacterial root of
the universal tree and bacterial megaclassification. Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. 52:7–76.
Collmer, A., and Bauer, D. W. 1994. Erwinia chrysanthemi and Pseudomonas syringae: plant
pathogens trafficking in extracellular virulence proteins. Pages 43–78 in: Bacterial
Pathogenesis of Plants and Animals. J. L. Dangl, ed. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
Denny, T. P. 1995. Involvement of bacterial polysaccharides in plant pathogenesis. Annu. Rev.
Phytopathol. 33:173–197.
Dye, D. W., Bradbury, J. F., Goto, M., Hayward, A. C., Lelliott, R. A., and Schroth, M. N. 1980.
International standards for naming pathovars of phytopathogenic bacteria and a list of
pathovar names and pathotype strains. Rev. Plant Pathol. 59:153–168.
Florida Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services, Division of Plant Industry. 1962–
present. Plant Pathology Circulars 1– .
224
Goto, M. 1992. Fundamentals of bacterial plant pathology. Academic Press, San Diego. 342 pp.
Hauben, L., Moore, E. R. B., Vauterin, L., Steenackers, M., Mergaert, J., Verdonck, L., and
Swings, J. 1998. Phylogenetic position of phytopathogens within the Enterobacteriaceae.
Syst. Appl. Microbiol. 21:384–397.
Hirano, S. S., and Upper, C. D. 2000. Bacteria in the leaf ecosystem with emphasis on
Pseudomonas syringae—a pathogen, ice nucleus, and epiphyte. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev.
64:624–653.
Holt, J. G., ed. in chief. 1984–1989. Bergey's manual of systematic bacteriology. Vols. 1–4.
Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore. 2648 pp.
Holt, J. G., Krieg, N. R., Sneath, P. H. A., Staley, J. T., and Williams, S. T., eds. 1994. Bergey's
manual of determinative bacteriology, 9th ed. Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore. 787 pp.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Kersters, K., Ludwig, W., Vancanneyt, M., de Vos, P., Gillis, M., and Schleifer, K. H. 1996.
Recent changes in the classification of the pseudomonads: an overview. Syst. Appl.
Microbiol. 19:465–477.
Lee, R. E. J., Warren, G. J., and Gusta, L. V., eds. 1995. Biological ice nucleation and its
applications. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 420 pp.
Lindow, S. E. 1983. The role of bacterial ice nucleation in frost injury to plants. Annu. Rev.
Phytopathol. 21:363–384.
Lindow, S. E. 1993. Biological control of plant frost injury: the ice– story. Pages 113–128 in:
Advanced engineered pesticides. L. Kim, ed. Marcel Dekker, New York.
Moore, W. E. C., and Moore, L. V. H. 1992. Index of the bacterial and yeast nomenclatural
changes. ASM Press, Herndon, VA. 72 pp.
Palleroni, N. J. 1994. Pseudomonas classification. A new case history in the taxonomy of Gramnegative bacteria. Antonie van Leeuw. 64:231–251.
Schaad, N. W., Jones, J. B., and Chun, W., eds. 2001. Laboratory guide for identification of
plant pathogenic bacteria. 3rd ed. APS Press, St. Paul, Minn. 373 pp.
Sigee, D. C. 1993. Bacterial plant pathology. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, UK. 300 pp.
Skerman, V. D. B., McGowan, V. and Sneath, P. H. A., eds. 1989. Approved lists of bacterial
names. Am. Soc. Microbiol., Washington, DC. 188 pp.
Stackebrandt, E. 1997. Identifying culturable and uncultured prokaryotes. Symbiosis 22:47–58.
Young, J. M., Saddler, G. S., Takikawa, Y., Boer, S. H. De, Vauterin, L., Gardan, L., Gvozdyak,
R. I., and Stead, D. E. 1996. Names of plant pathogenic bacteria 1864–1995. Rev. Plant
Pathol. 75:721–763.
-----------------Bacterial leaf spots, blights, and cankers, Plate 184, page 369
Diseases caused by Pseudomonas species, P. syringae
Alfieri, S. A. J., Langdon, K. R., Kimbrough, J. W., El-Gholl, N. E., and Wehlburg, C. 1994.
Diseases and disorders of plants in Florida. Fla. Dep. Agric. Consum. Serv., Div. Plant
Indus., Gainesville. 1114 pp.
Bender, C. L., Alarcon-Chaidez, F., and Gross, D. C. 1999. Pseudomonas syringae phytotoxins:
mode of action, regulation, and biosynthesis by peptide and polyketide synthetases.
Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 63:266–292.
225
Bishop, A. L., and Basarich, L. 1989. Leaf spot and stem canker of Ginkgo biloba caused by
Pseudomonas syringae. Plant Dis. 73:368.
Boer, S. H. De. 1980. Leaf spot of cherry laurel caused by Pseudomonas syringae. Can. J. Plant
Pathol. 2:235–238.
Bryan, M. K. 1928. Lilac blight in the United States. J. Agric. Res. 36:225–235.
Cameron, H. R. 1962. Diseases of deciduous fruit trees incited by Pseudomonas syringae van
Hall. Ore. Agric. Exp. Stn. Tech. Bull. 66. 64 pp.
Cameron, H. R. 1970. Pseudomonas content of cherry trees. Phytopathology 60:1343–1346.
Canfield, M. L., Baca, S., and Moore, L. W. 1986. Isolation of Pseudomonas syringae from 40
cultivars of diseased woody plants with tip dieback in Pacific Northwest nurseries. Plant Dis.
70:647–650.
Chase, A. R. 1986. Comparison of three bacterial leaf spots of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis. Plant Dis.
70:334–336.
Crosse, J. E. 1966. Epidemiological relations of the pseudomonad pathogens of deciduous fruit
trees. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 4:291–310.
Davis, J. R., and English, H. 1969. Factors related to the development of bacterial canker in
peach. Phytopathology 59:588–595.
Florida Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services, Division of Plant Industry. 1962–
present. Plant Pathology Circulars 1– .
Hirano, S. S., and Upper, C. D. 2000. Bacteria in the leaf ecosystem with emphasis on
Pseudomonas syringae—a pathogen, ice nucleus, and epiphyte. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev.
64:624–653.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Kam, M. de 1982. Damage to poplar caused by Pseudomonas syringae in combination with frost
and fluctuating temperatures. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 12:203–209.
Kennedy, B. W., Froyd, J., and Bowden, R. 1984. Bacterial blight of mock orange (Philadelphus
spp.) caused by Pseudomonas syringae. Plant Dis. 68:916–917.
Kersters, K., Ludwig, W., Vancanneyt, M., de Vos, P., Gillis, M., and Schleifer, K. H. 1996.
Recent changes in the classification of the pseudomonads: an overview. Syst. Appl.
Microbiol. 19:465–477.
Klement, Z., Rozsnyay, D. S., Báló, E., Pánczél, M., and Prileszky, G. 1984. The effect of cold
on development of bacterial canker in apricot trees infected with Pseudomonas syringae pv.
syringae. Physiol. Plant Pathol. 24:237–246.
Langridge, Y. N., and Dye, D. W. 1982. A bacterial disease of Pinus radiata seedlings caused by
Pseudomonas syringae. N.Z. J. Agric. Res. 25:273–276.
Mo, Y. Y., Geibel, M., Bonsall, R. F., and Gross, D. C. 1995. Analysis of sweet cherry (Prunus
avium L.) leaves for plant signal molecules that activate the syrB gene required for synthesis
of the phytotoxin, syringomycin, by Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae. Plant Physiol.
107:603–612.
Moore, E. R. B., Mau, M., Arnscheidt, A., Bottger, E. C., Hutson, R. A., Collins, M. D., van de
Peer, Y., de Wachter, R., and Timmis, K. N. 1996. The determination and comparison of the
16S rRNA gene sequences of species of the genus Pseudomonas (sensu stricto) and
estimation of the natural intrageneric relationships. Syst. Appl. Microbiol. 19:478–492.
226
Moorman, G. W., Lukezic, F. L., and Levine, R. 1988. Pseudomonas syringae, causal agent of a
leaf spot on Ulmus sp. Plant Dis. 72:801.
Ogawa, J. M., Zehr, E. I., Bird, G. W., Ritchie, D. F., Uriu, K., and Uyemoto, J. K., eds. 1995.
Compendium of Stone Fruit Diseases. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 98 pp.
Palleroni, N. J. 1994. Pseudomonas classification. A new case history in the taxonomy of Gramnegative bacteria. Antonie van Leeuw. 64:231–251.
Rosen, H. R. 1935. Rose blast induced by Phytomonas syringae. J. Agric. Res. 51:235–243.
Rudolph, K, Burr, T. J., Mansfield, J. W., Stead, D., Vivian, A., and Kietzell, J. von, eds. 1997.
Pseudomonas syringae pathovars and related pathogens. Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht. 663
pp.
Spotts, R. A., and Cervantes, L. A. 1995. Factors affecting the severity of bacterial canker of
pear caused by Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae. Plant Pathol. 44:325–331.
-----------------Diseases caused by other pseudomonads
Alfieri, S. A. J., Langdon, K. R., Kimbrough, J. W., El-Gholl, N. E., and Wehlburg, C. 1994.
Diseases and disorders of plants in Florida. Fla. Dep. Agric. Consum. Serv., Div. Plant
Indus., Gainesville. 1114 pp.
Chase, A. R. 1986. Comparison of three bacterial leaf spots of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis. Plant Dis.
70:334–336.
Chase, A. R. 1987. Leaf and petiole rot of Ficus lyrata cv. Compacta caused by Pseudomonas
cichorii. Plant Pathol. 36:219–221.
Chase, A. R., and Jones, J. B. 1986. Effects of host nutrition, leaf age, and preinoculation light
levels on severity of leaf spot of dwarf schefflera caused by Pseudomonas cichorii. Plant
Dis. 70:561–563.
Crosse, J. E. 1966. Epidemiological relations of the pseudomonad pathogens of deciduous fruit
trees. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 4:291–310.
Engelhard, A. W., and Jones, J. B. 1990. Stem canker and leaf spot of poinsettia caused by
Pseudomonas viridiflava in Florida. Plant Dis. 74:528–529.
Harvey, J. M. 1952. Bacterial leaf spot of Umbellularia californica. Madroño 11:195–198.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Kersters, K., Ludwig, W., Vancanneyt, M., de Vos, P., Gillis, M., and Schleifer, K. H. 1996.
Recent changes in the classification of the pseudomonads: an overview. Syst. Appl.
Microbiol. 19:465–477.
Moore, E. R. B., Mau, M., Arnscheidt, A., Bottger, E. C., Hutson, R. A., Collins, M. D., van de
Peer, Y., de Wachter, R., and Timmis, K. N. 1996. The determination and comparison of the
16S rRNA gene sequences of species of the genus Pseudomonas (sensu stricto) and
estimation of the natural intrageneric relationships. Syst. Appl. Microbiol. 19:478–492.
Mullen, J. M., and Cobb, G. S. 1984. Leaf spot of southern magnolia caused by Pseudomonas
cichorii. Plant Dis. 68:1013–1015.
Ogawa, J. M., and English, H. 1991. Diseases of temperate zone tree fruit and nut crops. Univ.
Calif., Div. Agric. & Nat. Resour. Pub. 3345. 461 pp.
Ogawa, J. M., Zehr, E. I., Bird, G. W., Ritchie, D. F., Uriu, K., and Uyemoto, J. K., eds. 1995.
Compendium of Stone Fruit Diseases. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 98 pp.
227
Palleroni, N. J. 1994. Pseudomonas classification. A new case history in the taxonomy of Gramnegative bacteria. Antonie van Leeuw. 64:231–251.
Parmeter, J. R. Jr., Bega, R. V., and Hood, J. R. 1960. Epidemic leaf-blighting of Californialaurel. Plant Dis. Rep. 44:669–671.
Scortichini, M. 2002. Bacterial canker and decline of European hazelnut. Plant Dis. 86:704–709.
Scortichini, M., Marchesi, U., Rossi, M. P., and Prospero, P. di. 2002. Bacteria associated with
hazelnut (Corylus avellana L.) decline are of two groups: Pseudomonas avellanae and
strains resembling P. syringae pv. syringae. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 68:476–484.
Uddin, W., and McCarter, S. M. 1996. First report of Rhododendron leaf spot caused by
Pseudomonas cichorii. Plant Dis. 80:960.
-----------------Bacterial leaf spots, blights, and cankers, continued, Plate 185, page 371
Diseases caused by Xanthomonas species: overview
Alfieri, S. A. Jr., Langdon, K. R., Kimbrough, J. W., El-Gholl, N. E., and Wehlburg, C. 1994.
Diseases and disorders of plants in Florida. Fla. Dep. Agric. Consum. Serv., Div. Plant
Indus., Gainesville. 1114 pp.
Burdekin, D. A. 1972. Bacterial canker of poplar. Ann. Appl. Biol. 72:295–299.
Dye, D. W., Bradbury, J. F., Goto, M., Hayward, A. C., Lelliott, R. A., and Schroth, M. N. 1980.
International standards for naming pathovars of phytopathogenic bacteria and a list of
pathovar names and pathotype strains. Rev. Plant Pathol. 59:153–168.
Florida Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services, Division of Plant Industry. 1962–
present. Plant Pathology Circulars 1– .
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Nesme, X., Steenackers, M., Steenackers, V., Picard, C., Menard, M., Ride, S., and Ride, M.
1994. Differential host-pathogen interactions among clones of poplar and strains of
Xanthomonas populi pv. populi. Phytopathology 84:101–107.
Schaad, N. W., Jones, J. B., and Chun, W., eds. 2001. Laboratory guide for identification of
plant pathogenic bacteria. 3rd ed. APS Press, St. Paul, Minn. 373 pp.
Skerman, V. D. B., McGowan, V. and Sneath, P. H. A., eds. 1989. Approved lists of bacterial
names. Am. Soc. Microbiol., Washington, DC. 188 pp.
Swings, J. G., and Civerolo, E. L., eds. 1993. Xanthomonas. Chapman & Hall, New York. 399
pp.
Vauterin, L., Hoste, B., Kersters, K., and Swings, J. 1995. Reclassification of Xanthomonas. Int.
J. Syst. Bacteriol. 45:472–489.
Vauterin, L., Rademaker, J., and Swings, J. 2000. Synopsis on the taxonomy of the genus
Xanthomonas. Phytopathology 90:677–682.
Young, J. M., Bull, C. T., Boer, S. H. De, Firrao, G., Gardan, L., Saddler, G. E., Stead, D. E.,
and Takikawa, Y. 2001. Classification, nomenclature, and plant pathogenic bacteria—a
clarification. Phytopathology 91:617–620.
Young, J. M., Saddler, G. S., Takikawa, Y., Boer, S. H. De, Vauterin, L., Gardan, L., Gvozdyak,
R. I., and Stead, D. E. 1996. Names of plant pathogenic bacteria 1864–1995. Rev. Plant
Pathol. 75:721–763.
------------------
228
Diseases caused by Xanthomonas species: some diseases of woody ornamental plants
Burkholder, W. H., and Guterman, C. E. F. 1932. Synergism in a bacterial disease of Hedera
helix. Phytopathology 22:781–784.
Chase, A. R. 1984. Xanthomonas campestris pv. hederae causes a leaf spot of five species of
Araliaceae. Plant Pathol. 33:439–440.
Chase, A. R. 1985. Bacterial leaf spot of Codiaeum variegatum cultivars caused by
Xanthomonas campestris pv. poinsettiicola. Plant Pathol. 34:446–448.
Chase, A. R. 1986. Comparison of three bacterial leaf spots of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis. Plant Dis.
70:334–336.
Chase, A. R. 1990. Effect of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium rates on severity of
Xanthomonas leaf spot of Schefflera. J. Environ. Hortic. 8:74–78.
Dye, D. W. 1967. Bacterial spot of ivy caused by Xanthomonas hederae (Arnaud, 1920) Dowson
1939, in New Zealand. N.Z. J. Sci. 10:481–485.
Florida Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services, Division of Plant Industry. 1962–
present. Plant Pathology Circulars 1– .
Miller, J. W., and Seymour, C. P. 1973. A comparative study of Corynebacterium poinsettiae
and Xanthomonas poinsettiaecola on poinsettia and crown-of-thorns. Proc. Fla. State Hortic.
Soc. 85:344–347.
Norman, D. J., Chase, A. R., Stall, R. E., and Jones, J. B. 1999. Heterogeneity of Xanthomonas
campestris pv. hederae strains from araliaceous hosts. Phytopathology 89:646–652.
Uddin, W., McCarter, S. M., and Gitaitis, R. D. 1996. First report of oakleaf hydrangea bacterial
leaf spot caused by a pathovar of Xanthomonas campestris. Plant Dis. 80:599.
White, R. P., and McCullock, L. 1934. A bacterial disease of Hedera helix. J. Agric. Res.
48:807–815.
-----------------Bacterial leaf spots, blights, and cankers, continued, Plate 186, page 373
Citrus canker and related diseases
Gottwald, T. R., Graham, J. H., and Egel, D. S. 1992. Analysis of foci of Asiatic citrus canker in
a Florida citrus orchard. Plant Dis. 76:389–396.
Gottwald, T. R., Graham, J. H., and Schubert, T. S. 1997. An epidemiological analysis of the
spread of citrus canker in urban Miami, Florida, and synergistic interaction with the Asian
citrus leafminer. Fruits 52:383–390.
Gottwald, T. R., Graham, J. H., and Schubert, T. S. 2002. Citrus canker: the pathogen and its
impact. Plant Health Progress, 12 August 2002. Internet pub.
Gottwald, T. R., Reynolds, K. M., Campbell, C. L., and Timmer, L. W. 1992. Spatial and
spatiotemporal autocorrelation analysis of citrus canker epidemics in citrus nurseries and
groves in Argentina. Phytopathology 82:843–851.
Gottwald, T. R., and Timmer, L. W. 1995. The efficacy of windbreaks in reducing the spread of
citrus canker caused by Xanthomonas campestris pv. citri. Trop. Agric. 72:194–201.
Gottwald, T. R., Timmer, L. W., and McGuire, R. G. 1989. Analysis of disease progress of citrus
canker in nurseries in Argentina. Phytopathology 79:1276–1283.
Graham, J. H., and Gottwald, T. R. 1990. Variation in aggressiveness of Xanthomonas
campestris pv. citrumelo associated with citrus bacterial spot in Florida citrus nurseries.
Phytopathology 80:190–196.
229
Graham, J. H., Gottwald, T. R., and Fardelmann, D. 1990. Cultivar-specific interactions for
strains of Xanthomonas campestris from Florida that cause citrus canker and citrus bacterial
spot. Plant Dis. 74:753–756.
Graham, J. H., Gottwald, T. R., Riley, T. D., and Bruce, M. A. 1992. Susceptibility of citrus fruit
to bacterial spot and citrus canker. Phytopathology 82:452–457.
Hartung, J. S., and Civerolo, E. L. 1989. Restriction fragment length polymorphisms distinguish
Xanthomonas campestris strains isolated from Florida citrus nurseries from X. c. pv. citri.
Phytopathology 79:793–799.
Hartung, J. S., Pruvost, O. P., Villemot, I., and Alvarez, A. 1996. Rapid and sensitive
colorimetric detection of Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri by immunocapture and a nestedpolymerase chain reaction assay. Phytopathology 86:95–101.
Kumar, J., Chaube, H. S., Singh, U. S., and Mukhopadhyay, A. N., eds. 1992. Plant diseases of
international importance. Volume III. Diseases of fruit crops. Prentice-Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, NJ. 456 pp.
Reddy, M. R. S. 1997. Sources of resistance to bacterial canker in citrus. J. Mycol. Plant Pathol.
27:80–81.
Schoulties, C. L., Civerolo, E. L., Miller, J. W., Stall, R. E., Krass, C. J., Poe, S. R., and
DuCharme, E. P. 1987. Citrus canker in Florida. Plant Dis. 71:388–395.
Timmer, L. W., Gottwald, T. R., and Zitko, S. E. 1991. Bacterial exudation from lesions of
Asiatic citrus canker and citrus bacterial spot. Plant Dis. 75:192–195.
Vauterin, L., Yang, P., Hoste, B., Vancanneyt, M., Civerolo, E. L., Swings, J., and Kersters, K.
1991. Differentiation of Xanthomonas campestris pv. citri strains by sodium dodecyl
sulfate–polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of proteins, fatty acid analysis, and DNA-DNA
hybridization. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 41:535–542.
Whiteside, J. O. 1988. The history and rediscovery of citrus canker in Florida. Citrograph
73:197–206.
Whiteside, J. O., Garnsey, S. M., and Timmer, L. W., eds. 1988. Compendium of citrus diseases.
APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 80 pp.
-----------------Bacterial spot of Prunus
Ogawa, J. M., and English, H. 1991. Diseases of temperate zone tree fruit and nut crops. Univ.
Cal. Div. Agric. Nat. Resour. Pub. 3345. 461 pp.
Ogawa, J. M., Zehr, E. I., Bird, G. W., Ritchie, D. F., Uriu, K., and Uyemoto, J. K., eds. 1995.
Compendium of stone fruit diseases. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 98 pp.
Plessis, H. J. du. 1987. Canker development on plum shoots following systemic movement of
Xanthomonas campestris pv. pruni from inoculated leaves. Plant Dis. 71:1078–1080.
Plessis, H. J. du. 1990. Systemic invasion of plum seed and fruit by Xanthomonas campestris pv.
pruni through stalks. J. Phytopathol. 130:37–45.
Scortichini, M., Janse, J. D., Rossi, M. P., and Derks, J. H. J. 1996. Characterization of
Xanthomonas campestris pv. pruni strains from different hosts by pathogenicity tests and
analysis of whole-cell fatty acids and whole-cell proteins. J. Phytopathol. 144:69–74.
Shepard, D. P., and Zehr, E. I. 1994. Epiphytic persistence of Xanthomonas campestris pv. pruni
on peach and plum. Plant Dis. 78:627–629.
230
Werner, D. J., Ritchie, D. F., Cain, D. W., and Zehr, E. I. 1986. Susceptibility of peaches and
nectarines, plant introductions, and other Prunus species to bacterial spot. HortScience
21:127–130.
Zehr, E. I., Shepard, D. P., and Bridges, W. C. Jr. 1996. Bacterial spot of peach as influenced by
water congestion, leaf wetness duration, and temperature. Plant Dis. 80:339–341.
-----------------Bacterial blight of walnut
Belisario, A., Zoina, A., Pezza, L. and Luongo, L. 1999. Susceptibility of species of Juglans to
pathovars of Xanthomonas campestris. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 29:75–80.
Miller, P. W., and Bollen, W. B. 1946. Walnut bacteriosis and its control. Ore. Agric. Exp. Stn.
Tech. Bull. 9. 107 pp.
Mulrean, E. N., and Schroth, M. N. 1982. Ecology of Xanthomonas campestris pv. juglandis on
Persian (English) walnuts. Phytopathology 72:434–438.
Ogawa, J. M., and English, H. 1991. Diseases of temperate zone tree fruit and nut crops. Univ.
Cal. Div. Agric. Nat. Resour. Pub. 3345. 461 pp.
Teviotdale, B. L., Michailides, T. J., and Pscheidt, J. W., eds. 2002. Compendium of nut crop
diseases in temperate zones. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 89 pp.
-----------------Fire blight, Plate 187, page 375
Aldwinckle, H. S., Borejsza-Wysocka, E. E., Malnoy, M., Brown, S. K., Norelli, J. L., Beer, S.
V., Meng, X., He, S. Y., Jin, Q. L., and Janick, J. 2003. Development of fire blight resistant
apple cultivars by genetic engineering. Acta Hortic. No. 622:105–111.
Barny, M. A. 1995. Erwinia amylovora hrpN mutants, blocked in harpin synthesis, express a
reduced virulence on host plants and elicit variable hypersensitive reactions on tobacco. Eur.
J. Plant Pathol. 101:333–340.
Biggs, A. R. 1994. Characteristics of fire blight cankers following shoot inoculations of three
apple cultivars. HortScience 29:795–797.
Biggs, A. R., ed. 1993. Handbook of cytology, histology, and histochemistry of fruit tree
diseases. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. 330 pp.
Bonn, W. G., ed. 1996. Seventh international workshop on fireblight, St. Catharines, Ontario,
Canada, 1995. Acta Hortic. No. 411. 431 pp.
Bonn, W. G., and Elfving, D. C. 1989. Evaluation of flowering crabapples for resistance to fire
blight caused by Erwinia amylovora. Can. J. Plant Pathol. 11:57–59.
Cadic, A., Paulin, J. P., and Belin, J. 1990. New Pyracantha resistant to scab (Spilocaea
pyracanthae (Otth.) Rostrup) and to fire blight (Erwinia amylovora (Burr.) Winsl. et al.).
Acta Hortic. No. 273:303–306.
Davis, S. H., and Peterson, J. L. 1976. Susceptibility of cotoneasters to fire blight. J. Arboric.
2:90–91.
Decourtye, L., and Cadic, A. 1993. Breeding high quality Pyracantha. C. R. Acad. Agric. France
79:67–75.
Gaudriault, S., Paulin, J. P., and Barny, M. A. 2002. The DspB/F protein of Erwinia amylovora
is a type III secretion chaperone ensuring efficient intrabacterial production of the Hrpsecreted DspA/E pathogenicity factor. Mol. Plant Pathol. 3:313–320.
231
Jock, S., Donat, V., Lopez, M. M., Bazzi, C., and Geider, K. 2002. Following spread of fire
blight in western, central and southern Europe by molecular differentiation of Erwinia
amylovora strains with PFGE analysis. Environ. Microbiol. 4:106–114.
Kim, J. F., and Beer, S. V. 2001. Molecular basis of the Hrp pathogenicity of the fire blight
pathogen Erwinia amylovora: a type III protein secretion system encoded in a pathogenicity
island. Plant Pathol. J. 17:77–82.
Kim, W., Gardan, L., Rhim, S., and Geider, K. 1999. Erwinia pyrifoliae sp. nov., a novel
pathogen that affects Asian pear trees (Pyrus pyrifolia Nakai). Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 49:899–
906.
Kim, W., Hildebrand, M., Jock, S., and Geider, K. 2001. Molecular comparison of pathogenic
bacteria from pear trees in Japan and the fire blight pathogen Erwinia amylovora.
Microbiology 147:2951–2959.
Kim, W. S., Jock, S., Paulin, J.-P., Rhim, S.-L., and Geider, K. 2001. Molecular detection and
differentiation of Erwinia pyrifoliae and host range analysis of the Asian pear pathogen.
Plant Dis. 85:1183–1188.
McManus, P. S., and Jones, A. L. 1994. Role of wind-driven rain, aerosols, and contaminated
budwood in incidence and spatial pattern of fire blight in an apple nursery. Plant Dis.
78:1059–1066.
Momol, M. T., Momol, E. A., Lamboy, W. F., Norelli, J. L., Beer, S. V., and Aldwinckle, H. S.
1997. Characterization of Erwinia amylovora strains using random amplified polymorphic
DNA fragments (RAPDs). J. Appl. Microbiol. 82:389–398.
Momol, M. T., Norelli, J. L., Piccioni, D. E., Momol, E. A., Gustafson, H. L., Cummins, J. N.,
and Aldwinckle, H. S. 1998. Internal movement of Erwinia amylovora through symptomless
apple scion tissues into the rootstock. Plant Dis. 82:646–650.
Nichols, L. P. 1985. Disease resistant crabapples (results of 1984 survey). Penn. State Univ.
Plant Pathol. Contrib. 1502. 7 pp.
Norelli, J. L., Aldwinckle, H. S., and Beer, S. V. 1986. Differential susceptibility of Malus spp.
cultivars Robusta 5, Novole, and Ottawa 523 to Erwinia amylovora. Plant Dis. 70:1017–
1019.
Persiel, F., and Zeller, W. 1990. Breeding upright growing types of Cotoneaster for resistance to
fire blight, Erwinia amylovora (Burr.) Winslow et al. Acta Hortic. No. 273:297–301.
Schouten, H. J. 1991. Simulation of pressure caused by multiplication and swelling of Erwinia
amylovora in intercellular space of host tissue. Neth. J. Plant Pathol. 97:139–149.
Seidel, M., Steffen, E., Seidel, D., and Walter, A. 1994. Survival of Erwinia amylovora (Burrill)
Winslow et al. on bird feet. Arch. Phytopathol. Plant Prot. 29:25–27.
Suleman, P., and Steiner, P. W. 1994. Relationship between sorbitol and solute potential in apple
shoots relative to fire blight symptom development after infection by Erwinia amylovora.
Phytopathology 84:1244–1250.
Vanneste, J. L., ed. 2000. Fire blight: the disease and its causative agent, Erwinia amylovora.
CABI Pub., Wallingford, UK. 370 pp.
Wilson, M., Sigee, D. C., and Epton, H. A. S. 1989, 1990. Erwinia amylovora infection of
hawthorn blossom. I. The anther. II. The stigma. III. The nectary. J. Phytopathol. 127:1–14,
15–28; 128:62–74.
Zwet, T., van der, and Beer, S. V. 1991. Fire blight—its nature, prevention, and control: a
practical guide to integrated disease management. USDA Agric. Inf. Bull. 631. 83 pp.
232
Zwet, T., van der, and Keil, H. L. 1979. Fire blight. A bacterial disease of rosaceous plants.
USDA Agric. Handb. 510. 200 pp.
-----------------Bleeding bacterial cankers, Plate 188, page 377
Carter, J. C. 1975. Diseases of Midwest trees. Univ. Ill. Coll. Agric. Spec. Pub. 35. 168 pp.
Feistner, G., Korth, H., Budzikiewicz, H., and Pulverer, G. 1982. Rubrifacine from Erwinia
rubrifaciens. Curr. Microbiol. 10:169–172.
Gardner, J. M., and Kado, C. I. 1973. Evidence for systemic movement of Erwinia rubrifaciens
in Persian walnuts by the use of double-antibiotic markers. Phytopathology 63:1085–1086.
Hauben, L., Moore, E. R. B., Vauterin, L., Steenackers, M., Mergaert, J., Verdonck, L., and
Swings, J. 1998. Phylogenetic position of phytopathogens within the Enterobacteriaceae.
Syst. Appl. Microbiol. 21:384–397.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Large, J. R. 1944. Alcoholic flux or white slime flux of tung trees. Plant Dis. Rep. 28:35–36.
Morone, C., Janse, J. D., and Scortichini, M. 1998. Bark canker of Persian walnut (Juglans
regia) trees incited by Erwinia nigrifluens in Italy. J. Phytopathol. 146:637–639.
Mosseler, A. J., and Hubbes, M. 1983. Erwinia spp. and a new canker disease of hybrid poplars
in Ontario. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 13:261–278.
Ogawa, J. M., and English, H. 1991. Diseases of temperate zone tree fruit and nut crops. Univ.
Cal. Div. Agric. Nat. Resour. Pub. 3345. 461 pp.
Ogilvie, L. 1924. Observations on the "slime-fluxes" of trees. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 9:167–182.
Saccardi, A., Bonetti, V., Melegatti, A., and Cristanini, M. 1998. Occurrence of Erwinia
nigrifluens on English walnut (Juglans regia) in the Veneto region (Northern Italy). J. Plant
Pathol. 80:63–65.
Schaad, N. W., Heskett, M. G., Gardner, J. M., and Kado, C. I. 1973. Influence of inoculum
dosage, time after wounding, and season on infection of Persian walnut trees by Erwinia
rubrifaciens. Phytopathology 63:327–329.
Schaad, N. W., and Wilson, E. E. 1970. Pathological anatomy of the bacterial phloem canker
disease of Juglans regia. Can. J. Bot. 48:1055–1060.
Schaad, N. W., and Wilson, E. E. 1971. The ecology of Erwinia rubrifaciens and the
development of phloem canker of Persian walnut. Ann. Appl. Biol. 69:125–136.
Teviotdale, B. L., Sibbett, G. S., Fitch, L., and Harper, D. H. 1991. Budwood transmission of
Erwinia rubrifaciens, causal agent of deep bark canker disease of English walnut. Plant Dis.
75:360–363.
Wilson, E. E., Starr, M. P., and Berger, J. A. 1957. Bark canker, a bacterial disease of the Persian
walnut tree. Phytopathology 47:669–673.
Wilson, E. E., Zeitoun, F. M., and Fredrickson, D. L. 1967. Bacterial phloem canker, a new
disease of Persian walnut trees. Phytopathology 57:618–621.
-----------------Bacterial galls of olive, oleander, and ash, Plate 189, page 379
233
Alvarez, F., Rios, J. E. G. de los, Jimenez, P., Rojas, A., Reche, P., and Troya, M. T. 1998.
Phenotypic variability in different strains of Pseudomonas syringae subsp. savastanoi
isolated from different hosts. Eur. J. Plant Pathol. 104:603–609.
Azad, H. R., and Cooksey, D. A. 1995. A semiselective medium for detecting epiphytic and
systemic populations of Pseudomonas savastanoi from oleander. Phytopathology 85:740–
745.
Caponero, A., Contesini, A. M., and Iacobellis, N. S. 1995. Population diversity of Pseudomonas
syringae subsp. savastanoi on olive and oleander. Plant Pathol. 44:848–855.
Hewitt, W. B. 1939. Leaf-scar infection in relation to the olive-knot disease. Hilgardia 12:41–66.
Iacobellis, N. S., Caponero, A., and Evidente, A. 1998. Characterization of Pseudomonas
syringae ssp. savastanoi strains isolated from ash. Plant Pathol. 47:73–83.
Iacobellis, N. S., Sisto, A., Surico, G., Evidente, A., and DiMaio, E. 1994. Pathogenicity of
Pseudomonas syringae subsp. savastanoi mutants defective in phytohormone production. J.
Phytopathol. 140:238–248.
Janse, J. D. 1981–1982. The bacterial disease of ash (Fraxinus excelsior) caused by
Pseudomonas syringae pv. fraxini. I. History, occurrence and symptoms. II. Etiology and
taxonomic considerations. III. Pathogenesis. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 11:306–315, 425–438;
12:218–231.
Janse, J. D. 1991. Pathovar discrimination within Pseudomonas syringae subsp. savastanoi using
whole cell fatty acids and pathogenicity as criteria. Syst. Appl. Microbiol. 14:79–84.
Lavermicocca, P., and Surico, G. 1987. Epiphytic occurrence of Pseudomonas syringae pv.
savastanoi and other bacteria on olive and oleander. Phytopathol. Medit. 26:137–141.
Mugnai, L., Giovannetti, L., Ventura, S., and Surico, G. 1994. The grouping of strains of
Pseudomonas syringae subsp. savastanoi by DNA restriction fingerprinting. J. Phytopathol.
142:209–218.
Ogawa, J. M., and English, H. 1991. Diseases of temperate zone tree fruit and nut crops. Univ.
Cal. Div. Agric. Nat. Resour. Pub. 3345. 461 pp.
Palm, C. J., Gaffney, T., and Kosuge, T. 1989. Cotranscription of genes encoding indoleacetic
acid production in Pseudomonas syringae subsp. savastanoi. J. Bacteriol. 171:1002–1009.
Penyalver, R., Garcia, A., Ferrer, A., Bertolini, E., and Lopez, M. M. 2000. Detection of
Pseudomonas savastanoi pv. savastanoi in olive plants by enrichment and PCR. Appl.
Environ. Microbiol. 66:2673–2677.
Smith, C. O. 1928. Oleander bacteriosis in California. Phytopathology 18:503–518.
Surico, G. 1993. Symptom development in olive and oleander leaves inoculated with
Pseudomonas syringae subsp. savastanoi and scanning electron microscopy of infections.
Petria 3:117–127.
Surico, G., Comai, L., and Kosuge, T. 1984. Pathogenicity of strains of Pseudomonas syringae
pv. savastanoi and their indoleacetic acid-deficient mutants on olive and oleander.
Phytopathology 74:490–493.
Surico, G., Iacobellis, N. S., and Sisto, A. 1985. Studies on the role of indole-3-acetic acid and
cytokinins in the formation of knots on olive and oleander plants by Pseudomonas syringae
pv. savastanoi. Physiol. Plant Pathol. 26:309–320.
Wilson, E. E. 1935. The olive knot disease: its inception, development, and control. Hilgardia
9:233–264.
Wilson, E. E. 1965. Pathological histogenesis in oleander tumors induced by Pseudomonas
savastanoi. Phytopathology 55:1244–1249.
234
Wilson, E. E., and Magie, A. R. 1964. Systemic invasion of the host plant by the tumor-inducing
bacterium Pseudomonas savastanoi. Phytopathology 54:576–579.
-----------------Crown gall, Plate 190, page 381
Anderson, A. R., and Moore, L. W. 1979. Host specificity in the genus Agrobacterium.
Phytopathology 69:320–323.
Beneddra, T., Picard, C., Petit, A., and Nesme, X. 1996. Correlation between susceptibility to
crown gall and sensitivity to cytokinin in aspen cultivars. Phytopathology 86:225–231.
Bouzar, H., Chilton, W. S., Nesme, X., Dessaux, Y., Vaudequin, V., Petit, A., Jones, J. B., and
Hodge, N. C. 1995. A new Agrobacterium strain isolated from aerial tumors on Ficus
benjamina L. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 61:65–73.
Bouzar, H., Jones, J. B., and Hodge, N. C. 1993. Differential characterization of Agrobacterium
species using carbon-source utilization patterns and fatty acid profiles. Phytopathology
83:733–739.
Cleene, M. De , and Ley, J. De. 1976. The host range of crown gall. Bot. Rev. 42:389–466.
Dhanvantari, B. N., Johnson, P. W., and Dirks, V. A. 1975. The role of nematodes in crown gall
infection of peach in southwestern Ontario. Plant Dis. Rep. 59:109–112.
Escobar, M. A., Leslie, C. A., McGranahan, G. H., and Dandekar, A. M. 2002. Silencing crown
gall disease in walnut (Juglans regia L.). Plant Sci. 163:591–597.
Garrett, C. M. E. 1987. The effect of crown gall on growth of cherry trees. Plant Pathol. 36:339–
345.
Moore, L. W. 1976. Latent infections and seasonal variability of crown gall development in
seedlings of three Prunus species. Phytopathology 66:1097–1101.
Moore, L. W., and Allen, J. 1986. Controlled heating of root-pruned dormant Prunus spp.
seedlings before transplanting to prevent crown gall. Plant Dis. 70:532–536.
Moore, L. W., Chilton, W. S., and Canfield, M. L. 1997. Diversity of opines and opinecatabolizing bacteria isolated from naturally occurring crown gall tumors. Appl. Environ.
Microbiol. 63:201–207.
Munnecke, D. E., Chandler, P. A., and Starr, M. P. 1963. Hairy root (Agrobacterium rhizogenes)
of field roses. Phytopathology 53:788–799.
Nester, E. W. 2000. DNA and protein transfer from bacteria to eukaryotes—the Agrobacterium
story. Mol. Plant Pathol. 1:87–90.
Ophel, K., and Kerr, A. 1990. Agrobacterium vitis sp. nov. for strains of Agrobacterium biovar 3
from grapevines. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 40:236–341.
Penyalver, R., Vicedo, B., and Lopez, M. M. 2000. Use of the genetically engineered
Agrobacterium strain K1026 for biological control of crown gall. Eur. J. Plant Pathol.
106:801–810.
Poncet, C., Antonini, C., Bettachini, A., Hericher, D., Pionnat, S., Simonini, L., Dessaux, Y., and
Nesme, X. 1995. Impact of the crown gall disease on vigour and yield of rose trees. Acta
Hortic. No. 424:221–225.
Porter, J. R. 1991. Host range and implications of plant infection by Agrobacterium rhizogenes.
Crit. Rev. Plant Sci. 10:387–421.
Raio, A., Zoina, A., and Moore, L. W. 1997. The effect of solar heating of soil on natural and
inoculated agrobacteria. Plant Pathol. 46:320–328.
235
Ream, W., and Gelvin, S. B., eds. 1996. Crown gall: advances in understanding interkingdom
gene transfer. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 145 pp.
Riker, A. J., Keitt, G. W., Hildebrand, E. M., and Banfield, W. M. 1934. Hairy root, crown gall,
and other malformations at the unions of piece-root-grafted apple trees and their control. J.
Agric. Res. 48:913–939.
Rubio-Cabetas, M. J., Minot, J. C., Voisin, R., and Esmenjaud, D. 2001. Interaction of root-knot
nematodes (RKN) and the bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens in roots of Prunus
cerasifera: evidence of the protective effect of the Ma RKN resistance genes against
expression of crown gall symptoms. Eur. J. Plant Pathol. 107:433–441.
Savka, M. A., Black, R. C., Binns, A. N., and Farrand, S. K. 1996. Translocation and exudation
of tumor metabolites in crown galled plants. Mol. Plant-Microbe Interact. 9:310–313.
Sawada, H., Ieki, H., Oyaizu, H., and Matsumoto, S. 1993. Proposal for rejection of
Agrobacterium tumefaciens and revised descriptions for the genus Agrobacterium and for
Agrobacterium radiobacter and Agrobacterium rhizogenes. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 43:694–
702.
Schaad, N. W., Jones, J. B., and Chun, W., eds. 2001. Laboratory guide for identification of
plant pathogenic bacteria. 3rd ed. APS Press, St. Paul, Minn. 373 pp.
Schroth, M. N., McCain, A. H., Foott, J. H., and Huisman, O. C. 1988. Reduction in yield and
vigor of grapevine caused by crown gall disease. Plant Dis. 72:241–246.
Stafford, H. A. 2000. Crown gall disease and Agrobacterium tumefaciens: a study of the history,
present knowledge, missing information, and impact on molecular genetics. Bot. Rev. 66:99–
118.
Vrain, T. C., and Copeman, R. J. 1987. Interactions between Agrobacterium tumefaciens and
Pratylenchus penetrans in the roots of two red raspberry cultivars. Can. J. Plant Pathol.
9:236–240.
Young, J. M., Takikawa, Y., Gardan, L., and Stead, D. E. 1992. Changing concepts in the
taxonomy of plant pathogenic bacteria. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 30:67–105.
Zhu, J., Oger, P. M., Schrammeijer, B., Hooykaas, P. J. J., Farrand, S. K., and Winans, S. C.
2000. The bases of crown gall tumorigenesis. J. Bacteriol. 182:3885–3895.
Zoina, A., Raio, A., Peluso, R., and Spasiano, A. 2001. Characterization of agrobacteria from
weeping fig (Ficus benjamina). Plant Pathol. 50:620–627.
-----------------Wetwood, slime flux, and alcoholic flux, Plate 191, page 383
Brill, H., Bock, E., and Bauch, J. 1981. The significance of microorganisms in the wood of Abies
alba with regard to silver fir dieback. Forstwiss. Centralbl. 100:195–206.
Carter, J. C. 1945. Wetwood of elms. Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bull. 23:401–448.
Carter, J. C. 1975. Diseases of Midwest trees. Univ. Ill. Coll. Agric. Spec. Pub. 35. 168 pp.
Coleman, J. S., Murdoch, C. W., Campana, R. J., and Smith, W. H. 1985. Decay resistance of
elm wetwood. Can. J. Plant Pathol. 7:151–154.
Coutts, M. P., and Rishbeth, J. 1977. The formation of wetwood in grand fir. Eur. J. For. Pathol.
7:13–22.
Hartley, C., Davidson, R. W., and Crandall, B. S. 1961. Wetwood, bacteria, and increased pH in
trees. USDA For. Serv. For. Prod. Lab. Rep. 2215. 34 pp.
Kamp, B. J. van der, Gokhale, A. A., and Smith, R. S. 1979. Decay resistance owing to nearanaerobic conditions in black cottonwood wetwood. Can. J. For. Res. 9:39–44.
236
Lachance, M.-A., Metcalf, B. J., and Starmer, W. T. 1982. Yeasts from exudates of Quercus,
Ulmus, Populus, and Pseudotsuga: new isolations and elucidation of some factors affecting
ecological specificity. Microb. Ecol. 8:191–198.
Large, J. R. 1944. Alcoholic flux or white slime flux of tung trees. Plant Dis. Rep. 28:35–36.
Murdoch, C. W., Biermann, C. J., and Campana, R. J. 1983. Pressure and composition of
intrastem gases produced in wetwood of American elm. Plant Dis. 67:74–76.
Murdoch, C. W., and Campana, R. J. 1983. Bacterial species associated with wetwood of elm.
Phytopathology 73:1270–1273.
Murdoch, C. W., Campana, R. J., and Biermann, C. J. 1987. Physical and chemical properties of
wetwood in American elm (Ulmus americana). Can. J. Plant Pathol. 9:20–23
Naumov, G. I., Naumova, E. S., and Sniegowski, P. D. 1998. Saccharomyces paradoxus and
Saccharomyces cerevisiae are associated with exudates of North American oaks. Can. J.
Microbiol. 44:1045–1050.
Ogilvie, L. 1924. Observations on the "slime-fluxes" of trees. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 9:167–182.
Sachs, I. B., Ward, J. C., and Kinney, R. E. 1975. Scanning electron microscopy of bacterial
wetwood and normal heartwood in poplar trees. Pages 453–459 in: Scanning electron
microscopy/1974. O. Johari and I. Corvin, eds. IIT Res. Inst., Chicago.
Sakamoto, Y., and Kato, A. 2002. Some properties of the bacterial wetwood (watermark) in
Salix sachalinensis caused by Erwinia salicis. IAWA J. 23:179–190.
Schink, B., Ward, J. C., and Zeikus, J. G. 1981. Microbiology of wetwood: importance of pectin
degradation and Clostridium species in living trees. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 42:526–532.
Schink, B., Ward, J. C., and Zeikus, J. G. 1981. Microbiology of wetwood: role of anaerobic
bacterial populations in living trees. J. Gen. Microbiol. 123:313–322.
Scott, E. S. 1984. Populations of bacteria in poplar stems. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 14:103–112.
Seliskar, C. E. 1950. Some investigations on the wetwood diseases of American elm and
Lombardy poplar. Ph.D. diss., Cornell Univ., Ithaca, NY. 148 pp.
Walter, M. 1993. The pH value and the occurrence of low molecular weight fatty acids in
wetwood of beech (Fagus sylvatica L.). Eur. J. For. Pathol. 23:1–10.
Ward, J. C. 1986. The effect of wetwood on lumber drying times and rates: an exploratory
evaluation with longitudinal gas permeability. Wood Fiber Sci. 18:288–307.
Ward, J. C., and Pong, W. Y. 1980. Wetwood in trees: a timber resource problem. USDA For.
Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-112. 56 pp.
Worrall, J. J., and Parmeter, J. R. Jr. 1982. Formation and properties of wetwood in white fir.
Phytopathology 72:1209–1212.
Worrall, J. J., and Parmeter, J. R. Jr. 1983. Inhibition of wood-decay fungi by wetwood of white
fir. Phytopathology 73:1140–1145.
Xu, Z., Leininger, T. D., Lee, A. W. C., and Tainter, F. H. 2001. Chemical properties associated
with bacterial wetwood in red oaks. Wood Fiber Sci. 33:76–83.
Xu, Z., Leininger, T. D., Lee, A. W. C., and Tainter, F. H. 2001. Physical, mechanical, and
drying properties associated with bacterial wetwood in red oaks. For. Prod. J. 51:79–84.
Zeikus, J. G., and Ward, J. C. 1974. Methane formation in living trees: a microbial origin.
Science 184:1181–1183.
-----------------Bacterial scorch diseases, Plates 192–193, pages 385–387
Overview and Pierce's disease of grapevine
237
Aldrich, J. H., Gould, A. B., and Martin, F. G. 1992. Distribution of Xylella fastidiosa within
roots of peach. Plant Dis. 76:885–888.
Berisha, B., Chen, Y. D., Zhang, G. Y., Xu, B. Y., and Chen, T. A. 1998. Isolation of Pierce's
disease bacteria from grapevines in Europe. Eur. J. Plant Pathol. 104:427–433.
Chen, J., Jarret, R. L., Qin, X., Hartung, J. S., Banks, D., Chang, C. J., and Hopkins, D. L. 2000.
16S rDNA sequence analysis of Xylella fastidiosa strains. Syst. Appl. Microbiol. 23:349–
354.
Chen, J., Lamikanra, O., Chang, C. J., and Hopkins, D. L. 1995. Randomly amplified
polymorphic DNA analysis of Xylella fastidiosa Pierce's disease and oak leaf scorch
pathotypes. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 61:1688–1690.
Ferreira, H., Gonçalves, E. R., Rodrigues, N. J., and Rosato, Y. B. 2000. Primers specific for
Xylella fastidiosa based on RAPD differential fragments. Summa Phytopathol. 26:15–20.
Freitag, J. H. 1951. Host range of the Pierce's disease virus of grapes as determined by insect
transmission. Phytopathology 41:920–934.
Goodwin, P. H., DeVay, J. E., and Meredith, C. P. 1988. Roles of water stress and phytotoxins in
the development of Pierce's disease of the grapevine. Physiol. Mol. Plant Pathol. 32:1–15.
He, C. X., Li, W. B., Ayres, A. J., Hartung, J. S., Miranda, V. S., and Teixeira, D. C. 2000.
Distribution of Xylella fastidiosa in citrus rootstocks and transmission of citrus variegated
chlorosis between sweet orange plants through natural root grafts. Plant Dis. 84:622–626.
Hendson, M., Purcell, A. H., Chen, D. Q., Smart, C., Guilhabert, M., and Kirkpatrick, B. 2001.
Genetic diversity of Pierce's disease strains and other pathotypes of Xylella fastidiosa. Appl.
Environ. Microbiol. 67:895–903.
Hill, B. L., and Purcell, A. H. 1995. Acquisition and retention of Xylella fastidiosa by an
efficient vector, Graphocephala atropunctata. Phytopathology 85:209–212.
Hill, B. L., and Purcell, A. H. 1997. Populations of Xylella fastidiosa in plants required for
transmission by an efficient vector. Phytopathology 87:1197–1201.
Hopkins, D. L. 1989. Xylella fastidiosa: xylem-limited bacterial pathogen of plants. Annu. Rev.
Phytopathol. 27:271–290.
Hopkins, D. L., and Purcell, A. H. 2002. Xylella fastidiosa: cause of Pierce's disease of
grapevine and other emergent diseases. Plant Dis. 86:1056–1066.
Hopkins, D. L., Thompson, C. M., Wichman, R. L., Bistline, F. W., and Russo, L. W. 1995.
Effect of inoculation of mature citrus trees in the grove with Xylella fastidiosa on citrus
blight incidence. Proc. Fla. State Hortic. Soc. 108:103–106.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
Leite, B., Ishida, M. L., Alves, E., Carrer, H., Pascholati, S. F., and Kitajima, E. W. 2002.
Genomics and X-ray microanalysis indicate that Ca2+ and thiols mediate the aggregation and
adhesion of Xylella fastidiosa. Brazil. J. Med. Biol. Res. 35:645–650.
Li, W. B., Pria, W. D. Jr., Teixeira, D. C., Miranda, V. S., Ayres, A. J., Franco, C. F., Costa, M.
G., He, C. X., Costa, P. I., and Hartung, J. S. 2001. Coffee leaf scorch caused by a strain of
Xylella fastidiosa from citrus. Plant Dis. 85:501–505.
Li, W. B., Zreik, L., Fernandes, N. G., Miranda, V. S., Teixeira, D. C., Ayres, A. J., Garnier, M.,
and Bové, J. M. 1999. A triply cloned strain of Xylella fastidiosa multiplies and induces
symptoms of citrus variegated chlorosis in sweet orange. Curr. Microbiol. 39:106–108.
238
Marques, L. L. R., Ceri, H., Manfio, G. P., Reid, D. M., and Olson, M. E. 2002. Characterization
of biofilm formation by Xylella fastidiosa in vitro. Plant Dis. 86:633–638.
Mehta, A., and Rosato, Y. B. 2001. Phylogenetic relationships of Xylella fastidiosa strains from
different hosts, based on 16S rDNA and 16S–23S intergenic spacer sequences. Int. J. Syst.
Evol. Microbiol. 51:311–318.
Mollenhauer, H. H., and Hopkins, D. L. 1976. Xylem morphology of Pierce's disease–infected
grapevines with different levels of tolerance. Physiol. Plant Pathol. 9:95–100.
Purcell, A. H. 1990. Homopteran transmission of xylem-inhabiting bacteria. Adv. Dis. Vector
Res. 6:243–266.
Purcell, A. H. 1997. Xylella fastidiosa, a regional problem or global threat? J. Plant Pathol.
79:99–105.
Purcell, A. H., and Hopkins, D. L. 1996. Fastidious xylem-limited bacterial plant pathogens.
Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 34:131–151.
Schaad, N. W., Jones, J. B., and Chun, W., eds., 2001. Laboratory guide for identification of
plant pathogenic bacteria. 3rd ed. APS Press, St. Paul, Minn. 373 pp.
Schaad, N. W., Opgenorth, D., and Gaush, P. 2002. Real-time polymerase chain reaction for onehour on-site diagnosis of Pierce's disease of grape in early season asymptomatic vines.
Phytopathology 92:721–728.
Simpson, A. J. G., Reinach, F. C., and 117 authors). 2000. The genome sequence of the plant
pathogen Xylella fastidiosa. Nature 406:151–157.
Silva, F. R. da, Vettore, A. L., Kemper, E. L., Leite, A., and Arruda, P. 2001. Fastidian gum: the
Xylella fastidiosa exopolysaccharide possibly involved in bacterial pathogenicity. FEMS
Microbiol. Lett. 203:165–171.
Wells, J. M., Raju, B. C., Hung, H. Y., Weisburg, W. G., Mandelco, P. L., and Brenner, D. J.
1987. Xylella fastidiosa gen. nov., sp. nov.: Gram-negative, xylem-limited, fastidious plant
bacteria related to Xanthomonas spp. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 37:136–143.
Winkler, A. J., ed. 1949. Pierce's disease investigations. Hilgardia 19:207–264.
Wulff, N. A. 2001. Plant cell wall degrading enzymes produced by plant pathogenic bacteria:
diversity and importance in pathogenesis. Summa Phytopathol. 27:168–169.
-----------------Bacterial scorch of orchard and landscape trees and shrubs
Ash, C. L., ed. 2001. Shade tree wilt diseases. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 257 pp.
Barnard, E. L., Ash, E. C., Hopkins, D. L., and McGovern, R. J. 1998. Distribution of Xylella
fastidiosa in oaks in Florida and its association with growth decline in Quercus laevis. Plant
Dis. 82:569–572.
Blua, M. J., Redak, R. A., Morgan, D. J. W., and Costa, H. S. 2001. Seasonal flight activity of
two Homalodisca species (Homoptera: Cicadellidae) that spread Xylella fastidiosa in
southern California. J. Econ. Entomol. 94:1506–1510.
Chen, J., Jarret, R. L., Qin, X., Hartung, J. S., Banks, D., Chang, C. J., and Hopkins, D. L. 2000.
16S rDNA sequence analysis of Xylella fastidiosa strains. Syst. Appl. Microbiol. 23:349–
354.
Costa, H. S., Blua, M. S., Bethke, J. A., and Redak, R. A. 2000. Transmission of Xylella
fastidiosa to oleander by the glassywinged sharpshooter, Homalodisca coagulata.
HortScience 35:1265–1267.
239
Davis, M. J., Thomson, S. V., and Purcell, A. H. 1980. Etiological role of the xylem-limited
bacterium causing Pierce's disease in almond leaf scorch. Phytopathology 70:472–475.
Goodwin, P. H., and Zhang, S. 1997. Distribution of Xylella fastidiosa in southern Ontario as
determined by the polymerase chain reaction. Can. J. Plant Pathol. 19:13–18.
Hartman, J. R., Eshenaur, B. C., and Jarlfors, U. E. 1995. Bacterial leaf scorch caused by Xylella
fastidiosa: a Kentucky survey; a unique pathogen; and bur oak, a new host. J. Arboric.
21:77–82.
Hartman, J. R., Jarlfors, U. E., Fountain, W. M., and Thomas, R. 1996. First report of bacterial
leaf scorch caused by Xylella fastidiosa on sugar maple and sweetgum. Plant Dis. 80:1302.
Hearon, S. S., Sherald, J. L., and Kostka, S. J. 1980. Association of xylem-limited bacteria with
elm, sycamore, and oak leaf scorch. Can. J. Bot. 58:1986–1993.
Hopkins, D. L., and Purcell, A. H. 2002. Xylella fastidiosa: cause of Pierce's disease of
grapevine and other emergent diseases. Plant Dis. 86:1056–1066.
Hopkins, D. L., Thompson, C. M., Wichman, R. L., Bistline, F. W., and Russo, L. W. 1995.
Effect of inoculation of mature citrus trees in the grove with Xylella fastidiosa on citrus
blight incidence. Proc. Fla. State Hortic. Soc. 108:103–106.
Kostka, S. J., Tattar, T. A., and Sherald, J. L. 1986. Elm leaf scorch: abnormal physiology in
American elms infected with fastidious, xylem-inhabiting bacteria. Can. J. For. Res.
16:1088–1091.
Kostka, S. J., Tattar, T. A., Sherald, J. L., and Hurtt, S. S. 1986. Mulberry leaf scorch, new
disease caused by a fastidious, xylem-inhabiting bacterium. Plant Dis. 70:690–693.
McElrone, A. J., Sherald, J. L., and Forseth, I. N. 2001. Effects of water stress on
symptomatology and growth of Parthenocissus quinquefolia infected by Xylella fastidiosa.
Plant Dis. 85:1160–1164.
McElrone, A. J., Sherald, J. L., and Pooler, M. R. 1999. Identification of alternative hosts of
Xylella fastidiosa in the Washington, D.C., area using nested polymerase chain reaction
(PCR). J. Arboric. 25:258–263.
Mircetich, S. M., Lowe, S. K., Moller, W. J., and Nyland, G. 1976. Etiology of almond leaf
scorch disease and transmission of the causal agent. Phytopathology 66:17–24.
Purcell, A. H. 1980. Almond leaf scorch: leafhopper and spittlebug vectors. J. Econ. Entomol.
73:834–838.
Purcell, A. H., and Saunders, S. R. 1999. Fate of Pierce's disease strains of Xylella fastidiosa in
common riparian plants in California. Plant Dis. 83:825–830.
Purcell, A. H., Saunders, S. R., Hendson, M., Grebus, M. E., and Henry, M. J. 1999. Causal role
of Xylella fastidiosa in oleander leaf scorch disease. Phytopathology 89:53–58.
Sanderlin, R. S., and Heyderich, A. K. I. 2000. Evidence that Xylella fastidiosa can cause leaf
scorch disease of pecan. Plant Dis. 84:1282–1286.
Schaad, N. W., Opgenorth, D., and Gaush, P. 2002. Real-time polymerase chain reaction for onehour on-site diagnosis of Pierce's disease of grape in early season asymptomatic vines.
Phytopathology 92:721–728.
Sherald, J. L. 1993. Pathogenicity of Xylella fastidiosa in American elm and failure of reciprocal
transmission between strains from elm and sycamore. Plant Dis. 77:190–193.
Sherald, J. L., Hearon, S. S., Kostka, S. J., and Morgan, D. L. 1983. Sycamore leaf scorch:
culture and pathogenicity of fastidious xylem-limited bacteria from scorch-affected trees.
Plant Dis. 67:848–852.
240
Sherald, J. L., and Kostka, S. J. 1992. Bacterial leaf scorch of landscape trees caused by Xylella
fastidiosa. J. Arboric. 18:57–63.
Sherald, J. L., and Lei, J. D. 1991. Evaluation of a rapid ELISA test kit for detection of Xylella
fastidiosa in landscape trees. Plant Dis. 75:200–203.
Sherald, J. L., Patton, E. N., Stidham, T. M., and Favre, C. L. 1994. Incidence and development
of bacterial leaf scorch of elm on the National Mall. J. Arboric. 20:18–23.
Sherald, J. L., Wells, J. M., Hurtt, S. S., and Kostka, S. J. 1987. Association of fastidious, xyleminhabiting bacteria with leaf scorch in red maple. Plant Dis. 71:930–933.
Wester, H. V., and Jylkka, E. W. 1959. Elm scorch, graft transmissible virus of American elm.
Plant Dis. Rep. 43:519.
Wester, H. V., and Jylkka, E. W. 1963. High incidence of Dutch elm disease in American elms
weakened by elm scorch associated with breeding attacks of Scolytus multistriatus. Plant Dis.
Rep. 47:545–547.
Wichman, R. L., and Hopkins, D. L. 2002. Differentiation of pathogenic groups of Xylella
fastidiosa strains with whole-cell protein profiles. Plant Dis. 86:875–879.
Wichman, R. L., Hopkins, D. L., and Wichman, T. A. 2000. First report of oleander leaf scorch
caused by Xylella fastidiosa in Florida. Plant Dis. 84:198.
-----------------Diseases caused by mollicutes, Plates 194–195, pages 389–391
Overview
Alma, A., Bosco, D., Danielli, A., Bertaccini, A., Vibio, M., and Arzone, A. 1997. Identification
of phytoplasmas in eggs, nymphs and adults of Scaphoideus titanus Ball reared on healthy
plants. Insect Mol. Biol. 6:115–121.
Beanland, L., Hoy, C. W., Miller, S. A., and Nault, L. R. 2000. Influence of aster yellows
phytoplasma on the fitness of aster leafhopper (Homoptera: Cicadellidae). Ann. Entomol.
Soc. Am. 93:271–276.
Berges, R., Rott, M., and Seemüller, E. 2000. Range of phytoplasma concentrations in various
plant hosts as determined by competitive polymerase chain reaction. Phytopathology
90:1145–1152.
Bové, J. M., and Garnier, M. 1998. Walled and wall-less eubacteria from plants: sieve-tuberestricted plant pathogens. Plant Cell Tissue Organ Cult. 52:7–16.
Cordova, I., Jones, P., Harrison N. A., and Oropeza, C. 2003. In situ PCR detection of
phytoplasma DNA in embryos from coconut palms with lethal yellowing disease. Mol. Plant
Pathol. 4:99–108.
Davis, R. E., and Sinclair, W. A. 1998. Phytoplasma identity and disease etiology.
Phytopathology 88:1372–1376.
Doi, Y., Teranaka, M., Yora, K., and Asuyama, H. 1967. Mycoplasma- or PLT group-like
microorganisms found in phloem elements of plants infected with mulberry dwarf, potato
witches' broom, aster yellows, or paulownia witches' broom. Ann. Phytopathol. Soc. Jap.
33:259–266.
Firrao, G., Andersen, M., Bertaccini, A., and 23 authors). 2004, 'Candidatus Phytoplasma', a
taxon for the wall-less, non-helical prokaryotes that colonize plant phloem and insects. Int. J.
Syst. Evol. Microbiol. 54:1243–1255.
Gundersen, D. E., and Lee, I. M. 1996. Ultrasensitive detection of phytoplasmas by nested-PCR
assays using two universal primer pairs. Phytopathol. Medit. 35:144–151.
241
Green, M. J., Thompson, D. A., and MacKenzie, D. J. 1999. Easy and efficient DNA extraction
from woody plants for the detection of phytoplasmas by polymerase chain reaction. Plant
Dis. 83:482–485.
Gundersen, D. E., and Lee, I.-M. 1996. Ultrasensitive detection of phytoplasmas by nested-PCR
assays using two universal primer pairs. Phytopathol. Medit. 35:144–151.
Gundersen, D. E., Lee, I.-M., Rehner, S. A., Davis, R. E., and Kingsbury, D. T. 1994. Phylogeny
of mycoplasmalike organisms (phytoplasmas): a basis for their classification. J. Bacteriol.
176:5244–5254.
Hiruki, C. 1999. Phytoplasma diseases of forest and urban trees and shrubs in Canada and East
Asia. Pages 39–52 in: Biotechnology and plant protection in forestry science. S. P.
Raychaudhuri and K. Maramorosch, eds. Science Pub., Enfield, NH.
Hiruki, C., ed. 1988. Tree mycoplasma diseases and epidemiology. Univ. Alberta Press,
Edmonton. 245 pp.
International Organization for Mycoplasmology, International Research Programme on
Comparative Mycoplasmology (IRPCM), Phytoplasma Working Team of the IRPCM. 1999.
Proceedings, first internet conference on phytopathogenic mollicutes, 1999. Internet pub.
Jagoueix, E. S., Tarendeau, F., Guolter, K., Danet, J. L., Bové, J. M., and Garnier, M. 2001.
Catharanthus roseus genes regulated differentially by mollicute infections. Mol. PlantMicrobe Interact. 14:225–233.
Jarausch, W., Eyquard, J. P., Mazy, K., Lansac, M., and Dosba, F. 1999. High level of resistance
of sweet cherry (Prunus avium L.) towards European stone fruit yellows phytoplasmas. Adv.
Hortic. Sci. 13:108–112.
Jarausch, W., Lansac, M., and Dosba, F. 1999. Seasonal colonization pattern of European stone
fruit yellows phytoplasmas in different Prunus species detected by specific PCR. J.
Phytopathol. 147:47–54.
Jung, H., Sawayanagi, T., Kakizawa, S., Nishigawa, H., Miyata, S. I., Oshima, K., Ugaki, M.,
Lee, J., Hibi, T., and Namba, S. 2002. 'Candidatus Phytoplasma castaneae,' a novel
phytoplasma taxon associated with chestnut witches' broom disease. Int. J. Syst. Evol.
Microbiol. 52:1543–1549.
Kartte, S., and Seemüller, E. 1991. Histopathology of apple proliferation in Malus taxa and
hybrids of different susceptibility. J. Phytopathol. 131:149–160.
Kawakita, H., Saiki, T., Wei, W., Mitsuhashi, W., Watanabe, K., and Sato, M. 2000.
Identification of mulberry dwarf phytoplasmas in the genital organs and eggs of leafhopper
Hishimonoides sellatiformis. Phytopathology 90:909–914.
Kirkpatrick, B. C. 1997. Phytoplasmas: the evolution of a molecular taxonomic genus.
Nachrichtenbl. Deut. Pflanzenschutzd. 49:126–130.
Kison, H., and Seemüller, E. 2001. Differences in strain virulence of the European stone fruit
yellows phytoplasma and susceptibility of stone fruit trees on various rootstocks to this
pathogen. J. Phytopathol. 149:533–541.
Lee, I.-M., Bertaccini, A., Vibio, M., and Gundersen, D. E. 1995. Detection of multiple
phytoplasmas in perennial fruit trees with decline symptoms in Italy. Phytopathology
85:728–735.
Lee, I.-M., Davis, R. E., and Gundersen-Rindal, D. E. 2000. Phytoplasma: phytopathogenic
mollicutes. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 54:221–255.
Lee, I.-M., Gundersen-Rindal, D. E., and Bertaccini, A. 1998. Phytoplasma: ecology and
genomic diversity. Phytopathology 88:1359–1366.
242
Lee, I.-M., Gundersen-Rindal, D. E., Davis, R. E., and Bartoszyk, I. M. 1998. Revised
classification scheme of phytoplasmas based on RFLP analyses of 16S rRNA and ribosomal
protein gene sequences. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 48:1153–1169.
Lefol, C., Lherminier, J., Noudon, P. E., Larrue, J., Louis, C., and Caudwell, A. 1994.
Propagation of flavescence dorée MLO (mycoplasma-like organisms) in the leafhopper
vector Euscelidius variegatus Kbm. J. Invert. Pathol. 63:285–293.
Lepka, P., Stitt, M., Moll, E., and Seemüller, E. 1999. Effect of phytoplasmal infection on
concentration and translocation of carbohydrates and amino acids in periwinkle and tobacco.
Physiol. Mol. Plant Pathol. 55:59–68.
Maramorosch, K., and Raychaudhuri, S. P., eds. 1981. Mycoplasma diseases of trees and shrubs.
Academic Press, New York. 362 pp.
Marcone, C., Neimark, H., Ragozzino, A., Lauer, U., and Seemüller, E. 1999. Chromosome sizes
of phytoplasmas composing major phylogenetic groups and subgroups. Phytopathology
89:805–810.
Montano H. G., Davis, R. E., Dally, E. L., Hogenhout, S., Pimentel, J., and Brioso, P. S. T. 2001.
‘Candidatus Phytoplasma brasiliense’, a new phytoplasma taxon associated with hibiscus
witches’ broom disease. Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. 51:1109–1118
Murray, R. G. E., and Stackebrandt, E. 1995. Taxonomic note: implementation of the provisional
status Candidatus for incompletely described procaryotes. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 45:186–187.
Nault, L. R., and Rodriguez, J. G., eds. 1985. The leafhoppers and planthoppers. Wiley, New
York. 500 pp.
Nielsen, M. W. 1979. Taxonomic relationships of leafhopper vectors of plant pathogens. Pages
3–27 in: Leafhopper vectors and plant disease agents. K. Maramorosch and K. L. Harris, eds.
Academic Press, New York.
Purcell, A. H., and Nault, L. R. 1991. Interactions among plant pathogenic prokaryotes, plants,
and insect vectors. Pages 383–405 in: Microbial mediation of plant-herbivore interactions. P.
Barbosa, V. A. Krischik, and C. G. Jones, eds. Wiley, New York.
Raychaudhuri, S. P. and Maramorosch, K. eds. 1996. Forest trees and palms: diseases and
control. Science Pub., Lebanon, NH. 334 pp.
Seemüller, E., Marcone, C., Lauer, U., Ragozzino, A. and Göschl, M. 1998. Current status of
molecular classification of the phytoplasmas. J. Plant Pathol. 80:3–26.195
Smart, C. D., Schneider, B., Blomquist, C. L., Guerra, L. J., Harrison, N. A., Ahrens, U., Lorenz,
K. H., Seemüller, E., and Kirkpatrick, B. C. 1996. Phytoplasma-specific PCR primers based
on sequences of the 16S–23S rRNA spacer region. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 62:2988–2993.
Tan, P., and Whitlow, T. 2001. Physiological responses of Catharanthus roseus (periwinkle) to
ash yellows phytoplasmal infection. New Phytol. 150:757–769.
Whitcomb, R. F., and Tully, J. G., eds. 1979. The mycoplasmas. Vol. III. Plant and insect
mycoplasmas. Academic Press, New York. 351 pp.
Whitcomb, R. F., and Tully, J. G., eds. 1989. The mycoplasmas. Vol. 5. Spiroplasmas,
acholeplasmas, and mycoplasmas of plants and arthropods. Academic Press, San Diego. 653
pp.
-----------------Pear decline and Prunus yellow leafroll
243
Blomquist, C. L., and Kirkpatrick, B. C. 2002. Frequency and seasonal distribution of pear psylla
infected with the pear decline phytoplasma in California pear orchards. Phytopathology
92:1218–1226.
Blomquist, C. L., and Kirkpatrick, B. C. 2002. Identification of phytoplasma taxa and insect
vectors of peach yellow leaf roll disease in California. Plant Dis. 86:759–763.
Carraro, L., Loi, N., and Ermacora, P. 2001. The 'life cycle' of pear decline phytoplasma in the
vector Cacopsylla pyri. J. Plant Pathol. 83:87–90.
Kison, H., Kirkpatrick, B. C., and Seemüller, E. 1997. Genetic comparison of the peach yellow
leaf roll agent with European fruit tree phytoplasmas of the apple proliferation group. Plant
Pathol. 46:538–544.
Nichols, C. W., Schneider, H., O'Reilly, H. J., Shalla, T. A., and Griggs, W. H. 1960. Pear
decline in California. Cal. Dep. Agric. Bull. 49:186–192.
Ogawa, J. M., and English, H. 1991. Diseases of temperate zone tree fruit and nut crops. Univ.
Cal. Div. Agric. Nat. Resour. Pub. 3345. 461 pp.
Schaper, U., and Seemüller, E. 1982. Condition of the phloem and the persistence of
mycoplasmalike organisms associated with apple proliferation and pear decline.
Phytopathology 72:736–742.
Seemüller, E. 1992. Pear decline. Pages 308–334 in: Plant diseases of international importance,
Vol. III, Diseases of fruit crops. J. Kumar, H. S. Chaube, V. S. Singh, and A. N.
Mukhopadhyay, eds. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Seemüller, E., Lorenz, K. H., and Lauer, U. 1998. Pear decline resistance in Pyrus communis
rootstocks and progenies of wild and ornamental Pyrus taxa. Acta Hortic. No. 472:681–691.
Seemüller, E., Schaper, U., and Zimbelmann, F. 1984. Seasonal variation in the colonization
patterns of mycoplasmalike organisms associated with apple proliferation and pear decline.
Z. Pflanzenkr. Pflanzenschutz 91:371–382.
Seemüller, E., and Schneider, B. 2004. 'Candidatus Phytoplasma mali', 'Candidatus Phytoplasma
pyri' and 'Candidatus Phytoplasma prunorum,' the causal agents of apple proliferation, pear
decline and European stone fruit yellows, respectively. Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol.
54:1217–1226.
Westwood, M. N., and Cameron, H. R. 1978. Environment-induced remission of pear decline
symptoms. Plant Dis. Rep. 62:176–179.
-----------------Diseases caused by mollicutes, continued, Plate 196, page 393
Stubborn disease of citrus
Daniels, M. J. 1983. Mechanisms of spiroplasma pathogenicity. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 21:29–
43.
Golino, D. A., and Oldfield, G. N. 1990. Plant pathogenic spiroplasmas and their leafhopper
vectors. Adv. Dis. Vector Res. 6:267–299.
Gumpf, D. J. 1988. Stubborn diseases of citrus caused by Spiroplasma citri. Pages 327–342 in:
Mycoplasma diseases of crops: basic and applied aspects. K. Maramorosch and S. P.
Raychaudhuri, eds. Springer-Verlag, New York.
International Mycological Institute. 1964–present. IMI descriptions of fungi and bacteria.
[Formerly C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1–1010, and C.M.I.
descriptions of fungi and bacteria, Nos. 1011–1030.] Int. Mycol. Inst., Kew, Surrey, UK.
244
Kwon, M., Wayadande, A. C., and Fletcher, J. 1999. Spiroplasma citri movement into the
intestines and salivary glands of its leafhopper vector, Circulifer tenellus. Phytopathology
89:1144–1151.
Liu, H.-Y., Gumpf, D. J., Oldfield, G. N., and Calavan, E. C. 1983. Transmission of Spiroplasma
citri by Circulifer tenellus. Phytopathology 73:582–585.
Maramorosch, K., and Raychaudhuri, S. P. eds. 1988. Mycoplasma diseases of crops: basic and
applied aspects. Springer-Verlag, New York. 456 pp.
Melcher, U., and Fletcher, J. 1999. Genetic variation in Spiroplasma citri. Eur. J. Plant Pathol.
105:519–533.
Oldfield, G. N. 1988. Ecological associations of Spiroplasma citri with insects, plants and other
plant mycoplasmas in the western United States. Pages 175-191 in: Mycoplasma diseases of
crops: basic and applied aspects. K. Maramorosch and S. P. Raychaudhuri, eds. SpringerVerlag, New York.
-----------------Bunch diseases of walnut, butternut, pecan and other hickories
Chen, J., Chang, C. J., and Jarret, R. L. 1992. DNA probes as molecular markers to monitor the
seasonal occurrence of walnut witches'-broom mycoplasmalike organism. Plant Dis.
76:1116–1119.
Cole, J. R. 1937. Bunch disease of pecans. Phytopathology 27:604–612.
MacDaniels, L. H., Johnson, W. T., and Braun, E. J. 1976. The black walnut bunch disease
syndrome. North. Nut Growers Assoc. Annu. Rep. 66:71–87.
Maramorosch, K., and Raychaudhuri, S. P., eds. 1981. Mycoplasma diseases of trees and shrubs.
Academic Press, New York. 362 pp.
Seliskar, C. E. 1976. Mycoplasmalike organism found in the phloem of bunch-diseased walnuts.
For. Sci. 22:144.
Seliskar, C. E., KenKnight, G. E., and Bourne, C. E. 1974. Mycoplasmalike organism associated
with pecan bunch disease. Phytopathology 64:1269–1272.
-----------------Witches-brooms of lilac, willow, dogwood, other plants,
Griffiths, H. M., Sinclair, W. A., Davis, R. E., Lee, I. M., Dally, E. L., Guo, Y. H., Chen, T. A.,
and Hibben, C. R. 1994. Characterization of mycoplasmalike organisms from Fraxinus,
Syringa, and associated plants from geographically diverse sites. Phytopathology 84:119–
126.
Griffiths, H. M., Sinclair, W. A., Smart, C. D., and Davis, R. E. 1999. The phytoplasma
associated with ash yellows and lilac witches-broom: 'Candidatus Phytoplasma fraxini.' Int.
J. Syst. Bacteriol. 49:1605–1614.
Hibben, C. R., and Franzen, L. M. 1989. Susceptibility of lilacs to mycoplasmalike organisms. J.
Environ. Hortic. 7:163–167.
Hibben, C. R., Lewis, C. A., and Castello, J. D. 1986. Mycoplasmalike organisms, cause of lilac
witches'-broom. Plant Dis. 70:342–345.
Hiruki, C. 1999. Phytoplasma diseases of forest and urban trees and shrubs in Canada and East
Asia: biology, genomic diversity and management. Pages 39–52 in: Biotechnology and plant
protection in forestry science. S. P. Raychaudhuri and K. Maramorosch, eds. Science Pub.,
Lebanon, NH.
245
Holmes, F. O., Hirumi, H., and Maramorosch, K. 1972. Witches'-broom of willow: Salix
yellows. Phytopathology 62:826–828.
Maramorosch, K., and Raychaudhuri, S. P., eds. 1981. Mycoplasma diseases of trees and shrubs.
Academic Press, New York. 362 pp.
Qiu, B., Li, H., Shi, C., and Jin, K. 1998. Amplification of phytoplasma 16S rDNA from 20
infected plants in China and their RFLP analysis. Sci. Silvae Sinicae 34:67–74.
Raju, B. C., Chen, T. A., and Varney, E. H. 1976. Mycoplasmalike organisms associated with a
witches'-broom disease of Cornus amomum. Plant Dis. Rep. 60:462–464.
Raychaudhuri, S. P. and Maramorosch, K. eds. 1996. Forest trees and palms: diseases and
control. Science Pub., Lebanon, NH. 334 pp.
Sinclair, W. A., Griffiths, H. M., and Davies, R. E. 1996. Ash yellows and lilac witches'-broom:
phytoplasmal diseases of concern in forestry and horticulture. Plant Dis. 80:468–475.
-----------------Diseases caused by mollicutes, continued, Plate 197, page 395
Elm yellows
Ash, C. L., ed. 2001. Shade tree wilt diseases. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 257 pp.
Baker, W. L. 1949. Notes on the transmission of the virus causing phloem necrosis of American
elm, with notes on the biology of its insect vector. J. Econ. Entomol. 42:729–732.
Braun, E. J., and Sinclair, W. A. 1976. Histopathology of phloem necrosis in Ulmus americana.
Phytopathology 66:598–607.
Braun, E. J., and Sinclair, W. A. 1979. Phloem necrosis of elms: symptoms and histopathological
observations in tolerant hosts. Phytopathology 69:354–358.
Carraro, L., Ferrini, F., Ermacora, P., Loi, N., Martini, M., and Osler, R. 2004. Macropsis
mendax as a vector of elm yellows phytoplasma of Ulmus species. Plant Pathol. 53:90–95.
Carter, J. C., and Carter, L. R. 1974. An urban epiphytotic of phloem necrosis and Dutch elm
disease, 1944–1972. Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bull. 31:113–143.
Dunn, C. P., ed. 2000. The elms: breeding, conservation, and disease management. Kluwer
Academic, Boston, Dordrecht. 361 pp.
Griffiths, H. M., Sinclair, W. A., Boudon-Padieu, E., Daire, X., Lee, I. M., Sfalanga, A., and
Bertaccini, A. 1999. Phytoplasmas associated with elm yellows: molecular variability and
differentiation from related organisms. Plant Dis. 83:1101–1104.
Jacobs, K. A., Lee, I.-M., Griffiths, H. M., Miller, F. D. Jr., and Bottner, K. D. 2003. A new
member of the clover proliferation phytoplasma group (16SrVI) associated with elm yellows
in Illinois. Plant Dis. 87:241–246.
Lee, I.-M., Davis, R. E., Sinclair, W. A., DeWitt, N. D., and Conti, M. 1993. Genetic relatedness
of mycoplasmalike organisms detected in Ulmus spp. in the United States and Italy by means
of DNA probes and polymerase chain reactions. Phytopathology 83:829–833.
Lee, I.-M., Martini, M., Marcone, C., and Zhu, S. F. 2004. Classification of phytoplasma strains
in the elm yellows group (16SrV) and proposal of 'Candidatus Phytoplasma ulmi' for the
phytoplasma associated with elm yellows. Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. 54:337–347.
Matteoni, J. A., and Sinclair, W. A. 1989. A note on the presence of elm yellows in the Niagara
Peninsula. Phytoprotection 70:137–139.
Matteoni, J. A., and Sinclair, W. A. 1983. Stomatal closure in plants infected with
mycoplasmalike organisms. Phytopathology 73:398–402.
246
Mäurer, R., Seemüller, E., and Sinclair, W. A. 1993. Genetic relatedness of mycoplasmalike
organisms affecting elm, alder, and ash in Europe and North America. Phytopathology
83:971–976.
Sinclair, W. A., Townsend, A. M., Griffiths, H. M., and Whitlow, T. H. 2000. Responses of six
Eurasian Ulmus cultivars to a North American elm yellows phytoplasma. Plant Dis.
84:1266–1270.
Sinclair, W. A., Townsend, A. M., and Sherald, J. L. 2001. Elm yellows phytoplasma lethal to
Dutch elm disease-resistant Ulmus americana cultivars. Plant Dis. 85:560.
Stipes, R. J., and Campana, R. J., eds. 1981. Compendium of elm diseases. Am. Phytopathol.
Soc., St. Paul, MN. 96 pp.
Swingle, R. U. 1938. A phloem necrosis of elm. Phytopathology 28:757–759.
-----------------Diseases caused by mollicutes, continued, Plate 198, page 397
Ash yellows
Ash, C. L., ed. 2001. Shade tree wilt diseases. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 257 pp.
Bricker, J. S., and Stutz, J. C. 2004. Phytoplasmas associated with ash decline. J. Arboric.
30:193–199.
Feeley, C. J., Hart, E. R., Thompson, J. R., and Harrington, T. C. 2001. Occurrence, associated
symptoms, and potential insect vectors of the ash yellows phytoplasma in Iowa, U.S. J.
Arboric. 27:331–339.
Griffiths, H. M., Sinclair, W. A., Smart, C. M., and Davis, R. E. 1999. The phytoplasma
associated with ash yellows and lilac witches'-broom: ‘Candidatus Phytoplasma fraxini.’ Int.
J. Syst. Bacteriol. 49:1605–1614.
Han, Y., Castello, J. D., and Leopold, D. J. 1991. Ash yellows, drought, and decline in radial
growth of white ash. Plant Dis. 75:18–23.
Hibben, C. R., and Wolanski, B. 1971. Dodder transmission of a mycoplasma from ash witches'broom. Phytopathology 61:151–156.
Hill, G. T., and Sinclair, W. A. 2000. Taxa of leafhoppers carrying phytoplasmas on sites of ash
yellows occurrence in New York State. Plant Dis. 84:134–138.
Lee, I.-M., Gundersen-Rindal, D. E., Davis, R. E., and Bartoszyk, I. M. 1998. Revised
classification scheme of phytoplasmas based on RFLP analyses of 16S rRNA and ribosomal
protein gene sequences. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 48:1153–1169.
Matteoni, J. A., and Sinclair, W. A. 1983. Stomatal closure in plants infected with
mycoplasmalike organisms. Phytopathology 73:398–402.
Matteoni, J. A., and Sinclair, W. A. 1985. Role of the mycoplasmal disease, ash yellows, in
decline of white ash in New York State. Phytopathology 75:355–360.
Sinclair, W. A., and Griffiths, H. M. 1994. Ash yellows and its relationship to dieback and
decline of ash. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 32:49–60.
Sinclair, W. A., and Griffiths, H. M. 1995. Epidemiology of a slow-decline phytoplasmal
disease: ash yellows on old-field sites in New York State. Phytopathology 85:123–128.
Sinclair, W. A., and Griffiths, H. M. 2000. Variation in aggressiveness of strains of ash yellows
phytoplasmas. Plant Dis. 84:282–288.
Sinclair, W. A., Gleason, M. L., Griffiths, H. M., Iles, J. K., Zriba, N., Charlson, D. V., Batzer, J.
C., and Whitlow, T. H. 2000. Responses of 11 Fraxinus cultivars to ash yellows phytoplasma
strains of differing aggressiveness. Plant Dis. 84:725–730
247
Sinclair, W. A., Griffiths, H. M., and Davis, R. E. 1996. Ash yellows and lilac witches'-broom:
phytoplasmal diseases of concern in forestry and horticulture. Plant Dis. 80:468–475.
Sinclair, W. A., Griffiths, H. M., and Whitlow, T. H. 1997. Comparisons of tolerance of ash
yellows phytoplasmas in Fraxinus species and rootstock-scion combinations. Plant Dis.
81:395–398.
Sinclair, W. A., Whitlow, T. H., and Griffiths, H. M. 1997. Heritable tolerance of phytoplasmal
infection in green ash. Can. J. For. Res. 27:1928–1935.
Smallidge, P. J., Leopold, D. J., and Castello, D. 1991. Structure and composition of forest
stands affected and unaffected by ash yellows. Plant Dis. 75:13–18.
Tan, P., and Whitlow, T. 2001. Physiological responses of Catharanthus roseus (periwinkle) to
ash yellows phytoplasmal infection. New Phytol. 150:757–769.
Walla, J. A., Jacobi, W. R., Tisserat, N. A., Harrell, M. O., Ball, J. J., Neill, G. B., Reynard, D.
A., Guo, Y. H., and Spiegel, L. 2000. Condition of green ash, incidence of ash yellows
phytoplasmas, and their association in the Great Plains and Rocky Mountain regions of
North America. Plant Dis. 84:268–274.
-----------------Diseases caused by mollicutes, continued, Plate 199, page 399
X-disease of Prunus
Chiykowski, L. N., and Sinha, R. C. 1988. Some factors affecting the transmission of eastern
peach X-mycoplasmalike organism by the leafhopper Paraphlepsius irroratus. Can. J. Plant
Pathol. 10:85–92.
Gundersen, D. E., Lee, I.-M., Schaff, D. A., Harrison, N. A., Chang, C. J., Davis, R. E., and
Kingsbury, D. T. 1996. Genomic diversity and differentiation among phytoplasma strains in
16S rRNA groups I (aster yellows and related phytoplasmas) and III (X-disease and related
phytoplasmas). Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 46:64–75.
Guo, Y. H., Cheng, Z.-M., and Walla, J. A. 2000. Characterization of X-disease phytoplasmas in
chokecherry from North Dakota by PCR-RFLP and sequence analysis of the rRNA gene
region. Plant Dis. 84:1235–1240.
Guo, Y. H., Cheng, Z.-M., Walla, J. A., and Zhang, Z. 1998. Diagnosis of X-disease
phytoplasma in stone fruits by a monoclonal antibody developed directly from a woody
plant. J. Environ. Hortic. 16:33–37.
Hildebrand, E. M. 1953. Yellow-red or X-disease of peach. Cornell Univ. Agric. Exp. Stn. Mem.
323. 54 pp.
Jensen, D. D. 1971. Herbaceous host plants of western X-disease agent. Phytopathology
61:1465–1470.
Kirkpatrick, B. C., Fisher, G. A., Fraser, J. D., and Purcell, A. H. 1990. Epidemiological and
phylogenetic studies on western X-disease mycoplasma-like organisms. Pages 288–297 in:
Recent advances in mycoplasmology. G. Stanek, G. H. Casell, J. G. Tully, and R. F.
Whitcomb, eds. Int. J. Med. Microbiol., Ser. A. Suppl. 20.
MacBeath, J. H., Nyland, G., and Spurr, A. R. 1972. Morphology of mycoplasmalike bodies
associated with peach X-disease in Prunus persica. Phytopathology 62:935–937.
Maramorosch, K., and Harris, K. F. 1979. Leafhopper vectors and plant disease agents.
Academic Press, New York. 654 pp.
Maramorosch, K., and Raychaudhuri, S. P., eds. 1981. Mycoplasma diseases of trees and shrubs.
Academic Press, New York. 362 pp.
248
Matteoni, J. A., and Sinclair, W. A. 1983. Stomatal closure in plants infected with
mycoplasmalike organisms. Phytopathology 73:398–402.
Ogawa, J. M., and English, H. 1991. Diseases of temperate zone tree fruit and nut crops. Univ.
Cal. Div. Agric. Nat. Resour. Pub. 3345. 461 pp.
Peterson, G. W. 1966. Western X-disease virus of chokecherry: transmission and seed effects.
Plant Dis. Rep. 50:659–660.
Peterson, G. W. 1984. Spread and damage of western X-disease of chokecherry in eastern
Nebraska plantings. Plant Dis. 68:103–104.
Pine, T. S., Gilmer, R. M., Moore, J. D., Nyland, G., and Welsh, M. F., eds. 1976. Virus diseases
and noninfectious disorders of stone fruits in North America. USDA Agric. Handb. 437. 433
pp.
Purcell, A. H. 1987. Comparative epidemiology of X-disease in North America. Pages 175–185
in: Proceedings of second international workshop on leafhoppers and planthoppers of
economic importance, Provo, UT, 1986. Commonw. Inst. Entomol., London.
Rosenberger, D. A., and Jones, A. L. 1977. Seasonal variation in infectivity of inoculum from Xdiseased peach and chokecherry plants. Plant Dis. Rep. 61:1022–1024.
Rosenberger, D. A., and Jones, A. L. 1978. Leafhopper vectors of the peach X-disease pathogen
and its seasonal transmission from chokecherry. Phytopathology 68:782–790.
Sinha, R. C., and Chiykowski, L. N. 1980. Transmission and morphological features of
mycoplasmalike bodies associated with peach X-disease. Can. J. Plant Pathol. 2:119–124.
Uyemoto, J. K., Kirkpatrick, B. C., and Cummins, J. N. 1991. Susceptibility of selected cherry
clones and related species to western X-disease. HortScience 26:1510–1511.
-----------------Diseases caused by mollicutes, continued, Plate 200, page 401
Lethal yellowing of palms
Broschat, T. K., Harrison, N. A., and Donselman, H. 2002. Losses to lethal yellowing cast doubt
on coconut cultivar resistance. Palms 46:185–189.
Cardena, R., Villanueva, M. A., Santamaria, J. M., and Oropeza, C. M. 1991. Presence in
Yucatan of mycoplasma-like organisms in Cocos nucifera palms showing lethal yellowing
disease symptoms. Can. J. Plant Pathol. 13:135–138.
Centre for Information on Coconut Lethal Yellowing (CICLY). 2002. Version of 15 Nov 2002.
[Internet forum about phytoplasmal diseases of palms].
Cordova, I., Jones, P., Harrison N. A., and Oropeza, C. 2003. In situ PCR detection of
phytoplasma DNA in embryos from coconut palms with lethal yellowing disease. Mol. Plant
Pathol. 4:99–108.
Elliott, M. L. Broschat, T. K., Uchida, Y., and Simone, G. W. 2004. Compendium of ornamental
palm diseases and disorders. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 69 pp.
Harrison, N. A., Myrie, W., Jones, P., Carpio, M. L., Castillo, M., Doyle, M. M., and Oropeza,
C. 2002. 16S rRNA interoperon sequence heterogeneity distinguishes strain populations of
palm lethal yellowing phytoplasma in the Caribbean region. Ann. Appl. Biol. 141:183–193.
Harrison, N. A., Narvaez, M., Almeyda, H., Cordova, I., Carpio, M. L., and Oropeza, C. 2002.
First report of group 16SrIV phytoplasmas infecting coconut palms with leaf yellowing
symptoms on the Pacific coast of Mexico. Plant Pathol. 51:808.
249
Harrison, N. A., Richardson, P. A., Kramer, J. B., and Tsai, J. H. 1994. Detection of the
mycoplasma-like organism associated with lethal yellowing disease of palms in Florida by
polymerase chain reaction. Plant Pathol. 43:998–1008.
Harrison, N. A., Womack, M., and Carpio, M. L. 2002. Detection and characterization of a lethal
yellowing (16SrIV) group phytoplasma in Canary Island date palms affected by lethal
decline in Texas. Plant Dis. 86:676–681.
Howard, F. W., and Harrison, N. A. (undated) Lethal yellowing of palms. Univ. Fla. Internet
pub.
Howard, F. W., and Thomas, D. L. 1980. Transmission of palm lethal decline to Veitchia
merrillii by a planthopper Myndus crudus. J. Econ. Entomol. 73:715–717.
Howard, F. W., Williams, D. S., and Norris, R. C. 1984. Insect transmission of lethal yellowing
to young palms. Int. J. Entomol. 26:331–338.
Leon, R., Santamaria, J. M., Alpizar, L., Escamilla, J. A., and Oropeza, C. 1996. Physiological
and biochemical changes in shoots of coconut palms affected by lethal yellowing. New
Phytol. 134:227–234.
Maramorosch, K., and Raychaudhuri, S. P., eds. 1981. Mycoplasma diseases of trees and shrubs.
Academic Press, New York. 362 pp.
McCoy, R. E., ed. 1983. Lethal yellowing of palms. Florida Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull. 834. 100 pp.
McCoy, R. E., Miller, M. E., Thomas, D. L., and Amador, J. 1980. Lethal decline of Phoenix
palms in Texas associated with mycoplasmalike organisms. Plant Dis. 64:1038–1040.
Mejía, F., Palmieri, M., Oropeza, C., Doyle, M., Harrison, N., Aguilar, E., Narváez, M., Estrada,
R., and Ortiz, G. 2004. First report of coconut lethal yellowing disease in Guatemala. Br.
Soc. Plant Pathol. New Dis. Rep. Internet pub.
Oropeza, C., Howard, F. W., and Ashburner, G. R., eds. 1995. Lethal yellowing: research and
practical aspects. Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht. 268 pp.
Reinert, J. A. 1977. Field biology and control of Haplaxius crudus on St. Augustine grass and
Christmas palm. J. Econ. Entomol. 70:54–56.
Thomas, D. L., and Donselman, H. M. 1979. Mycoplasmalike bodies and phloem degeneration
associated with declining Pandanus in Florida. Plant Dis. Rep. 63:911–916.
Tymon, A. M., Jones, P., and Harrison, N. A. 1998. Phylogenetic relationships of coconut
phytoplasmas and the development of specific oligonucleotide PCR primers. Ann. Appl.
Biol. 132:437–452.
Warokka, J. S. 1999. The impact and etiology of coconut wilt disease in India. Pages 27–35 in:
Proceedings of the international workshop on lethal diseases of coconut by phytoplasmas in
Southeast Asia. D. Allorerung, H. C. Harries, P. Jones, and J. S. Warokka, eds. APCC Pub,
Jakarta.
-----------------Viral diseases, Plates 201–202, pages 403–405
Overview and plant virus diagnosis
Brunt, A., Crabtree, K., Dallwitz, M., Gibbs, A., and Watson, L., eds. 1996. Viruses of plants.
CAB International, Wallingford, UK. 1484 pp.
Brunt, A. A., Crabtree, K., Dallwitz, M. J., Gibbs, A. J., Watson, L. and Zurcher, E. J., eds.
1996– . Plant viruses online. Descriptions and lists from the VIDE database. Version of 16
Jan 1997. Austral. Natl. Univ., Canberra. Internet pub.
250
Commonwealth Mycological Institute and Association of Applied Biologists. 1970–1989.
CMI/AAB descriptions of plant viruses Sets 1–22, Nos. 1–354. Common. Agric. Bur.,
Farnham Royal, Slough, UK.
Cooper, J. I. 1993. Virus diseases of trees and shrubs, 2nd ed. Chapman & Hall, London. 205 pp.
Francki, R. I. B., Milne, R. G., and Hatta, T. 1985. Atlas of plant viruses. CRC Press, Boca
Raton, FL. Vols. 1, 2.
Francki, R. I. B., Regenmortel, M. H. V. van, Fraenkel-Conrat, H., Koenig, R., Milne, R. G.,
Harrison, B. D., and Murant, A. F., eds. 1985. The plant viruses. Vols. 1–5. Plenum, New
York.
Fridlund, P. R., ed. 1989. Virus and viruslike diseases of pome fruits and simulating
noninfectious disorders. Wash. State Univ. Coop. Ext. SP0003. 330 pp.
Harris, K. F., Smith, O. P., and Duffus, J. E., eds. 2001. Virus-insect-plant interactions.
Academic Press, San Diego. 376 pp.
Hull, R. 2002. Matthews' plant virology. 4th ed. Academic Press, San Diego. 1001 pp.
International Working Group on Fruit Tree Viruses. 1998. Detection of virus and virus-like
diseases of fruit trees. Acta Hortic. No. 472:761–783.
Jones, R. K., and Benson, D. M., eds. 2001. Diseases of woody ornamentals and trees in
nurseries. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 482 pp.
Kurstak, E., ed. 1981. Handbook of plant virus infections. Comparative diagnosis.
Elsevier/North Holland Biomedical Press, Amsterdam. 943 pp.
Matthews, R. E. F. 1993. Diagnosis of plant virus diseases. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. 440 pp.
Nault, L. R. 1997. Arthropod transmission of plant viruses: a new synthesis. Ann. Entomol. Soc.
Am. 90:521–541
Nienhaus, F., and Castello, J. D. 1989. Viruses in forest trees. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 27:165–
186.
Olmos, A., Bertolini, E., and Cambra, M. 2002. Simultaneous and co-operational amplification
(Co-PCR): a new concept for detection of plant viruses. J. Virol. Meth. 106:51–59.
Pine, T. S., Gilmer, R. M., Nyland, G., Moore, J. D., and Welsh, M. F. eds. 1976. Virus diseases
and noninfectious disorders of stone fruits in North America. U. S. Dep. Agric. Handb. 437.
433 pp.
Regenmortel, M. H. V. van, Fauquet, C. M., and Bishop, D. H. L., eds. 2000. Virus taxonomy:
classification and nomenclature of viruses. Seventh report of the International Committee on
Taxonomy of Viruses. Academic Press, San Diego. 1162 pp.
-----------------Viral Diseases, continued, Plate 203, page 407
Diseases caused by nepoviruses: Prunus stem pitting, apple brown line, Forsythia yellow net,
ash diseases, others
Overview
Brown, D. J. F., Halbrendt, J. M., Jones, A. T., Vrain, T. C., and Robbins, R. T. 1994.
Transmission of three North American nepoviruses by populations of four distinct species of
the Xiphinema americanum group. Phytopathology 84:646–649.
Brunt, A., Crabtree, K., Dallwitz, M., Gibbs, A., and Watson, L., eds. 1996. Viruses of plants.
CAB International, Wallingford, UK. 1484 pp.
251
Commonwealth Mycological Institute and Association of Applied Biologists. 1970–1989.
CMI/AAB descriptions of plant viruses Sets 1–22, Nos. 1–354. Commonw. Agric. Bur.,
Farnham Royal, Slough, UK.
Cooper, J. I. 1993. Virus diseases of trees and shrubs, 2nd ed. Chapman & Hall, London. 205 pp.
Han, S. S., Karasev, A. V., Ieki, H., and Iwanami, T. 2002. Nucleotide sequence and taxonomy
of Cycas necrotic stunt virus. Arch. Virol. 147:2207–2214.
Fridlund, P. R., ed. 1989. Virus and viruslike diseases of pome fruits and simulating
noninfectious disorders. Wash. State Univ. Coop. Ext. SP0003. 330 pp.
International Working Group on Fruit Tree Viruses. 1998. Detection of virus and virus-like
diseases of fruit trees. Acta Hortic. No. 472:761–783.
Kurstak, E., ed. 1981. Handbook of plant virus infections. Comparative diagnosis.
Elsevier/North Holland Biomedical Press, Amsterdam. 943 pp.
Ogawa, J. M., and English, H. 1991. Diseases of temperate zone tree fruit and nut crops. Univ.
Cal. Div. Agric. Nat. Resour. Pub. 3345. 461 pp.
Pine, T. S., Gilmer, R. M., Nyland, G., Moore, J. D., and Welsh, M. F. eds. 1976. Virus diseases
and noninfectious disorders of stone fruits in North America. U. S. Dep. Agric. Handb. 437.
433 pp.
Wang, S. H., Gergerich, R. C., Wickizer, S. L., and Kim, K. S. 2002. Localization of
transmissible and nontransmissible viruses in the vector nematode Xiphinema americanum.
Phytopathology 92:646–653.
-----------------Tomato ringspot virus
Brierley, P. 1954. Symptoms in the florist's hydrangea caused by tomato ringspot virus and an
unidentified sap-transmissible virus. Phytopathology 44:696–699.
Brown, D. J. F., Halbrendt, J. M., Jones, A. T., Vrain, T. C., and Robbins, R. T. 1994.
Transmission of three North American nepoviruses by populations of four distinct species of
the Xiphinema americanum group. Phytopathology 84:646–649.
Brunt, A., Crabtree, K., Dallwitz, M., Gibbs, A., and Watson, L., eds. 1996. Viruses of plants.
CAB International, Wallingford, UK. 1484 pp.
Commonwealth Mycological Institute and Association of Applied Biologists. 1970–1989.
CMI/AAB descriptions of plant viruses Sets 1–22, Nos. 1–354. Commonw. Agric. Bur.,
Farnham Royal, Slough, UK.
Cooper, J. I. 1993. Virus diseases of trees and shrubs, 2nd ed. Chapman & Hall, London. 205 pp.
Forer, L. B., Powell, C. A., and Stouffer, R. F. 1984. Transmission of tomato ringspot virus to
apple rootstock cuttings and to cherry and peach seedlings by Xiphinema rivesi. Plant Dis.
68:1052–1054.
Griesbach, J. A., and Maggenti, A. R. 1989. Vector capability of Xiphinema americanum sensu
lato in California. J. Nematol. 21:517–523.
Hibben, C. R., Reese, J. A., and Castello, J. D. 1988. Identification of tomato ringspot virus in
ash in New York. Plant Dis. 72:175.
Hildebrand, E. M. 1942. Tomato ringspot on currant. Am. J. Bot. 29:362–366.
Hoy, J. W., Mircetich, S. M., and Lownsbery, B. F. 1984. Differential transmission of Prunus
tomato ringspot virus strains by Xiphinema californicum. Phytopathology 74:332–335.
Kommineni, K. V., and Ramsdell, D. C. 1997. An anatomical study of prune brown line disease
and immuno-localization of tomato ringspot virus in plum bark. Plant Dis. 81:855–861.
252
Mircetich, S. M., and Hoy, J. W. 1981. Brownline of prune trees, a disease associated with
tomato ringspot virus infection of myrobalan and peach rootstocks. Phytopathology 71:30–
35.
Puffinberger, C. W., and Corbett, M. K. 1985. Euonymus chlorotic ringspot disease caused by
tomato ringspot virus. Phytopathology 75:423–428.
Ramsdell, D. C., Adler, V. A., and Kesner, C. R. 1993. Prune brown line disease occurrence in
declining 'Stanley' plum orchards in Michigan and factors related to its incidence.
HortTechnology 3:325–329.
Reddick, B. B., Barnett, O. W., and Baxter, L. W. Jr. 1979. Isolation of cherry leafroll, tobacco
ringspot, and tomato ringspot viruses from dogwood trees in South Carolina. Plant Dis. Rep.
63:529–532.
Rosenberger, D. A., Cummins, J. N., and Gonsalves, D. 1989. Evidence that tomato ringspot
virus causes apple union necrosis and decline: symptom development in inoculated apple
trees. Plant Dis. 73:262–265.
Téliz, D., Grogan, R. G., and Lownsbery, B. F. 1966. Transmission of tomato ringspot, peach
yellow bud mosaic, and grape yellow vein viruses by Xiphinema americanum.
Phytopathology 56:658–663.
Tuttle, M. A., and Gotlieb, A. R. 1985. Histology of Delicious/Malling Merton 106 apple trees
affected by apple union necrosis and decline. Phytopathology 75:342–347.
Tuttle, M. A., and Gotlieb, A. R. 1985. Graft union histology and distribution of tomato ringspot
virus in infected McIntosh/Malling Merton 106 apple trees. Phytopathology 75:347–351.
Wang, S. H., Gergerich, R. C., Wickizer, S. L., and Kim, K. S. 2002. Localization of
transmissible and nontransmissible viruses in the vector nematode Xiphinema americanum.
Phytopathology 92:646–653.
-----------------Viral diseases, continued, Plate 204, page 409
Tobacco ringspot virus
Amico, L. A., O'Shea, M. T., and Castello, J. D. 1985. Transmission of tobacco mosaic and
tobacco ringspot viruses from Moraine ash in New York. Plant Dis. 69:542.
Brown, D. J. F., Halbrendt, J. M., Jones, A. T., Vrain, T. C., and Robbins, R. T. 1994.
Transmission of three North American nepoviruses by populations of four distinct species of
the Xiphinema americanum group. Phytopathology 84:646–649.
Brunt, A., Crabtree, K., Dallwitz, M., Gibbs, A., and Watson, L., eds. 1996. Viruses of plants.
CAB International, Wallingford, UK. 1484 pp.
Castello, J. D., Amico, L. A., and O'Shea, M. T. 1984. Detection of tobacco mosaic and tobacco
ringspot viruses in white ash trees by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Plant Dis.
68:787–790.
Commonwealth Mycological Institute and Association of Applied Biologists. 1970–1989.
CMI/AAB descriptions of plant viruses Sets 1–22, Nos. 1–354. Commonw. Agric. Bur.,
Farnham Royal, Slough, UK.
Cooper, J. I. 1993. Virus diseases of trees and shrubs, 2nd ed. Chapman & Hall, London. 205 pp.
Griesbach, J. A., and Maggenti, A. R. 1989. Vector capability of Xiphinema americanum sensu
lato in California. J. Nematol. 21:517–523.
Hibben, C. R., and Bozarth, R. F. 1972. Identification of an ash strain of tobacco ringspot virus.
Phytopathology 62:1023–1029.
253
Hibben, C. R., and Hagar, S. S. 1975. Pathogenicity of an ash isolate of tobacco ringspot virus.
Plant Dis. Rep. 59:57–60.
Hibben, C. R., and Walker, J. T. 1971. Nematode transmission of the ash strain of tobacco
ringspot virus. Plant Dis. Rep. 55:475–478.
Lana, A. F., Peterson, J. F., Rouselle, G. L., and Vrain, T. C. 1983. Association of tobacco
ringspot virus with a union incompatibility of apple. Phytopathol. Z. 106:141–148.
Morton, C. S., Barnett, O. W., and Baxter, L. W. 1977. Damage caused by tobacco ringspot virus
to poet's jasmine (Jasminum officinale). Proc. South. Nurserymen's Assoc. Res. Conf. Annu.
Rep. 22:111–114
Reddick, B. B., Barnett, O. W., and Baxter, L. W. J. 1979. Isolation of cherry leafroll, tobacco
ringspot, and tomato ringspot viruses from dogwood trees in South Carolina. Plant Dis. Rep
63:529–532.
Schmelzer, K. 1962. Untersuchungen an Viren der Zier- und Wild-gehölze. 2. Mitteilung:
Virosen an Forsythia, Lonicera, Ligustrum, und Laburnum. Phytopathol. Z. 46:105–138.
Shiel, P. J., and Castello, J. D. 1985. Detection of tobacco mosaic and tobacco ringspot viruses in
herbaceous and woody plants near virus-infected white ash trees in central New York. Plant
Dis. 69:791–795.
Tiangco, E. S., and Varney, E. H. 1970. A vein chlorosis or yellow-net disease of Forsythia
caused by tobacco ringspot virus. (Abstr.) Phytopathology 60:579.
Wang, S. H., Gergerich, R. C., Wickizer, S. L., and Kim, K. S. 2002. Localization of
transmissible and nontransmissible viruses in the vector nematode Xiphinema americanum.
Phytopathology 92:646–653.
Waterworth, H. E., and Povish, W. R. 1972. Tobacco ringspot virus from naturally infected
dogwood, autumn crocus, and forsythia. Plant Dis. Rep. 56:336–337.
Waterworth, H. E., and Povish, W. R. 1977. A yellow leafspot disease of Ilex crenata caused by
tobacco ringspot virus. Plant Dis. Rep. 61:104–105.
-----------------Viral diseases, continued, Plate 205, page 411
Cherry leafroll virus
Brunt, A., Crabtree, K., Dallwitz, M., Gibbs, A., and Watson, L., eds. 1996. Viruses of plants.
CAB International, Wallingford, UK. 1484 pp.
Commonwealth Mycological Institute and Association of Applied Biologists. 1970–1989.
CMI/AAB descriptions of plant viruses Sets 1–22, Nos. 1–354. Commonw. Agric. Bur.,
Farnham Royal, Slough, UK.
Cooper, J. I. 1980. The prevalence of cherry leaf roll virus in Juglans regia in the United
Kingdom. Acta Phytopathol. Acad. Sci. Hung. 15:139–145.
Cooper, J. I. 1993. Virus diseases of trees and shrubs, 2nd ed. Chapman & Hall, London. 205 pp.
Cooper, J. I., and Massalski, P. R. 1984. Viruses and virus-like diseases affecting Betula spp.
Proc. R. Soc. Edinb., Sect. B, 85:183.
Cooper, J. I., Massalski, P. R., and Edwards, M. L. 1984. Cherry leaf roll virus in the female
gametophyte and seed of birch and its relevance to vertical virus transmission. Ann. Appl.
Biol. 105:55–64.
Ford, R. E., Moline, H. E., McDaniel, G. L., Mayhew, D. E., and Epstein, A. H. 1972. Discovery
and characterization of elm mosaic virus in Iowa. Phytopathology 62:987–992.
254
Fulton, J. P., and Fulton, R. W. 1970. A comparison of some properties of elm mosaic and
tomato ringspot viruses. Phytopathology 60:114–115.
Hamacher, J., and Quadt, A. 1991. Light- and electron microscopic studies of cherry leaf roll
virus (CLRV) on European ash (Fraxinus excelsior L.). J. Phytopathol. 131:215–226.
Hamacher, J., and Quadt, A. 1994. Isolation of cherry leafroll and brome mosaic viruses from
European beech and transmission to beech seedlings. Plant Dis. 78:849–853.
Jones, A. T. 1973. A comparison of some properties of four strains of cherry leafroll virus. Ann.
Appl. Biol. 74:211–217.
Kurstak, E., ed. 1981. Handbook of plant virus infections. Comparative diagnosis.
Elsevier/North Holland Biomedical Press, Amsterdam. 943 pp.
Larsen, R. C., Gergerich, R. C., and Kim, K. S. 1990. Characterization and ultrastructural studies
of a nepovirus from Euonymus. Phytopathology 80:134–140.
Massalski, P. R., and Cooper, J. I. 1984. The location of virus-like particles in the male
gametophyte of birch, walnut, and cherry naturally infected with cherry leaf roll virus and its
relevance to vertical transmission of the virus. Plant Pathol. 33:255–262.
Mircetich, S. M., and Rowhani, A. 1984. The relationship of cherry leafroll virus and blackline
disease of English walnut trees. Phytopathology 74:423–428.
Mircetich, S. M., Sanborn, R. R., and Ramos, D. E. 1980. Natural spread, graft transmission, and
possible etiology of walnut blackline disease. Phytopathology 70:962–968.
Ogawa, J. M., and English, H. 1991. Diseases of temperate zone tree fruit and nut crops. Univ.
Cal. Div. Agric. Nat. Resour. Pub. 3345. 461 pp.
Reddick, B. B., Barnett, O. W., and Baxter, L. W. Jr. 1979. Isolation of cherry leafroll, tobacco
ringspot, and tomato ringspot viruses from dogwood trees in South Carolina. Plant Dis. Rep.
63:529–532.
Rowhani, A., and Mircetich, S. M. 1988. Pathogenicity on walnut and serological comparisons
of cherry leafroll virus strains. Phytopathology 78:817–822.
Scott, S. W., and Barnett, O. W. 1984. Some properties of an isolate of broad bean wilt virus
from dogwood (Cornus florida). Plant Dis. 68:983–985.
Swingle, R. U., and Bretz, T. W. 1950. Zonate canker, a virus disease of American elm.
Phytopathology 40:1018–1022.
Waterworth, H. E., and Lawson, R. H. 1973. Purification, electron microscopy, and serology of
the dogwood ringspot strain of cherry leafroll virus. Phytopathology 63:141–146.
Winter, S., and Nienhaus, F. 1989. Identification of viruses from European beech (Fagus
sylvatica L.) of declining forests in Northrhine-Westfalia (FRG). Eur. J. For. Pathol. 19:111–
118.
Zoeten, G. A. de, Lauritis, J. A., and Mircetich, S. M. 1982. Cytopathology and properties of
cherry leaf roll virus associated with walnut blackline disease. Phytopathology 72:1261–
1265.
-----------------Cherry rasp leaf virus
Bodine, E. W., and Newton, J. H. 1942. The rasp leaf of cherry. Phytopathology 32:333–335.
Brunt, A., Crabtree, K., Dallwitz, M., Gibbs, A., and Watson, L., eds. 1996. Viruses of plants.
CAB International, Wallingford, UK. 1484 pp.
255
Commonwealth Mycological Institute and Association of Applied Biologists. 1970–1989.
CMI/AAB descriptions of plant viruses Sets 1–22, Nos. 1–354. Commonw. Agric. Bur.,
Farnham Royal, Slough, UK.
Hansen, A. J., Nyland, G., McElroy, F. D., and Stace-Smith, R. 1974. Origin, cause, host range
and spread of cherry rasp leaf disease in North America. Phytopathology 64:721–727.
Jones, A. T., Brown, D. J. F., Halbrendt, J. M., Vrain, T. C., and Robbins, R. T. 1995. The
transmission of three nepoviruses by populations of four Xiphinema americanum–group
species. Acta Hortic. No. 385:105–109.
Nyland, G., Lownsbery, B. F., Lowe, S. K., and Mitchell, J. F. 1969. The transmission of cherry
rasp leaf virus by Xiphinema americanum. Phytopathology 59:1111–1112.
Pine, T. S., Gilmer, R. M., Moore, J. D., and Welsh, M. F. eds. 1976. Virus diseases and
noninfectious disorders of stone fruits in North America. U. S. Dep. Agric. Handb. 437. 433
pp.
Wagnon, H. K., Traylor, J. A., Williams, H. E., and Weiner, A. C. 1968. Investigations of cherry
rasp leaf disease in California. Plant Dis. Rep. 52:618–622.
-----------------Viral diseases, continued, Plate 206, page 413
Other nepoviruses
Barnett, O. W., Reddick, B. B., Burrows, P. M., and Baxter, L. W. Jr. 1989. Characterization of
dogwood mosaic nepovirus from Cornus florida. Phytopathology 79:951–958.
Cooper, J. I. 1993. Virus diseases of trees and shrubs, 2nd ed. Chapman & Hall, London. 205 pp.
Schmelzer, K. 1962. Untersuchungen an Viren der Zier- und Wild-gehölze. 2. Mitteilung:
Virosen an Forsythia, Lonicera, Ligustrum, und Laburnum. Phytopathol. Z. 46:105–138.
-----------------Diseases caused by carlaviruses: poplar mosaic, lilac mottle, others
Biddle, P. G., and Tinsley, T. W. 1971. Poplar mosaic in Great Britain. New Phytol. 70:61–66.
Biddle, P. G., and Tinsley, T. W. 1971. Some effects of poplar mosaic virus on the growth of
poplar trees. New Phytol. 70:67–75.
Brunt, A., Crabtree, K., Dallwitz, M., Gibbs, A., and Watson, L., eds. 1996. Viruses of plants.
CAB International, Wallingford, UK. 1484 pp.
Cooper, J. I. 1993. Virus diseases of trees and shrubs, 2nd ed. Chapman & Hall, London. 205 pp.
Cooper, J. I., and Edwards, M. L. 1981. The distribution of poplar mosaic virus in hybrid poplars
and virus detection by ELISA. Ann. Appl. Biol. 99:53–61.
Cooper, J. I., Edwards, M. L., and Siwecki, R. 1986. The detection of poplar mosaic virus and its
occurrence in a range of clones in England and Poland. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 16:116–125.
Kontzog, H. G., and Ebrahim, N. F. 1992. Determination and evaluation of quantitative virus
resistance in poplars inoculated with poplar mosaic virus (PopMV). Eur. J. For. Pathol.
22:193–203.
Kurstak, E., ed. 1981. Handbook of plant virus infections. Comparative diagnosis.
Elsevier/North Holland Biomedical Press, Amsterdam. 943 pp.
Navratil, S. 1979. Virus and virus-like diseases of poplar: are they threatening diseases? Rep. 19
in: Poplar research, management, and utilization in Canada. D. C. F. Fayle, A. Zsuffa, and H.
W. Anderson, eds. Ont. Minist. Nat. Resour. For. Res. Inf. Pap. 102. 17 pp.
256
Navratil, S., and Boyer, M. G. 1968. The identification of poplar mosaic virus in Canada. Can. J.
Bot. 46:722–723.
Navratil, S., and Boyer, M. G. 1972. Ultrastructural changes in leaf tissue of Populus deltoides
subsp. angulata Ait. infected with poplar mosaic virus. Can. J. For. Res. 2:308–312.
Waterworth, H. E. 1972. Purification, serology, and properties of a virus from lilac, Syringa
oblata affinis. Plant Dis. Rep. 56:923–926.
-----------------Viral diseases, continued, Plate 207, page 415
Diseases caused by ilarviruses: sour cherry yellows, Prunus necrotic ringspot, apple mosaic, rose
mosaic, others
Brunt, A., Crabtree, K., Dallwitz, M., Gibbs, A., and Watson, L., eds. 1996. Viruses of plants.
CAB International, Wallingford, UK. 1484 pp.
Commonwealth Mycological Institute and Association of Applied Biologists. 1970–1989.
CMI/AAB descriptions of plant viruses Sets 1–22, Nos. 1–354. Commonw. Agric. Bur.,
Farnham Royal, Slough, UK.
Helguera, P. R., Docampo, D. M., Nome, S. F., and Ducasse, D. A. 2002. Enhanced detection of
Prune dwarf virus in peach leaves by immunocapture-reverse transcription-polymerase chain
reaction with nested polymerase chain reaction (IC-RT-PCR nested PCR). J. Phytopathol.
150:94–96.
Kelley, R. D., and Cameron, H. R. 1986. Location of prune dwarf and Prunus necrotic ringspot
viruses associated with sweet cherry pollen and seed. Phytopathology 76:317–322.
Kumar, J., Chaube, H. S., Singh, U. S., and Mukhopadhyay, A. N., eds. 1992. Plant diseases of
international importance. Vol. III. Diseases of fruit crops. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs,
NJ. 456 pp.
Kurstak, E., ed. 1981. Handbook of plant virus infections. Comparative diagnosis.
Elsevier/North Holland Biomedical Press, Amsterdam. 943 pp.
Ogawa, J. M., and English, H. 1991. Diseases of temperate zone tree fruit and nut crops. Univ.
Cal. Div. Agric. Nat. Resour. Pub. 3345. 461 pp.
Pine, T. S., Gilmer, R. M., Moore, J. D., Nyland, G., and Welsh, M. F., eds. 1976. Virus diseases
and noninfectious disorders of stone fruits in North America. USDA Agric. Handb. 437. 433
pp.
Sweet, J. B. 1980. Fruit tree virus infections of woody exotic and indigenous plants in Britain.
Acta Phytopathol. Acad. Sci. Hung. 15:231–238.
-----------------Prunus necrotic ringspot virus
Brunt, A., Crabtree, K., Dallwitz, M., Gibbs, A., and Watson, L., eds. 1996. Viruses of plants.
CAB International, Wallingford, UK. 1484 pp.
Cameron, H. R., Milbrath, J. A., and Tate, L. A. 1973. Pollen transmission of Prunus ringspot
virus in prune and sour cherry orchards. Plant Dis. Rep. 57:241–243.
Cole, A., Mink, G. I., and Regev, S. 1982. Location of Prunus necrotic ringspot virus on pollen
grains from infected almond and cherry trees. Phytopathology 72:1542–1545.
Commonwealth Mycological Institute and Association of Applied Biologists. 1970–1989.
CMI/AAB descriptions of plant viruses Sets 1–22, Nos. 1–354. Commonw. Agric. Bur.,
Farnham Royal, Slough, UK.
257
Cooper, J. I. 1993. Virus diseases of trees and shrubs, 2nd ed. Chapman & Hall, London. 205 pp.
Kumar, J., Chaube, H. S., Singh, U. S., and Mukhopadhyay, A. N., eds. 1992. Plant diseases of
international importance. Volume III. Diseases of fruit crops. Prentice-Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, NJ. 456 pp.
Kurstak, E., ed. 1981. Handbook of plant virus infections. Comparative diagnosis.
Elsevier/North Holland Biomedical Press, Amsterdam. 943 pp.
Ogawa, J. M., and English, H. 1991. Diseases of temperate zone tree fruit and nut crops. Univ.
Cal. Div. Agric. Nat. Resour. Pub. 3345. 461 pp.
Pine, T. S., Gilmer, R. M., Moore, J. D., Nyland, G., and Welsh, M. F., eds. 1976. Virus diseases
and noninfectious disorders of stone fruits in North America. USDA Agric. Handb. 437. 433
pp.
Sweet, J. B. 1980. Fruit tree virus infections of woody exotic and indigenous plants in Britain.
Acta Phytopathol. Acad. Sci. Hung. 15:231–238.
-----------------Apple mosaic virus
Aramburu, J., and Rovira, M. 1998. The effects of apple mosaic ilarvirus (ApMV) on hazelnut
(Corylus avellana L.). J. Hortic. Sci. Biotechnol. 73:97–101.
Brunt, A., Crabtree, K., Dallwitz, M., Gibbs, A., and Watson, L., eds. 1996. Viruses of plants.
CAB International, Wallingford, UK. 1484 pp.
Cooper, J. I. 1993. Virus diseases of trees and shrubs, 2nd ed. Chapman & Hall, London. 205 pp.
Fridlund, P. R., ed. 1989. Virus and viruslike diseases of pome fruits and simulating
noninfectious disorders. SP0003 Coop. Ext. Wash. State Univ. 330 pp.
Gotlieb, A. R., and Berbee, J. G. 1973. Line pattern of birch caused by apple mosaic virus.
Phytopathology 63:1470–1477.
Kishi, K., Abiko, K., Takanashi, K., and Yano, R. 1973. Studies on the virus diseases of stone
fruit. VII. Line pattern of plum and flowering cherry. Ann. Phytopathol. Soc. Jap. 39:288–
296.
Kumar, J., Chaube, H. S., Singh, U. S., and Mukhopadhyay, A. N., eds. 1992. Plant diseases of
international importance. Vol. III. Diseases of fruit crops. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs,
NJ. 456 pp.
Kurstak, E., ed. 1981. Handbook of plant virus infections. Comparative diagnosis.
Elsevier/North Holland Biomedical Press, Amsterdam. 943 pp.
Menzel, W., Jelkmann, W., and Maiss, E. 2002. Detection of four apple viruses by multiplex
RT-PCR assays with coamplification of plant mRNA as internal control. J. Virol. Meth.
99:81–92.
Ogawa, J. M., and English, H. 1991. Diseases of temperate zone tree fruit and nut crops. Univ.
Cal. Div. Agric. Nat. Resour. Pub. 3345. 461 pp.
Polak, Z., and Zieglerova, J. 1996. Apple mosaic virus associated with decline of silver birch.
Ochrana Rostlin 32:15–18.
Posnette, A. F., ed. 1963. Virus diseases of apples and pears. Commonw. Bur. Hortic. Plantation
Crops Tech. Communic. 30. 141 pp.
Sweet, J. B. 1980. Fruit tree virus infections of woody exotic and indigenous plants in Britain.
Acta Phytopathol. Acad. Sci. Hung. 15:231–238.
Sweet, J. B., and Barbara, D. J. 1979. A yellow mosaic disease of horse chestnut (Aesculus spp.)
caused by apple mosaic virus. Ann. Appl. Biol. 92:335–341.
258
-----------------Viral diseases, continued, Plate 208, page 417
Rose mosaic
Commonwealth Mycological Institute and Association of Applied Biologists. 1970–1989.
CMI/AAB descriptions of plant viruses Sets 1–22, Nos. 1–354. Commonw. Agric. Bur.,
Farnham Royal, Slough, UK.
Cooper, J. I. 1993. Virus diseases of trees and shrubs, 2nd ed. Chapman & Hall, London. 205 pp.
Horst, R. K. 1983. Compendium of rose diseases. Am. Phytopathol. Soc., St. Paul, MN. 50 pp.
Ikin, R., and Frost, R. R. 1974. Virus diseases of roses I. Their occurrence in the United
Kingdom. Phytopathol. Z. 79:160–168.
Kurstak, E., ed. 1981. Handbook of plant virus infections. Comparative diagnosis.
Elsevier/North Holland Biomedical Press, Amsterdam. 943 pp.
Secor, G. A., and Nyland, G. 1978. Rose ring pattern: a component of the rose-mosaic complex.
Phytopathology 68:1005–1010.
Sweet, J. B. 1980. Fruit tree virus infections of woody exotic and indigenous plants in Britain.
Acta Phytopathol. Acad. Sci. Hung. 15:231–238.
Thomas, B. J. 1981. Studies on rose mosaic disease in field-grown roses produced in the United
Kingdom. Ann. Appl. Biol. 98:419–429.
Thomas, B. J. 1982. The effect of Prunus necrotic ringspot virus on field-grown roses. Ann.
Appl. Biol. 100:129–134.
Thomas, B. J. 1984. Rose mosaic disease: symptoms induced in roses by graft inoculation with
both Prunus necrotic ringspot and apple mosaic viruses. Plant Pathol. 33:155–160.
-----------------Other ilarviruses
Jones, A. T., and Mayo, M. A. 1973. Purification and properties of elm mottle virus. Ann. Appl.
Biol. 75:347–357.
Schmelzer, K. 1969. Das Ulmenscheckungs-Virus. Phytopathol. Z. 64:39–67.
-----------------Diseases associated with cucumoviruses
Barnett, O. W., and Baxter, L. W. 1973. Cucumber mosaic virus on Nandina domestica in South
Carolina. Plant Dis. Rep. 57:917–920.
Brunt, A., Crabtree, K., Dallwitz, M., Gibbs, A., and Watson, L., eds. 1996. Viruses of plants.
CAB International, Wallingford, UK. 1484 pp.
Commonwealth Mycological Institute and Association of Applied Biologists. 1970–1989.
CMI/AAB descriptions of plant viruses Sets 1–22, Nos. 1–354. Commonw. Agric. Bur.,
Farnham Royal, Slough, UK.
Cooper, J. I. 1993. Virus diseases of trees and shrubs, 2nd ed. Chapman & Hall, London. 205 pp.
Davis, R. I., Brown, J. F., and Pone, S. P. 1996. Causal relationship between cucumber mosaic
cucumovirus and kava dieback in the South Pacific. Plant Dis. 80:194–198.
Harris, K. F., Smith, O. P., and Duffus, J. E., eds. 2001. Virus-insect-plant interactions.
Academic Press, San Diego. 376 pp.
Lee, S., Park, S., and Choi, J. 1997. Characterization of an isolate of cucumber mosaic virus
from forsythia (Forsythia koreana Nakai.). Korean J. Plant Pathol. 13:358–363.
259
Pleše, N., and Miličić, D. 1973. Two viruses isolated from Maclura pomifera. Phytopathol. Z.
77:178–183.
Polak, Z. 1996. Scarlet maple—a new host of cucumber mosaic virus. Ochrana Rostlin 32:73–
76.
Polak, Z. 1999. Mild mosaic of cucumber and tulip trees caused by cucumber mosaic virus.
Zahradnictvi 26:25–26.
Quiaoit, A. R., and Fulton, R. W. 1966. A disease of Rhamnus cathartica caused by cucumber
mosaic virus. Plant Dis. Rep. 50:613–614.
Schmelzer, K.1968. Neue Befunde über die geographische Verbreitung des Robinienmosaiks
und über seine ursachlichen Viren. Arch. Forstw. 17:621–628.
Schmelzer, K.1974. Untersuchungen an Viren der Zier- und Wildgehölze 8. Mitt.: Neue Befunde
an Forsythia, Hydrangea und Philadelphus sowie Viren und Virosen an Rhamnus,
Centaurea, Galvezia, Cistus, Forestiera, Abeliophyllum, Celastrus, Staphylea und Crambe.
Zentralbl. Bakteriol. Parasitenk. Infektionskr. Hyg. II 129:139–168.
Wilkinson, R. W. 1953. Berberis thunbergii, a host of cucumber mosaic virus (Marmor
cucumeris). (Abstr.) Phytopathology 43:489.
-----------------Viral Diseases, continued, Plate 209, page 419
Diseases associated with potyviruses
Brunt, A., Crabtree, K., Dallwitz, M., Gibbs, A., and Watson, L., eds. 1996. Viruses of plants.
CAB International, Wallingford, UK. 1484 pp.
Clover, G. R. G., Tang, Z., Smales, T. E., and Pearson, M. N. 2003. Taxonomy of Wisteria vein
mosaic virus and extensions to its host range and geographical distribution. Plant Pathol.
52:92–96.
Cooper, J. I. 1993. Virus diseases of trees and shrubs, 2nd ed. Chapman & Hall, London. 205 pp.
Ebrahim, N. F., and Heitefuss, R. 1989. Isolation of a potyvirus from diseased Norway spruce in
the Bavarian forest. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 19:222–230.
Forster, R. L. S., and Milne, K. S. 1976. Daphne virus Y: a potyvirus from daphne. N.Z. J. Agric.
Res. 19:359–371.
Gildow, F. E., and Moorman, G. W. 2002. Plum pox virus (PPV) on ornamentals. Penn. State
Univ. Coop. Ext. Plant Dis. Facts. 6 pp. Internet pub.
Gonsalves, D. 1998. Control of papaya ringspot virus in papaya: a case study. Annu. Rev.
Phytopathol. 36:415–437.
Hadidi, A., ed. 1998. Proceedings of the 17th international symposium on virus and virus-like
diseases of temperate fruit crops. Fruit tree diseases. Acta Hortic. No. 472. Vol. 1:1–337, vol.
2:341–794.
Kurstak, E., ed. 1981. Handbook of plant virus infections. Comparative diagnosis.
Elsevier/North Holland Biomedical Press, Amsterdam. 943 pp.
Martin, R. R., Berbee, J. G., and Omuemu, J. O. 1982. Isolation of a potyvirus from declining
clones of Populus. Phytopathology 72:1158–1162.
Mayhew, D. E., and Tidwell, T. E. 1978. Palm mosaic. Plant Dis. Rep. 62:803–806.
Nemeth, M. 1994. History and importance of plum pox in stone-fruit production. Bull. OEPP
24:525–536.
Pleše, N., and Miličić, D. 1973. Two viruses isolated from Maclura pomifera. Phytopathol. Z.
77:178–183.
260
Provvidenti, R., and Hunter, J. E. 1975. Bean yellow mosaic virus infection in Cladrastis lutea,
an ornamental leguminous tree. Plant Dis. Rep. 59:86–87.
Verma, H. N., Vivek, P., Prasad, V., Heywood, W. H., and McNeil, J. 1986. Virus diseases in
pawpaw (papaya). Rev. Trop. Plant Pathol. 2:311–327.
-----------------Diseases associated with foveaviruses
Gentit, P., Foissac, X., Svanella-Dumas, L., Peypelut, M., Macquaire, G., and Candresse, T.
2002. Molecular characterization of foveaviruses associated with the cherry necrotic mottle
leaf disease and complete sequencing of an European isolate of cherry green ring mottle
virus. Arch. Virol. 147:1033–1042.
Pine, T. S., Gilmer, R. M., Nyland, G., Moore, J. D., and Welsh, M. F. eds. 1976. Virus diseases
and noninfectious disorders of stone fruits in North America. U. S. Dep. Agric. Handb. 437.
433 pp.
Rott, M. E., and Jelkmann, W. 2001. Characterization and detection of several filamentous
viruses of cherry: adaptation of an alternative cloning method (DOP-PCR), and modification
of an RNA extraction protocol. Eur. J. Plant Pathol. 107:411–420.
Zagula, K. R., Aref, N. M., and Ramsdell, D. C. 1989. Purification, serology, and some
properties of a mechanically transmissible virus associated with green ring mottle disease in
peach and cherry. Phytopathology 79:451–456.
Zhang, Y. P., Kirkpatrick, B. C., Smart, C. D., and Uyemoto, J. K. 1998. cDNA cloning and
molecular characterization of cherry green ring mottle virus. J. Gen. Virol. 79:2275–2281.
Zhang, Y. P., Kirkpatrick, B. C., Terlizzi, B. D., and Uyemoto, J. K. 2000. Comparison of cherry
green ring mottle virus strains using RT-PCR and coat protein sequence phylogeny. J. Plant
Pathol. 82:49–53.
-----------------Viral diseases, continued, Plate 210, page 421
Diseases associated with varicosaviruses. Infectious variegation of camellia
Brunt, A., Crabtree, K., Dallwitz, M., Gibbs, A., and Watson, L., eds. 1996. Viruses of plants.
CAB International, Wallingford, UK. 1484 pp.
Cooper, J. I. 1993. Virus diseases of trees and shrubs, 2nd ed. Chapman & Hall, London. 205 pp.
Creze, J. 1983. Where do we stand in regard to the grafting of apex in camellia? Int. Camellia J.
No. 15:56–60.
Gailhofer, M., Thaler, I., and Miličić, D. 1988. Occurrence of camellia leaf yellow mottle virus
(CLYMV) on east Adriatic coast. Acta Hortic. No. 234:385–391.
Hiruki, C. 1985. A preliminary study on infectious variegation of Camellia. Acta Hortic. No.
164:55–59.
Milbrath, J., A., and McWhorter, F. P. 1946. Yellow-mottle leaf, a virus disease of camellia.
Am. Camellia Yearb. 1946:51–53.
Plakidas, A. G. 1954. Transmission of leaf and flower variegation in camellias by grafting.
Phytopathology 44:14–18.
Plakidas, A. G. 1962. Strains of the color-breaking virus of camellia. Phytopathology 52:77–79.
Plakidas, A. G. 1991. Transmission of the color-breaking virus through root grafts. Am.
Camellia Yearb. 46:51–53.
------------------
261
Diseases associated with tobamoviruses. Tobacco mosaic virus, Tomato mosaic virus, others
Adkins, S., Kamenova, I., Achor, D., and Lewandowski, D. J. 2003. Biological and molecular
characterization of a novel tobamovirus with a unique host range. Plant Dis. 87:1190–1196.
Amico, L. A., O'Shea, M. T., and Castello, J. D. 1985. Transmission of tobacco mosaic and
tobacco ringspot viruses from Moraine ash in New York. Plant Dis. 69:542.
Bachand, G. D., Castello, J. D., Schaedle, M., Stehman, S. V., and Livingston, W. H. 1996.
Effects of tomato mosaic tobamovirus infection on red spruce seedlings. Can. J. For. Res.
26:973–981.
Castello, J. D., Amico, L. A., and O'Shea, M. T. 1984. Detection of tobacco mosaic and tobacco
ringspot viruses in white ash trees by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Plant Dis.
68:787–790.
Castello, J. D., Hibben, C. R., and Jacobi, V. 1992. Isolation of tomato mosaic virus from lilac.
Plant Dis. 76:696–699.
Commonwealth Mycological Institute and Association of Applied Biologists. 1970–1989.
CMI/AAB descriptions of plant viruses Sets 1–22, Nos. 1–354. Commonw. Agric. Bu.,
Farnham Royal, Slough, UK.
Cooper, J. I. 1993. Virus diseases of trees and shrubs, 2nd ed. Chapman & Hall, London. 205 pp.
Ferris, M. A., Castello, J. D., and Sinclair, W. A. 1989. Effects of virus and mycoplasmalike
organism infection on green and white ash. Phytopathology 79:579–583.
Fillhart, R., Bachand, G. D., and Castello, J. D. 1998. Detection of infectious tobamoviruses in
forest soils. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 64:1430–1435.
Fuhrling, M., and Buttner, C. 1998. Detection of tobamoviruses in sycamore maple (Acer
pseudoplatanus) exhibiting mottling and leaf deformation. Forstwissensch. Centralbl.
117:92–97.
Jacobi, V., and Castello, J. D. 1992. Infection of red spruce, black spruce, and balsam fir
seedlings with tomato mosaic virus. Can. J. For. Res. 22:919–924.
Jacobi, V., Castello, J. D., and Flachmann, M. 1992. Isolation of tomato mosaic virus from red
spruce. Plant Dis. 76:518–522.
Kopp, R. F., Castello, J. D., and Abrahamson, L. P. 1999. Viruses in Salix grown for bioenergy.
Eur. J. For. Pathol. 29:117–122.
Kurstak, E., ed. 1981. Handbook of plant virus infections. Comparative diagnosis.
Elsevier/North Holland Biomedical Press, Amsterdam. 943 pp.
Lana, A. F., Thomas, O. T., and Peterson, J. F. 1980. A virus isolated from sugar maple.
Phytopathol. Z. 97:214–218.
Lana, A. O., and Agrios, G. N. 1974. Properties of a strain of tobacco mosaic virus isolated from
white ash trees. Phytopathology 64:1490–1495.
Lana, A. O., and Agrios, G. N. 1974. Transmission of a mosaic disease of white ash to woody
and herbaceous hosts. Plant Dis. Rep. 58:536–540.
Mueller, W. C. 1967. Tobacco mosaic virus obtained from diseased wisteria and elder. Plant Dis.
Rep. 51:1053–1054.
Nienhaus, F., and Yarwood, C. E. 1972. Transmission of virus from oak leaves fractionated with
Sephadex. Phytopathology 62:313–315.
Reddick, B. B. 1989. Isolation and partial characterization of a tobamovirus from flowering
dogwood in Tennessee. Plant Dis. 73:174–176.
262
Shiel, P. J., and Castello, J. D. 1985. Detection of tobacco mosaic and tobacco ringspot viruses in
herbaceous and woody plants near virus-infected white ash trees in central New York. Plant
Dis. 69:791–795.
Srinivasan, K. G., Narendrakumar, R., and Wong, S. M. 2002. Hibiscus virus S is a new
subgroup II tobamovirus: evidence from its unique coat protein and movement protein
sequences. Arch. Virol. 147:1585–1598.
Sun, L. J. 1986. Identification of two viruses isolated from Paulownia tomentosa. Sci. Silvae
Sinicae 22:142–146.
Triolo, E., Materazzi, A., and Toni, S. 1996. An isolate of tobacco mosaic tobamovirus from
Olea europaea L. Adv. Hortic. Sci. 10:39–45.
-----------------Viral diseases, continued, Plate 211, page 423
Diseases associated with rhabdoviruses
Bertaccini, A., and Bellardi, M. G. 1992. A rhabdovirus inducing vein yellowing in croton. Plant
Pathol. 41:79–82.
Credi, R. 1991. Rhabdovirus-like particles associated with a vein yellowing disease of Laburnum
anagyroides occurring in Italy. Phytopathol. Medit. 30:77–82.
Kurstak, E., ed. 1981. Handbook of plant virus infections. Comparative diagnosis.
Elsevier/North Holland Biomedical Press, Amsterdam. 943 pp.
Lockhart, B. E. L. 1987. Evidence for identity of plant rhabdoviruses causing vein-yellowing
diseases of tomato and Hibiscus rosa-sinensis. Plant Dis. 71:731-733.
Navratil, S. 1979. Virus and virus-like diseases of poplar: are they threatening diseases? Rep. 19
in: Poplar research, management, and utilization in Canada. D. C. F. Fayle, A. Zsuffa, and H.
W. Anderson, eds. Ont. Minist. Nat. Resour. For. Res. Inf. Pap. 102. 17 pp.
Navratil, S. 1981. A rhabdovirus associated with vein yellowing and vein necrosis of balsam
poplar. (Abstr.) Phytopathology 71:245.
Plavšić, B., Miličić, D., and Erić, Z. 1984. Occurrence of a rhabdovirus in Hibiscus rosa-sinensis
L. (Abstr.). Page 35 in: 6th International Symposium on Virus Diseases of Ornamental
Plants, Cornell Univ., Ithaca, NY, 1984.
Plavšić-Banjac, B., Miličić, D., and Erić, Z. 1976. Rhabdovirus in Pittosporum tobira plants
suffering from vein yellowing disease. Phytopathol. Z. 86:225–232.
Pleše, N., and Erić, Z. 1980. Rhabdovirus in Euonymus japonica. Acta Phytopathol. Acad. Sci.
Hung. 15:291–295.
-----------------Diseases associated with necroviruses. Tobacco necrosis virus
Cooper, J. I. 1993. Virus diseases of trees and shrubs, 2nd ed. Chapman & Hall, London. 205 pp.
Hibben, C. R., Bozarth, R. F., and Reese, J. 1979. Identification of tobacco necrosis virus in
deteriorating clones of aspen. For. Sci. 25:557–567.
Kopp, R. F., Castello, J. D., and Abrahamson, L. P. 1999. Viruses in Salix grown for bioenergy.
Eur. J. For. Pathol. 29:117–122.
Kurstak, E., ed. 1981. Handbook of plant virus infections. Comparative diagnosis.
Elsevier/North Holland Biomedical Press, Amsterdam. 943 pp.
Nienhaus, F., Buttner, C., and Hamacher, J. 1990. Virus infection of forest trees by mechanical
transmission. J. Phytopathol. 129:141–150.
263
Nienhaus, F., and Castello, J. D. 1989. Viruses in forest trees. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 27:165–
186.
Schier, G. A. 1975. Deterioration of aspen clones in the middle Rocky Mountains. USDA For.
Serv. Res. Paper INT-170. 14 pp.
-----------------Diseases caused by viruslike agents not fully characterized. Rose rosette.
Allington, W. B., Staples, R., and Viehmeyer, G. 1968. Transmission of rose rosette virus by the
eriophyid mite Phyllocoptes fructiphilus. J. Econ. Entomol. 61:1137–1140.
Amrine, J. W. Jr., Hindal, D. F., Stasny, T. A., Williams, R. L., and Coffman, C. C. 1988.
Transmission of the rose rosette disease agent to Rosa multiflora by Phyllocoptes fructiphilus
(Acari: Eriophyidae). Entomol. News 99:239–252.
Di, R., Hill, J. H., and Epstein, A. H. 1990. Double-stranded RNA associated with the rose
rosette disease of multiflora rose. Plant Dis. 74:56–58.
Epstein, A. H., and Hill, J. H. 1995. The biology of rose rosette disease: a mite-associated
disease of uncertain aetiology. J. Phytopathol. 143:353–360.
Epstein, A. H., and Hill, J. H., eds. 1995. Proceedings of the international symposium: Rose
rosette and other eriophyid mite–transmitted plant disease agents of uncertain etiology,
Ames, IA, 1994. Iowa State Univ., Ames. 82 pp.
Epstein, A. H., and Hill, J. H. 1999. Status of rose rosette disease as a biological control for
multiflora rose. Plant Dis. 83:92–101.
Epstein, A. H., Hill, J. H., and Nutter, F. W. Jr. 1997. Augmentation of rose rosette disease for
biocontrol of multiflora rose (Rosa multiflora). Weed Sci. 45:172–178.
Gergerich, R. C., and Kim, K. S. 1983. A description of the causal agent of rose rosette disease.
Ark. Farm Res. 32:7.
Harris, K. F., Smith, O. P., and Duffus, J. E., eds. 2001. Virus-insect-plant interactions.
Academic Press, San Diego. 376 pp.
Thomas, H. E., and Scott, C. E. 1953. Rosette of rose. Phytopathology 43:218–219.
-----------------Viral diseases, continued, Plate 212, page 425
Rhododendron necrotic ringspot
Coyier, D. L., Stace-Smith, R., Allen T. C., and Leung, E. 1977. Viruslike particles associated
with a rhododendron necrotic ringspot disease. Phytopathology 67:1090–1095.
-----------------Viral diseases of aspen and poplar
Boyer, M. G., and Navratil, S. 1970. Some aspects of transmission and electron microscopy of
necrotic leaf spot of aspen. Can. J. Bot. 48:1141–1145.
Navratil, S. 1979. Virus and virus-like diseases of poplar: are they threatening diseases? Rep. 19
in: Poplar research, management, and utilization in Canada. D. C. F. Fayle, A. Zsuffa, and H.
W. Anderson, eds. Ont. Minist. Nat. Resour. For. Res. Inf. Pap. 102. 17 pp.
-----------------Redbud diseases
264
Harris, K. F., Smith, O. P., and Duffus, J. E., eds. 2001. Virus-insect-plant interactions.
Academic Press, San Diego. 376 pp.
Kim, K. S., and Martin, E. M. 1978. Viruslike particles associated with yellow ringspot of
redbud. (Abstr.) Phytopathol. News 12:199.
Rabiti, A. L., and Marani, F. 1992. Alfalfa mosaic virus (AMV) isolated from Cercis
siliquastrum. Phytopathol. Medit. 31:71–76.
-----------------Hibiscus diseases
Lockhart, B. E. L. 1987. Evidence for identity of plant rhabdoviruses causing vein-yellowing
diseases of tomato and Hibiscus rosa-sinensis. Plant Dis. 71:731–733.
Plavšić, B., Miličić, D., and Erić, Z. 1984. Occurrence of a rhabdovirus in Hibiscus rosa-sinensis
L. (Abstr.). Page 35 in: 6th International Symposium on Virus Diseases of Ornamental
Plants, Cornell Univ., Ithaca, NY, 1984.
Waterworth, H. E., Lawson, R. H., and Monroe, R. L. 1976. Purification and properties of
Hibiscus chlorotic ringspot virus. Phytopathology 66:570–575.
-----------------Mosaic and line patterns in Chaenomeles
Gilmer, R. M. 1958. Two viruses that induce mosaic of apple. Phytopathology 48:432–434.
Kishi, K., Abiko, K., Takanaski, K., and Yano, R. 1973. Studies on the virus diseases of stone
fruit. VII. Line pattern of plum and flowering cherry. Ann. Phytopathol. Soc. Jap. 39:288–
296.
Sweet, J. B. 1980. Fruit tree virus infections of woody exotic and indigenous plants in Britain.
Acta Phytopathol. Acad. Sci. Hung. 15:231–238.
Sweet, J. B., and Campbell, A. I. 1976. Pome fruit virus infections of some woody ornamental
and indigenous species of Rosaceae. J. Hortic. Sci. 51:91–97.
-----------------Viral diseases, continued, Plate 213, page 427
Apple flatlimb
Fridlund, P. R., ed. 1989. Virus and viruslike diseases of pome fruits and simulating
noninfectious disorders. Wash. State Univ. Coop. Ext. SP0003. 330 pp.
-----------------Viruses of Magnolia, Liriodendron, Albizia
Barnett, O. W., Shelburne, V. B., Yao, J., and Tainter, F. H. 1996. A new virus disease of
yellow-poplar. Plant Dis. 80:1317–1319.
Cooper, J. I. 1993. Virus diseases of trees and shrubs, 2nd ed. Chapman & Hall, London. 205 pp.
Martin, E. M., and Kim, K. S. 1987. A new type of plant virus causing striped chlorosis of
mimosa. Phytopathology 77:935–940.
Polak, Z. 1999. Mild mosaic of cucumber and tulip trees caused by cucumber mosaic virus.
Zahradnictvi—Hortic. Sci. 26:25–26.
Schmelzer, K., and Schmelzer, A. 1968. Virusbefall an Magnolien (Magnolia spp.). Acta
Phytopathol. Acad. Sci. Hung. 3:411–413.
------------------
265
Oak viruses
Barnett, O. W. 1971. Mosaic of blackjack oak. Plant Dis. Rep 55:411.
Buttner, C., and Fuhrling, M. 1996. Studies on virus infection of diseased Quercus robur (L.)
from forest stands in northern Germany. Ann. Sci. For. 53:383–388.
Cooper, J. I. 1993. Virus diseases of trees and shrubs, 2nd ed. Chapman & Hall, London. 205 pp.
Horvath, J., Eke, I., Gal, T., and Dezéry, M. 1975. Demonstration of virus-like particles in sweet
chestnut and oak with leaf deformations in Hungary. Z. Pflanzenkr. Pflanzenschutz 82:498–
502.
Kim, K. S., and Fulton, J. P. 1973. Association of viruslike particles with a ringspot disease of
oak. Plant Dis. Rep. 57:1029–1031.
Nienhaus, F. 1975. Viren und virusverdächtige Erkrankungen in Eichen (Quercus robur und
Quercus sessiliflora). Z. Pflanzenkr. Pflanzenschutz 82:739–749.
Nienhaus, F., and Yarwood, C. E. 1972. Transmission of virus from oak leaves fractionated with
Sephadex. Phytopathology 62:313–315.
-----------------Viral diseases of conifers
Bachand, G. D., Castello, J. D., Schaedle, M., Stehman, S. V., and Livingston, W. H. 1996.
Effects of tomato mosaic tobamovirus infection on red spruce seedlings. Canadian Journal of
Forest Research 26:973-981.
Biddle, P. G., and Tinsley, T. W. 1968. Virus diseases of conifers in Great Britain. Nature
219:1387–1388.
Castello, J. D., Rogers, S. O., Bachand, G. D., Fillhart, R. C., Murray, J. S., Weidemann, K.,
Bachand, M., and Almond, M. A. 2000. Detection and partial characterization of
tenuiviruses from black spruce. Plant Dis. 84:143–147.
Castello, J. D., Wargo, P. M., Jacobi, V., Bachand, G. D., Tobi, D. R., and Rogers, M. A. M.
1995. Tomato mosaic virus infection of red spruce on Whiteface Mountain, New York:
prevalence and potential impact. Can. J. For. Res. 25:1340–1345.
Čech, M., Králik, O., and Blattný, C. 1961. Rod-shaped particles associated with virosis of
spruce. Phytopathology 51:183–185.
Cooper, J. I. 1993. Virus diseases of trees and shrubs, 2nd ed. Chapman & Hall, London. 205 pp.
Ebrahim, N. F., and Heitefuss, R. 1989. Isolation of a potyvirus from diseased Norway spruce in
the Bavarian forest. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 19:222–230.
Flachmann, M., Lesemann, D. E., Frenzel, B., and Koenig, R. 1990. Isometric virus-like
particles in Abies alba Mill. and other Abies species: partial purification and improved
detection by means of immunoelectron microscopy. J. Phytopathol. 129:193–202.
Nienhaus, F., and Castello, J. D. 1989. Viruses in forest trees. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 27:165–
186.
-----------------Nematode damage, Plate 214, page 429
Overview of plant-parasitic nematodes
Baker, T. J., and Gowen, S. R. 1996. Staining: nematodes and arbuscular mycorrhizae in the
same root sample. Fund. Appl. Nematol. 19:607–608.
266
Barker, K. R., and Davis, E. L. 1996. Assessing plant-nematode infestations and infections. Adv.
Bot. Res. Incorp. Adv. Plant Pathol. 23:103–136.
Barker, K. R., Pederson, G. A., and Windham, G. L., eds. 1998. Plant and nematode interactions.
Am. Soc. Agron. and Crop Sci. Soc. Am., Madison, WI. 771 pp.
Benson, D. M., and Barker, K. R. 1985. Nematodes—a threat to ornamental plants in the nursery
and landscape. Plant Dis. 69:97–100.
Commonwealth Institute of Helminthology. 1972–present. C.I.H. descriptions of plant parasitic
nematodes. Sets 1– . Commonw. Inst. Helminthol., St. Albans, Herts, UK.
Dropkin, V. H. 1989. Introduction to plant nematology. 2nd ed. Wiley, New York. 304 pp.
Evans, K., Trudgill, D. L. and Webster, J. M., eds. 1993. Plant parasitic nematodes in temperate
agriculture. CAB International, Wallingford, UK. 648 pp.
Fenoll, C. C., Grundler, F. M. W., and Ohl, S. A., eds. 1997. Cellular and molecular aspects of
plant-nematode interactions. Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht. 286 pp.
Florida Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services, Division of Plant Industry. 1962–
present. Nematology Circulars 1– .
Halbrendt, J. M. 1996. Allelopathy in the management of plant-parasitic nematodes. J. Nematol.
28:8–14.
Jones, R. K., and Benson, D. M., eds. 2001. Diseases of woody ornamentals and trees in
nurseries. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 482 pp.
Maggenti, A. R. 1981. Nematodes: development as plant parasites. Annu. Rev. Microbiol.
35:135–154.
Mai, W. F., and Mullin, P. G. 1996. Plant-parasitic nematodes. A pictorial key to genera. 5th ed.
Cornell Univ. Press, Ithaca, NY. 277 pp.
Nickle, W. R., ed. 1984. Plant and insect nematodes. Marcel Dekker, New York. 925 pp.
Norton, D. C. 1978. Ecology of plant-parasitic nematodes. Wiley, New York. 268 pp.
Ruehle, J. L. 1964. Plant-parasitic nematodes associated with pine species in southern forests.
Plant Dis. Rep. 48:60–61.
Ruehle, J. L. 1967. Distribution of plant-parasitic nematodes associated with forest trees of the
world. USDA For. Serv. Southeast. For. Exp. Stn. 156 pp.
Ruehle, J. L. 1968. Plant-parasitic nematodes associated with southern hardwood and coniferous
forest trees. Plant Dis. Rep. 52:837–839.
Shurtleff, M. C., and Averre, C. W. III. 2000. Diagnosing plant diseases caused by nematodes.
APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 187 pp.
Siddiqi, M. R. 2000. Tylenchida: parasites of plants and insects. 2nd ed. CABI, Wallingford, UK,
New York. 833 pp.
Southey, J. F., ed. 1978. Plant nematology. 3rd ed. HMSO, London. 440 pp.
-----------------Representative nematodes that attack roots
Root knot nematodes
Benson, D. M., and Barker, K. R. 1982. Susceptibility of Japanese boxwood, dwarf gardenia,
Compacta (Japanese) holly, spiny Greek and Blue Rug junipers, and nandina to four
nematode species. Plant Dis. 66:1176–1179.
Benson, D. M., and Barker, K. R. 1985. Nematodes—a threat to ornamental plants in the nursery
and landscape. Plant Dis. 69:97–100.
267
Commonwealth Institute of Helminthology. 1972–present. C.I.H. descriptions of plant parasitic
nematodes. Sets 1– . Commonw. Inst. Helminthol., St. Albans, Herts, UK.
Fernandez, C., Pinochet, J., and Felipe, A. 1993. Influence of temperature on the expression of
resistance in six Prunus rootstocks infected with Meloidogyne incognita. Nematropica
23:195–202.
Karssen, G., and Van Hoenselaar, T. 1998. Revision of the genus Meloidogyne Goldi, 1892
(Nematoda: Heteroderidae) in Europe. Nematologica 44:713–788.
Ko, M. P., Schmitt, D. P., and Saxby, M. 1997. Effects of container bases on the spread of
Meloidogyne incognita in a Hawaiian ornamental nursery. Plant Dis. 81:607–613.
Lamberti, F., and Taylor, C. E., eds. 1979. Root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne species).
Systematics, biology and control. Academic Press, New York. 477 pp.
Lecouls, A. C., Salesses, G., Minot, J. C., Voisin, R., Bonnet, A., and Esmenjaud, D. 1997.
Spectrum of the Ma genes for resistance to Meloidogyne spp. in myrobalan plum. Theor.
Appl. Genet. 95:1325–1334.
Riffle, J. W. 1973. Histopathology of Pinus ponderosa ectomycorrhizae infected with a
Meloidogyne species. Phytopathology 63:1034–1040.
Riffle, J. W., and Kuntz, J. W. 1967. Pathogenicity and host range of Meloidogyne ovalis.
Phytopathology 57:104–107.
Rubio-Cabetas, M. J., Minot, J. C., Voisin, R., and Esmenjaud, D. 2001. Interaction of root-knot
nematodes (RKN) and the bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens in roots of Prunus
cerasifera: evidence of the protective effect of the Ma RKN resistance genes against
expression of crown gall symptoms. Eur. J. Plant Pathol. 107:433–441.
Santamour, F. S. Jr., and Batzli, J. M. 1990. Host checklist of root-knot nematodes on broadleaved landscape trees. J. Arboric. 16:162–168.
Santamour, F. S. Jr., and Riedel, L. G. H. 1993. Susceptibility of various landscape trees to rootknot nematodes. J. Arboric. 19:257–259.
Sasser, J. N., Haasis, F. A., and Cannon, T. F. 1966. Pathogenicity of Meloidogyne species on
Ilex. Plant Dis. Rep. 50:664–668.
Smith-Fiola, D. 1995. Pest resistant ornamental plants. Rutgers Coop Exten., Toms River, NJ. 29
pp.
Strobel, N. E., Hussey, R. S., and Roncadori, R. W. 1982. Interaction of vesicular-arbuscular
mycorrhizal fungi, Meloidogyne incognita, and soil fertility on peach. Phytopathology
72:690–694.
-----------------Nematode damage, continued, Plate 215, page 431
Burrowing nematode
Baker, T. J., and Gowen, S. R. 1996. Staining: nematodes and arbuscular mycorrhizae in the
same root sample. Fund. Appl. Nematol. 19:607–608.
Benson, D. M., and Barker, K. R. 1985. Nematodes—a threat to ornamental plants in the nursery
and landscape. Plant Dis. 69:97–100.
Commonwealth Institute of Helminthology. 1972–present. C.I.H. descriptions of plant parasitic
nematodes. Sets 1– . Commonw. Inst. Helminthol., St. Albans, Herts, UK.
Florida Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services, Division of Plant Industry. 1962–
present. Nematol. Circulars 1– .
268
Kaplan, D. T., Thomas, W. K., Frisse, L. M., Sarah, J. L., Stanton, J. M., Speijer, P. R., Marin,
D. H., and Opperman, C. H. 2000. Phylogenetic analysis of geographically diverse
Radopholus similis via rDNA sequence reveals a monomorphic motif. J. Nematol. 32:134–
142.
Koshy, P. K., and Sosamma, V. K. 1996. Effect of Radopholus similis on growth, flowering and
yield of coconut. J. Plantation Crops 24:157–165.
Norton, D. C. 1978. Ecology of plant-parasitic nematodes. Wiley, New York. 268 pp.
O'Bannon, J. H. 1977. Worldwide dissemination of Radopholus similis and its importance in
crop production. J. Nematol. 9:16–25.
Poucher, C., Ford, H. W., Suit, R. F., and DuCharme, E. P. 1967. Burrowing nematode in citrus.
Fla. Dep. Agric. Div. Plant Indus. Bull. 7. 63 pp.
Whitehead, A. G. 1998. Plant nematode control. CAB International, Wallingford, UK. 384 pp.
-----------------Stunt nematodes
Barker, K. R., Worf, G. L., and Epstein, A. H. 1965. Nematodes associated with the decline of
azaleas in Wisconsin. Plant Dis. Rep. 49:47–49.
Benson, D. M., and Barker, K. R. 1985. Nematodes—a threat to ornamental plants in the nursery
and landscape. Plant Dis. 69:97–100.
Commonwealth Institute of Helminthology. 1972–present. C.I.H. descriptions of plant parasitic
nematodes. Sets 1– . Commonw. Inst. Helminthol., St. Albans, Herts, UK.
Norton, D. C. 1978. Ecology of plant-parasitic nematodes. Wiley, New York. 268 pp.
Whitehead, A. G. 1998. Plant nematode control. CAB International, Wallingford, UK. 384 pp.
-----------------Lesion nematodes
Al-Banna, L., Williamson, V. M., and Gardner, S. L. 1997. Phylogenetic analysis of nematodes
of the genus Pratylenchus using nuclear 26S rDNA. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 7:94–102.
Baker, T. J., and Gowen, S. R. 1996. Staining: nematodes and arbuscular mycorrhizae in the
same root sample. Fund. Appl. Nematol. 19:607–608.
Bertrums, E. J. 1998. Population decline of root lesion nematode (Pratylenchus penetrans Cobb)
after a Taxus baccata crop. Meded. Fac. Landbouw. Toegepaste Biol. Wetensch., Univ. Gent
63:649–653.
Commonwealth Institute of Helminthology. 1972–present. C.I.H. descriptions of plant parasitic
nematodes. Sets 1– . Commonw. Inst. Helminthol., St. Albans, Herts, UK.
Dwinell, L. D. 1967. Selected interactions of Verticillium dahliae, Pratylenchus penetrans,
major nutrient elements, Acer saccharum, and Ulmus americana. Ph.D. diss., Cornell Univ.,
Ithaca, N.Y. 262 pp.
Florida Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services, Division of Plant Industry. 1962–
present. Nematol. Circulars 1– .
Jaffee, B. A., Abawi, G. S., and Mai, W. F. 1982. Role of soil microflora and Pratylenchus
penetrans in an apple replant disease. Phytopathology 72:247–251.
Jones, R. K., and Benson, D. M., eds. 2001. Diseases of woody ornamentals and trees in
nurseries. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 482 pp.
Mai, W. F., Bloom, J. R., and Chen, T. A., eds. 1977. Biology and ecology of the plant-parasitic
nematode Pratylenchus penetrans. Penn. Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull. 815. 64 pp.
269
Müller, J. 1977. Wechselwirkungen zwischen fünf Pratylenchus-Arten und Verticillium alboatrum. Z. Pflanzenkr. Pflanzenschutz 84:215–220.
Norton, D. C. 1978. Ecology of plant-parasitic nematodes. Wiley, New York. 268 pp.
Pinochet, J., Calvet, C., Camprubi, A., and Fernandez, C. 1996. Interactions between migratory
endoparasitic nematodes and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in perennial crops: a review. Plant
Soil 185:183–190.
Pinochet, J., Fernandez, C., Alcaniz, E., and Felipe, A. 1996. Damage by a lesion nematode,
Pratylenchus vulnus, to Prunus rootstocks. Plant Dis. 80:754–757.
Stapleton, J. J., Ferguson, L., McKenry, M. V., Dougherty, D. S., and Stapleton, S. C. 1999.
Using solarization to disinfest soil for olive nursery production. Acta Hortic. No. 474:589–
591.
Whitehead, A. G. 1998. Plant nematode control. CAB International, Wallingford, UK. 384 pp.
-----------------Dagger nematodes
Benson, D. M., and Barker, K. R. 1985. Nematodes—a threat to ornamental plants in the nursery
and landscape. Plant Dis. 69:97–100.
Commonwealth Institute of Helminthology. 1972–present. C.I.H. descriptions of plant parasitic
nematodes. Sets 1– . Commonw. Inst. Helminthol., St. Albans, Herts, UK.
Florida Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services, Division of Plant Industry. 1962–
present. Nematol. Circulars 1– .
Griesbach, J. A., and Maggenti, A. R. 1989. Vector capability of Xiphinema americanum sensu
lato in California. J. Nematol. 21:517–523.
Griffin, G. D., and Epstein, A. H. 1964. Association of dagger nematode, Xiphinema
americanum, with stunting and winterkill of ornamental spruce. Phytopathology 54:177–180.
Jones, R. K., and Benson, D. M., eds. 2001. Diseases of woody ornamentals and trees in
nurseries. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 482 pp.
Luc, M., Coomans, A., Loof, P. A. A., and Baujard, P. 1998. The Xiphinema americanum–group
(Nematoda: Longidoridae). 2. Observations on Xiphinema brevicollum Lordello & da Costa,
1961 and comments on the group. Fund. Appl. Nematol. 21:475–490.
Malek, R. B. 1968. The dagger nematode, Xiphinema americanum, associated with decline of
shelterbelt trees in South Dakota. Plant Dis. Rep. 52:795–798.
Norton, D. C. 1978. Ecology of plant-parasitic nematodes. Wiley, New York. 268 pp.
Robbins, R. T. 1993. Distribution of Xiphinema americanum and related species in North
America. J. Nematol. 25:344–348.
Sanzo, C. P. Di, and Rohde, R. A. 1969. Xiphinema americanum associated with maple decline
in Massachusetts. Phytopathology 59:279–284.
Sutherland, J. R. 1977. Corky root disease of Douglas-fir seedlings: pathogenicity of the
nematode Xiphinema bakeri alone and in combination with the fungus Cylindrocarpon
destructans. Can. J. For. Res. 7:41–46.
Wang, S. H., Gergerich, R. C., Wickizer, S. L., and Kim, K. S. 2002. Localization of
transmissible and nontransmissible viruses in the vector nematode Xiphinema americanum.
Phytopathology 92:646–653.
Whitehead, A. G. 1998. Plant nematode control. CAB International, Wallingford, UK. 384 pp.
Wyss, U. 1982. Virus-transmitting nematodes: feeding behaviour and effect on root cells. Plant
Dis. 66:639–644.
270
-----------------Nematode damage, continued, Plate 216, page 435
Wilt of pines caused by pine wood nematodes
Ash, C. L., ed. 2001. Shade tree wilt diseases. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 257 pp.
Braasch, H. 1996. Pathogenicity tests with Bursaphelenchus mucronatus on Scots pine and
Norway spruce seedlings in Germany. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 26:205–216.
Braasch, H. 2000. Influence of temperature and water supply on mortality of 3-year-old pines
inoculated with Bursaphelenchus xylophilus and B. mucronatus. Nachrichtenbl. Deut.
Pflanzenschutzd. 52:244–249.
Cao, Y., Han, Z., and Li, C. 2001. Studies on wilting toxic substances produced in pines infested
by pine wood nematodes. Sci. Silvae Sinicae 37:75–79.
Dwinell, L. D. 1985. Relative susceptibilities of five pine species to three populations of the
pinewood nematode. Plant Dis. 69:440–442.
Dwinell, L. D. 1997. The pinewood nematode: regulation and mitigation. Annu. Rev.
Phytopathol. 35:153–166.
Edwards, O. R., and Linit, M. J. 1992. Transmission of Bursaphelenchus xylophilus through
oviposition wounds of Monochamus carolinensis (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae). J. Nematol.
24:133–139.
Fiedling, N. J., and Evans, H. F. 1996. The pine wood nematode Bursaphelenchus xylophilus
(Steiner and Buhrer) Nickle (= B. lignicolus Mamiya and Kiyohara): an assessment of the
current position. Forestry 69:35–46.
Futai, K., Togashi, K., and Ikeda, T., eds. 1999. Sustainability of pine forests in relation to pine
wilt and decline. Proc. international symposium, Tokyo, 1998. Shokado, Tokyo. 336 pp.
Halik, S., and Bergdahl, D. R. 1994. Long-term survival of Bursaphelenchus xylophilus in living
Pinus sylvestris in an established plantation. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 24:357–363.
Ichihara, Y., Fukuda, K., and Suzuki, K. 2000. Early symptom development and histological
changes associated with migration of Bursaphelenchus xylophilus in seedling tissues of
Pinus thunbergii. Plant Dis. 84:675–680.
Ikeda, T. 1996. Xylem dysfunction in Bursaphelenchus xylophilus-infected Pinus thunbergii in
relation to xylem cavitation and water status. Ann. Phytopathol. Soc. Jap. 62:554–558.
Ikeda, T., and Kiyohara, T. 1995. Water relations, xylem embolism and histological features of
Pinus thunbergii inoculated with virulent or avirulent pine wood nematode, Bursaphelenchus
xylophilus. J. Exp. Bot. 46:441–449.
Ishida, K., and Hogetsu, T. 1997. Role of resin canals in the early stages of pine wilt disease
caused by the pine wood nematode. Can. J. Bot. 75:346–351.
Iwahori, H., Kanzaki, N., and Futai, K. 2000. A simple, polymerase chain reaction-restriction
fragment length polymorphism-aided diagnosis method for pine wilt disease. For. Pathol.
30:157–164.
Jikumaru, S., and Togashi, K. 2000. Temperature effects on the transmission of Bursaphelenchus
xylophilus (Nemata: Aphelenchoididae) by Monochamus alternatus (Coleoptera:
Cerambycidae). J. Nematol. 32:110–116.
Kawazu, K., and Kaneko, N. 1997. Asepsis of the pine wood nematode isolate OKD-3 causes it
to lose its pathogenicity. Jap. J. Nematol. 27:76–80.
Kishi, Y. 1995. Pine wood nematode and the Japanese pine sawyer. Thomas, Tokyo. 302 pp.
271
Kondo, E., Foudin, A., Linit, M., Smith, M., Bolla, R., Winter, R., and Dropkin, V. 1982. Pine
wilt disease—nematological, entomological, and biochemical investigations. Univ. Mo.
Agric. Exp. Stn. SR282. 56 pp.
Liao, J. L., Zhang, L. H., and Feng, Z. X. 2001. Reliable identification of Bursaphelenchus
xylophilus by rDNA amplification. Nematol. Medit. 29:131–135.
Liebhold, A. M., MacDonald, W. L., Bergdahl, D., and Mastro, V. C. 1995. Invasion by exotic
forest pests: a threat to forest ecosystems. For. Sci. Monogr. 30. 49 pp.
Linit, M. J. 1988. Nematode-vector relationships in the pine wilt disease system. J. Nematol.
20:227–235.
Linit, M. J. 1990. Transmission of pinewood nematode through feeding wounds of Monochamus
carolinensis (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae). J. Nematol. 22:231–236.
Linit, M. J., and Tamura, H. 1987. Relative susceptibility of four pine species to infection by
pinewood nematode. J. Nematol. 19:44–50.
Malek, R. B., and Appleby, J. E. 1984. Epidemiology of pine wilt in Illinois. Plant Dis. 68:180–
186.
Mamiya, Y. 1983. Pathology of the pine wilt disease caused by Bursaphelenchus xylophilus.
Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 21:201–220.
Mamiya, Y., and Furukawa, M. 1977. Fecundity and reproductive rate of Bursaphelenchus
lignicolus. Jap. J. Nematol. 7:6–9.
Mamiya, Y., and Kiyohara, T. 1972. Description of Bursaphelenchus lignicolus n. sp.
(Nematoda: Aphelenchoididae) from pine wood and histopathology of nematode-infested
trees. Nematologica 18:120–124.
Mota, M. M., Braasch, H., Bravo, M. A., Penas, A. C., Burgermeister, W., Metge, K., and Sousa,
E. 1999. First report of Bursaphelenchus xylophilus in Portugal and in Europe. Nematology
1:727–734.
Oku, H. 1988. Role of phytotoxins in pine wilt disease. J. Nematol. 20:245–251.
Rutherford, T. A., Mamiya, Y., and Webster, J. M. 1990. Nematode-induced pine wilt disease:
factors influencing its occurrence and distribution. For. Sci. 36:145–155.
Sikora, E. J., and Malek, R. B. 1988. Transmission of the pinewood nematode (Bursaphelenchus
xylophilus) to six pine species by Monochamus carolinensis. Plant Dis. 72:734.
Skarmoutsos, G., and Michalopoulos, S. H. 2000. Pathogenicity of Bursaphelenchus sexdentati,
Bursaphelenchus leoni and Bursaphelenchus hellenicus on European pine seedlings. For.
Pathol. 30:149–156.
Suzuki, K., and Kiyohara, T. 1978. Influence of water stress on development of pine wilting
disease caused by Bursaphelenchus lignicolus. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 8:97–107.
Toda, T., and Kurinobu, S. 2002. Realized genetic gains observed in progeny tolerance of
selected red pine (Pinus densiflora) and black pine (P. thunbergii) to pine wilt disease. Silvae
Genet. 51:42–44.
Warren, J. E., and Linit, M. J. 1994. Effect of Monochamus carolinensis on the life history of the
pinewood nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus. J. Nematol. 25:703–709.
Wingfield, M. J., ed. 1987. Pathogenicity of the pine wood nematode. APS Press, St. Paul, MN.
122 pp.
Wingfield, M. J., Blanchette, A., and Kondo, E. 1983. Comparison of the pine wood nematode,
Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, from pine and balsam fir. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 13:360–370.
------------------
272
Algal leaf spot, or green scurf, Plate 217, page 437
Alfieri, S. A. J., Langdon, K. R., Kimbrough, J. W., El-Gholl, N. E., and Wehlburg, C. 1994.
Diseases and disorders of plants in Florida. Fla. Dep. Agric. Consum. Serv., Div. Plant
Indus., Gainesville. Bull. 14. 1114 pp. Also Suppl. No. 1 by N. E. El-Gholl, T. S. Schubert,
and N. C. Coile. 1997. 138 pp.
Chapman, R. L. 1976, 1981. Ultrastructure of Cephaleuros virescens (Chroolepidaceae;
Chlorophyta). I. Scanning electron microscopy of zoosporangia. III. Zoospores. Am. J. Bot.
63:1060–1070; 68:554–556.
Chapman, R. L. 1984. An assessment of the current state of our knowledge of the
Trentepohliaceae. Pages 233–250 in: Systematics of the green algae. D. E. G. Irvine and D.
M. John, eds. Academic Press, London.
Chapman, R. L., and Henk, M. C. 1985. Observations on the habit, morphology and
ultrastructure of Cephaleuros parasiticus (Chlorophyta) and a comparison with C. virescens.
J. Phycol. 21:513–522.
Eesvelde, S. van, Liau, S. S., and Damme, P. van. 1993. Epiphytic and parasitic algae
(Trentepohliaceae) on oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.). I. General description of species. II.
Experimental work. Meded. Fac. Landbouw. Univ. Gent 58:1033–1039, 1040–1050.
Holcomb, G. E. 1986. Hosts of the parasitic alga Cephaleuros virescens in Louisiana and new
host records for the continental United States. Plant Dis. 70:1180–1183.
Joubert, J. J., and Rijkenberg, F. H. J. 1971. Parasitic green algae. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol.
9:45–64.
Knorr, L. C. 1973. Citrus diseases and disorders. Univ. Presses Fla., Gainesville. 163 pp.
Marlatt, R. B., and Alfieri, S. A. Jr. 1981. Hosts of a parasitic alga, Cephaleuros Kunze, in
Florida. Plant Dis. 65:520–522.
Panikkar, M. V. N., Ampili, P., and Chauhan, V. D. 1989. Observations on Cephaleuros
virescens Kunze from Kerala, India. J. Econ. Taxon. Bot. 13:67–70.
Ponte, J. J. da, Andrade, N. C. de, and Silveira-Filho, J. 1999. Lichen parasitism in ornamental
palm of the genus Caryota. Rev. Agric. Piracicaba 74:245–248.
Santesson, R. 1952. Foliicolous lichens I. A revision of the taxonomy of the obligately
foliicolous lichenized fungi. . Symb. Bot. Upsal. 12:1–590.
Wolf, F. A. 1930. A parasitic alga, Cephaleuros virescens Kunze, on citrus and certain other
plants. J. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. 45:187–205.
-----------------North American leafy mistletoes, Plates 218–219, pages 439–441
Overview
Ashworth, V. E. T. M. 2000. Phylogenetic relationships in Phoradendreae (Viscaceae) inferred
from three regions of the nuclear ribosomal cistron. I. Major lineages and paraphyly of
Phoradendron. Syst. Bot. 25:349–370.
Ashworth, V. E. T. M. 2000. Phylogenetic relationships in Phoradendreae (Viscaceae) inferred
from three regions of the nuclear ribosomal cistron. II. The North American species of
Phoradendron. El Aliso 19:41–53.
Aukema, J. E. 2003. Vectors, viscin, and Viscaceae: mistletoes as parasites, mutualists, and
resources. Front. Ecol. Environ. 1:212–219.
Bannister, P., King, W. M., and Strong, G. L. 1999. Aspects of the water relations of Ileostylus
micranthus (Hook. f.) Tieghem, a New Zealand mistletoe. Ann. Bot. 84:79–86.
273
Calder, D. M., and Bernhardt, P., eds. 1983. The biology of mistletoes. Academic Press, New
York. 348 pp.
Calvin, C. L. 1967. Anatomy of the endophytic system of the mistletoe Phoradendron
flavescens. Bot. Gaz. 128:117–137.
Calvin, C. L. 1997. Host-formed tyloses in vessels of the mistletoe Phoradendron (Viscaceae).
IAWA J. 18:117–126.
Calvin, C. L., and Wilson, C. A. 1995. Relationship of the mistletoe Phoradendron
macrophyllum (Viscaceae) to the wood of its host. IAWA J. 16:33–45.
Clay, K., Dement, D., and Rejmanek, M. 1985. Experimental evidence for host races in mistletoe
(Phoradendron tomentosum). Am. J. Bot. 72:1225–1231.
Ehleringer, J. R., Cook, C. S., and Tieszen, L. L. 1986. Comparative water use and nitrogen
relationships in a mistletoe and its host. Oecologia 68:279–284.
El Sharkawy, M. A., Cock, J. H., and del Pilar, H. A. 1986. Differential response of stomata to
air humidity in the parasitic mistletoe (Phthirusa pyrifolia) and its host, mandarin orange
(Citrus reticulata). Photosyn. Res. 9:333–343.
Fineran, B. A., and Calvin, C. L. 2000. Transfer cells and flange cells in sinkers of the mistletoe
Phoradendron macrophyllum (Viscaceae), and their novel combination. Protoplasma
211:76–93.
Gedalovich, E., Kuijt, J., and Carpita, N. C. 1988. Chemical composition of viscin, an adhesive
involved in dispersal of the parasite Phoradendron californicum (Viscaceae). Physiol. Mol.
Plant Pathol. 32:61–76.
Gedalovich-Shedletzky, E. et al. 1989. Chemical composition of viscin mucilage from three
mistletoe species—a comparison. Ann. Bot. 64:249–252.
Geils, B. W., Tovar, J. C., and Moody, B., tech. coords. 2002. Mistletoes of North American
conifers. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-98. 123 pp.
Hariri, E. B., Jeune, B., Baudino, S., Urech, K., and Sallé, G. 1992. Development of a coefficient
of resistance to mistletoe for oak. Can. J. Bot. 70:1239–1246.
Hollinger, D. Y. 1983. Photosynthesis and water relations of the mistletoe Phoradendron
villosum and its host, the California valley oak, Quercus lobata. Oecologia 60:396–400.
Hull, R. J., and Leonard, O. A. 1964. Physiological aspects of parasitism in mistletoes
(Arceuthobium and Phoradendron) I. The carbohydrate nutrition of mistletoe. Plant Physiol.
39:996–1007.
Johnson, J. M., and Choinski, J. S. Jr. 1993. Photosynthesis in the Tapinanthus-Diplorhynchus
mistletoe-host relationship. Ann. Bot. 72:117–122.
Kuijt, J. 1969. The biology of parasitic flowering plants. Univ. Calif. Press, Berkeley. 246 pp.
Kuijt, J. 1977. Haustoria of phanerogamic parasites. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 15:91–118.
Kuijt, J. 2003. Monograph of Phoradendron (Viscaceae). Syst. Bot. Monogr. 66. 643 pp.
Kuppers, M. 1992. Carbon discrimination, water-use efficiency, nitrogen and phosphorus
nutrition of the host/mistletoe pair Eucalyptus behriana F. Muell. and Amyema miquelii
(Lehm. ex Miq.) Tiegh. at permanently low water status in the field. Trees Struct. Funct.
7:8–11.
Larson, D. L. 1996. Seed dispersal by specialist versus generalist foragers: the plant's
perspective. Oikos 76:113–120.
Lei, S. A. 2001. Survival and development of Phoradendron californicum and Acacia greggii
during a drought. West. North Am. Nat. 61:78–84.
274
Leonard, O. A., and Hull, R. J. 1965. Translocation relationships in and between mistletoes and
their hosts. Hilgardia 37:115–151.
Marshall, J. D., Dawson, T. E., and Ehleringer, J. R. 1994. Integrated nitrogen, carbon, and water
relations of a xylem-tapping mistletoe following nitrogen fertilization of the host. Oecologia
100:430–438.
Marshall, J. D., and Ehleringer, J. R. 1990. Are xylem-tapping mistletoes partially heterotrophic?
Oecologia 84:244–248.
Marshall, J. D., Ehleringer, J. R., Schulze, E. D., and Farquhar, G. 1994. Carbon isotope
composition, gas exchange and heterotrophy in Australian mistletoes. Funct. Ecol. 8:237–
241.
Musselman, L. J., Worsham, A. D., and Eplee, R. E. 1979. Proceedings, the second international
symposium on parasitic weeds. N.C. State Univ., Raleigh. 296 pp.
Parker, C., and Riches, C. R. 1993. Parasitic weeds of the world: biology and control. CAB
International, Wallingford, UK. 332 pp.
Press, M. C., and Graves, J. D., eds. 1995. Parasitic plants. Chapman & Hall, London. 292 pp.
Ransom, J. K., Musselman, L. J., Worsham, A. D, and Parker, C., eds. 1991. Proceedings of the
5th international symposium of parasitic weeds, Nairobi, Kenya. CIMMYT, Nairobi. 550 pp.
Reid, N., Smith, M. S., and Yan, Z. 1995. Ecology and population biology of mistletoes. Pages
285–310 in: Forest canopies. M. D. Lowman and N. M. Nadkarni, eds. Academic Press, San
Diego.
Reid, N., Yan, Z. G., and Fittler, J. 1994. Impact of mistletoes (Amyema miquelii) on host
(Eucalyptus blakelyi and Eucalyptus melliodora) survival and growth in temperate Australia.
For. Ecol. Manag. 70:55–65.
Richter, A., Popp, M., Mensen, R., Stewart, G. R., and von Willert, D. J. 1995. Heterotrophic
carbon gain of the parasitic angiosperm Tapinanthus oleifolius. Austral. J. Plant Physiol.
22:537–544.
Sallé, G. 1979. Le système endophytique du Viscum album: anatomie et fonctionnement des
suçoirs secondaires. Can. J. Bot. 57:435–449.
Sallé, G. C., Hariri, E. B., and Andary, C. 1994. Polyphenols and resistance of poplar (Populus
spp.) to mistletoe (Viscum album L.). Acta Hortic. No. 381:756–762.
Schulze, E. D., Lange, O. L., Ziegler, H., and Gebauer, G. 1991. Carbon and nitrogen isotope
ratios of mistletoes growing on nitrogen and non-nitrogen fixing hosts and on CAM plants in
the Namib Desert confirm partial heterotrophy. Oecologia 88:457–462.
Tennakoon, J. U., and Pate, J. S. 1996. Effect of parasitism by a mistletoe on the structure and
functioning of branches of its host. Plant Cell Environ. 19:517–528.
U.S. Natural Resources Conservation Service. The PLANTS database. National Plant Data
Center, Baton Rouge, LA. Internet resource.
Weber, H. C, and Forstreuter, W., eds. 1987. Proceedings of the fourth international symposium
on parasitic flowering plants. Philipps Univ., Marburg, Germany. 844 pp.
Yan, Z. 1993. Germination and seedling development of two mistletoes, Amyema preissii and
Lysiana exocarpi: host specificity and mistletoe-host compatibility. Austral. J. Ecol. 18:419–
429.
Yan, Z. 1993. Resistance to haustorial development of two mistletoes, Amyema preissii (Miq.)
Tieghem and Lysiana exocarpi (Behr.) Tieghem ssp. exocarpi (Loranthaceae), on host and
nonhost species. Int. J. Plant Sci. 154:386–394.
------------------
275
North American leafy mistletoes, continued, Plates 219–220, pages 441–443
Mistletoes on angiosperms
Ashworth, V. E. T. M., and Santos, G. dos. 1997. Wood anatomy of four Californian mistletoe
species (Phoradendron, Viscaceae). IAWA J. 18:229–245.
Barney, C. W., Hawksworth, F. G., and Geils, B. W. 1998. Hosts of Viscum album. Eur. J. For.
Pathol. 28:187–208.
Büssing, A. 2000. Mistletoe: the genus Viscum. Harwood Academic, Amsterdam. 265 pp.
Calvin, C. L. 1967. Anatomy of the endophytic system of the mistletoe Phoradendron
flavescens. Bot. Gaz. 128:117–137.
Calvin, C. L. 1997. Host-formed tyloses in vessels of the mistletoe Phoradendron (Viscaceae).
IAWA J. 18:117–126.
Calvin, C. L., and Wilson, C. A. 1995. Relationship of the mistletoe Phoradendron
macrophyllum (Viscaceae) to the wood of its host. IAWA J. 16:33–45.
Clay, K., Dement, D., and Rejmanek, M. 1985. Experimental evidence for host races in mistletoe
(Phoradendron tomentosum). Am. J. Bot. 72:1225–1231.
Dorworth, C. E. 1989. European mistletoe (Viscum album subsp. album) in Canada. Plant Dis.
73:444.
Eleuterius, L. N. 1976. Observations on the mistletoe (Phoradendron flavescens) in south
Mississippi, with special reference to the mortality of Quercus nigra. Castanea 41:265–268.
Gedalovich, E., Kuijt, J., and Carpita, N. C. 1988. Chemical composition of viscin, an adhesive
involved in dispersal of the parasite Phoradendron californicum (Viscaceae). Physiol. Mol.
Plant Pathol. 32:61–76.
Hawksworth, F. G., and Scharpf, R. F. 1986. Spread of European mistletoe (Viscum album) in
California, USA. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 16:1–5.
Hawksworth, F. G., Scharpf, R. F., and Marosy, M. 1991. European mistletoe continues to
spread in Sonoma County. Cal. Agric. 45:39–40.
Hollinger, D. Y. 1983. Photosynthesis and water relations of the mistletoe Phoradendron
villosum and its host, the California valley oak, Quercus lobata. Oecologia 60:396–400.
Kuijt, J. 1964. Critical observations on the parasitism of New World mistletoes. Can. J. Bot.
42:1243–1278.
Kuijt, J. 1969. The biology of parasitic flowering plants. Univ. Calif. Press, Berkeley. 246 pp.
Kuijt, J. 2003. Monograph of Phoradendron (Viscaceae). Syst. Bot. Monogr. 66. 643 pp.
Lei, S. A. 1999. Age, size and water status of Acacia greggii influencing the infection and
reproductive success of Phoradendron californicum. Am. Midl. Nat. 141:358–365.
Lei, S. A. 2001. Survival and development of Phoradendron californicum and Acacia greggii
during a drought. West. North Am. Nat. 61:78–84.
Lichter, J. M., and Berry, A. M. 1991. Establishment of the mistletoe Phoradendron
macrophyllum: phenology of early stages and host compatibility studies. Bot. Gaz. 152:468–
475.
Panvini, A. D., and Eickmeier, W. G. 1993. Nutrient and water relations of the mistletoe
Phoradendron leucarpum (Viscaceae): how tightly are they integrated? Am. J. Bot. 80:872–
878.
Sallé, G. 1979. Le système endophytique du Viscum album: anatomie et fonctionnement des
suçoirs secondaires. Can. J. Bot. 57:435–449.
276
Sallé, G. C., Hariri, E. B., and Andary, C. 1994. Polyphenols and resistance of poplar (Populus
spp.) to mistletoe (Viscum album L.). Acta Hortic. No. 381:756–762.
Scharpf, R. F., and Hawksworth, F. G. 1976. Luther Burbank introduced European mistletoe into
California. Plant Dis. Rep. 60:740–742.
Spooner, D. M. 1983. The northern range of eastern mistletoe, Phoradendron serotinum
(Viscaceae), and its status in Ohio. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 110:489–493.
Thomson, V. E., and Mahall, B. E. 1983. Host specificity by a mistletoe, Phoradendron villosum
(Nutt.) Nutt. subsp. villosum, on three oak species in California. Bot. Gaz. 144:124–131.
U.S. Natural Resources Conservation Service. National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, LA.
The PLANTS database. Internet resource.
-----------------Mistletoes primarily on gymnosperms
Ashworth, V. E. T. M., and Santos, G. dos. 1997. Wood anatomy of four Californian mistletoe
species (Phoradendron, Viscaceae). IAWA J. 18:229–245.
Calvin, C. L., Wilson, C. A., and Varughese, G. 1991. Growth of longitudinal stands of
Phoradendron juniperinum (Viscaceae) in shoots of Juniperus occidentalis. Ann. Bot.
67:153–161.
Ehleringer, J. R., Cook, C. S., and Tieszen, L. L. 1986. Comparative water use and nitrogen
relationships in a mistletoe and its host. Oecologia 68:279–284.
Felix, L. S., Uhrenholdt, B., and Parmeter, J. R. Jr. 1971. Association of Scolytus ventralis
(Coleoptera: Scolytidae) and Phoradendron bolleanum subspecies pauciflorum on Abies
concolor. Can. Entomol. 103:1697–1703.
Gehring, C. A., and Whitham, T. G. 1992. Reduced mycorrhizae on Juniperus monosperma with
mistletoe: the influence of environmental stress and tree gender on a plant parasite and a
plant-fungal mutualism. Oecologia 89:298–303.
Geils, B. W., Tovar, J. C., and Moody, B., tech. coords. 2002. Mistletoes of North American
conifers. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-98. 123 pp.
Kuijt, J. 2003. Monograph of Phoradendron (Viscaceae). Syst. Bot. Monogr. 66. 643 pp.
Lichter, J. M., Reid, M. S., and Berry, A. M. 1991. New methods for control of leafy mistletoe
(Phoradendron spp.) on landscape trees. J. Arboric. 17:127–130.
Marshall, J. D., Dawson, T. E., and Ehleringer, J. R. 1993. Gender-related differences in gas
exchange are not related to host quality in the xylem-tapping mistletoe, Phoradendron
juniperinum (Viscaceae). Am. J. Bot. 80:641–645.
Marshall, J. D., Dawson, T. E., and Ehleringer, J. R. 1994. Integrated nitrogen, carbon, and water
relations of a xylem-tapping mistletoe following nitrogen fertilization of the host. Oecologia
100:430–438.
Marshall, J. D., and Ehleringer, J. R. 1990. Are xylem-tapping mistletoes partially heterotrophic?
Oecologia 84:244–248.
U.S. Natural Resources Conservation Service. National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, LA.
The PLANTS database. Internet resource.
Wagener, W. W. 1925. Mistletoe in the lower bole of incense cedar. Phytopathology 15:614–
616.
Wagener, W. W. 1957. The limitation of two leafy mistletoes of the genus Phoradendron by low
temperatures. Ecology 38:142–145.
------------------
277
Dwarf mistletoes, Plates 221–222, pages 445–447
Overview
Alexander, M. E., and Hawksworth, F. G. 1975. Wildland fires and dwarf mistletoes: a literature
review of ecology and prescribed burning. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-14. 12 pp.
Bennetts, R. E., White, G. C., Hawksworth, F. G., and Severs, S. E. 1996. The influence of
dwarf mistletoe on bird communities in Colorado ponderosa pine forests. Ecol. Applic.
6:899–909.
Calder, D. M., and Bernhardt, P., eds. 1983. The biology of mistletoes. Academic Press, New
York. 348 pp.
Calvin, C. L., Hawksworth, F. G., and Knutson, D. M. 1984. Phloem in Arceuthobium globosum
(Viscaceae). Bot. Gaz. 145:461–464.
Gedalovich-Shedletzky, E. et al. 1989. Chemical composition of viscin mucilage from three
mistletoe species—a comparison. Ann. Bot. 64:249–252.
Hawksworth, F. G., and Scharpf, R. F., tech. coords. 1984. Biology of dwarf mistletoes:
proceedings of the symposium. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-111. 131 pp.
Hawksworth, F. G., Wicker, E. F., and Scharpf, R. F. 1977. Fungal parasites of dwarf mistletoes.
USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-36. 14 pp.
Hawksworth, F. G., and Wiens, D. 1996 . Dwarf mistletoes: biology, pathology, and systematics.
USDA Agric. Handb. 709. 410 pp.
Hinds, T. E., and Hawksworth, F. G. 1965. Seed dispersal velocity in four dwarf mistletoes.
Science 148:517–519.
Hull, R. J., and Leonard, O. A. 1964. Physiological aspects of parasitism in mistletoes
(Arceuthobium and Phoradendron) I. The carbohydrate nutrition of mistletoe. Plant Physiol.
39:996–1007.
Kuijt, J., and Toth, R. 1976. Ultrastructure of angiosperm haustoria—a review. Ann. Bot.
40:1121–1130.
Leonard, O. A., and Hull, R. J. 1965. Translocation relationships in and between mistletoes and
their hosts. Hilgardia 37:115–151.
Mathiasen, R. L. 1996. Dwarf mistletoes in forest canopies. Northwest Sci. 70:61–71.
Nickrent, D. L., García, M. A., Martín, M. P., and Mathiasen, R. L. 2004. A phylogeny of all
species of Arceuthobium (Viscaceae) using nuclear and chloroplast DNA sequences. Am. J.
Bot. 91:125–138.
Nickrent, D. L., Schuette, K. P., and Starr, E. M. 1994. A molecular phylogeny of Arceuthobium
(Viscaceae) based on nuclear ribosomal DNA internal transcribed spacer sequences. Am. J.
Bot. 81:1149–1160.
Paquet, P. J., Knutson, D. M., Tinnin, R. O., and Tocher, R. D. 1986. Characteristics of viscin
from the seeds of dwarf mistletoe. Bot. Gaz. 147:156–158.
Parks, C. G., Bull, E. L., Tinnin, R. O., Shepherd, J. F., and Blumton, A. K. 1999. Wildlife use
of dwarf mistletoe brooms in Douglas-fir in northeast Oregon. West. J. Appl. For. 14:100–
105.
Rey, L., Sadik, A., Fer, A., and Renaudin, S. 1991. Trophic relations of the dwarf mistletoe
Arceuthobium oxycedri with its host Juniperus oxycedrus. J. Plant Physiol. 138:411–416.
Rey, L., Sadik, A., Fer, A., and Renaudin, S. 1992. Étude de quelques aspects du métabolisme
carboné et azoté chez l'Arceuthobium oxycedri, gui nain du genévrier. Can. J. Bot. 70:1709–
1716.
278
Sadik, A., Rey, L., and Renaudin, S. 1986. Le système endophytique d'Arceuthobium oxycedri. I.
Organisation, étude cytologique et cytochemique. II. Aspects ultrastructuraux des zones de
contact entre les tissus de l'hôte et du parasite. Can. J. Bot. 64:1104–1111, 2778–2784.
Sala, A., Carey, E. V., and Callaway, R. M. 2001. Dwarf mistletoe affects whole-tree water
relations of Douglas fir and western larch primarily through changes in leaf to sapwood
ratios. Oecologia 126:42–52.
Scharpf, R. F., and Parmeter, J. R. Jr., tech. coords. 1978. Proceedings of the symposium on
dwarf mistletoe control through forest management. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep.
PSW-31. 190 pp.
Srivastava, L. M., and Esau, K. 1961. Relation of dwarfmistletoe (Arceuthobium) to the xylem
tissue of conifers. I. Anatomy of parasite sinkers and their connection with host xylem. Am.
J. Bot. 48:159–167.
-----------------Dwarf mistletoes, continued, Plate 223, page 449
Arceuthobium americanum
Baker, F. A., Slivitsky, M., and Knowles, K. 1992. Impact of dwarf mistletoe on jack pine
forests in Manitoba. Plant Dis. 76:1256–1259.
Baranyay, J. A. 1970. Lodgepole pine dwarf mistletoe in Alberta. Can. For. Serv. Pub. 1286. 22
pp.
Baranyay, J. A., and Safranyik, L. 1970. Effect of dwarf mistletoe on growth and mortality of
lodgepole pine in Alberta. Can. For. Serv. Pub. 1285. 19 pp.
Gedalovich-Shedletzky, E. et al. 1989. Chemical composition of viscin mucilage from three
mistletoe species—a comparison. Ann. Bot. 64:249–252.
Gilbert, J., and Punter, D. 1990. Release and dispersal of pollen from dwarf mistletoe on jack
pine in Manitoba in relation to microclimate. Can. J. For. Res. 20:267–273.
Hawksworth, F. G., and Dooling, O. J. 1984 Lodgepole pine dwarf mistletoe. USDA For. Serv.
For. Insect Dis. Leafl. 18. Internet pub.
Hawksworth, F. G., and Johnson, D. W. 1989. Biology and management of dwarf mistletoe in
lodgepole pine in the Rocky Mountains. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-169. 38 pp.
Hawksworth, F. G., and Scharpf, R. F., tech. coords. 1984. Biology of dwarf mistletoes:
proceedings of the symposium. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-111. 131 pp.
Hawksworth, F. G., and Wiens, D. 1996 . Dwarf mistletoes: biology, pathology, and systematics.
USDA Agric. Handb. 709. 410 pp.
Hoffman, J. T., and Hobbs, E. L. 1985. Lodgepole pine dwarf mistletoe in the Intermountain
Region. Plant Dis. 69:429–431.
Jerome, C. A., and Ford, B. A. 2002. The discovery of three genetic races of the dwarf mistletoe
Arceuthobium americanum (Viscaceae) provides insight into the evolution of parasitic
angiosperms. Mol. Ecol. 11:387–405.
Kipfmueller, K. F., and Baker, W. L. 1998. Fires and dwarf mistletoe in a Rocky Mountain
lodgepole pine ecosystem. For. Ecol. Manag. 108:77–84.
Kirkpatrick, L. A., and Tinnin, R. O. 1986. Preliminary investigations of the impact of dwarf
mistletoe (Arceuthobium americanum Nutt.) on water relations in lodgepole pine (Pinus
contorta Dougl.). Am. J. Bot. 73:670–671.
Mathiasen, R. L., Beatty, J. S., and Hildebrand, D. M. 1996. First report of lodgepole pine dwarf
mistletoe on subalpine fir. Plant Dis. 80:342.
279
Muir, J. A. 1972. Increase of dwarf mistletoe infections on young lodgepole pine. Can. J. For.
Res. 2:413–416.
Punter, D., and Gilbert, J. 1989. Animal vectors of Arceuthobium americanum seed in Manitoba.
Can. J. For. Res. 19:865–869.
Punter, D., and Gilbert, J. 1991. Explosive discharge of jack pine dwarf mistletoe (Arceuthobium
americanum) seed in Manitoba. Can. J. For. Res. 21:434–438.
Smith, R. B., and Wass, E. F. 1979. Infection trials with three dwarf mistletoe species within and
beyond their known ranges in British Columbia. Can. J. Plant Pathol. 1:47–57.
Sproule, A. 1996. Branch age in jack pine at the time of dwarf mistletoe infection. For. Chron.
72:307.
Sproule, A. 1996. Impact of dwarf mistletoe on some aspects of the reproductive biology of jack
pine. For. Chron. 72:303–306.
Thomson, A. J., Muir, J. A., and Lewis, K. J. 1997. Variability in sub-regional impact of dwarf
mistletoe on mature lodgepole pine. For. Chron. 73:371–375.
Wanner, J. L., and Tinnin, R. O. 1986. Respiration in lodgepole pine parasitized by American
dwarf mistletoe. Can. J. For. Res. 16:1375–1378.
Wanner, J. L., and Tinnin, R. O. 1989. Some effects of infection by Arceuthobium americanum
on the population dynamics of Pinus contorta in Oregon. Can. J. For. Res. 19:736–742.
-----------------Arceuthobium campylopodum complex
Hawksworth, F. G., and Wiens, D. 1996 . Dwarf mistletoes: biology, pathology, and systematics.
USDA Agric. Handb. 709. 410 pp.
Nickrent, D. L., García, M. A., Martín, M. P., and Mathiasen, R. L. 2004. A phylogeny of all
species of Arceuthobium (Viscaceae) using nuclear and chloroplast DNA sequences. Am. J.
Bot. 91:125–138.
-----------------Arceuthobium campylopodum in restricted sense
Childs, T. W., and Edgren, J. W. 1967. Dwarfmistletoe effects on ponderosa pine growth and
trunk form. For. Sci. 13:167–174.
Cohen, L. I. 1954. The anatomy of the endophytic system of the dwarf mistletoe, Arceuthobium
campylopodum. Am. J. Bot. 41:840–847.
Gerhold, H. D., Schreiner, E. J., McDermott, R. E., and Winieski, J. A., eds. 1966. Breeding
pest-resistant trees. Pergamon, New York. 505 pp.
Hawksworth, F. G., and Scharpf, R. F., tech. coords. 1984. Biology of dwarf mistletoes:
proceedings of the symposium. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-111. 131 pp.
Hawksworth, F. G., and Wiens, D. 1996 . Dwarf mistletoes: biology, pathology, and systematics.
USDA Agric. Handb. 709. 410 pp.
Mathiasen, R. L., Allison, J. R., and Geils, B. W. 1998. Western dwarf mistletoe parasitizing
Colorado blue spruce and Norway spruce in California. Plant Dis. 82:351.
Nickrent, D. L., García, M. A., Martín, M. P., and Mathiasen, R. L. 2004. A Phylogeny of all
species of Arceuthobium (Viscaceae) using nuclear and chloroplast DNA sequences. Am. J.
Bot. 91:125–138.
Paquet, P. J., Knutson, D. M., Tinnin, R. O., and Tocher, R. D. 1986. Characteristics of viscin
from the seeds of dwarf mistletoe. Bot. Gaz. 147:156–158.
280
Roth, L. F. 1971. Dwarf mistletoe damage to small ponderosa pines. For. Sci. 17:373–380.
Roth, L. F. 1974. Juvenile susceptibility of ponderosa pine to dwarf mistletoe. Phytopathology
64:689–692.
Roth, L. F. 2001. Dwarf mistletoe–induced mortality in Northwest ponderosa pine growing
stock. West. J. Appl. For. 16:136–141.
Roth, L. F., and Barrett, J. W. 1985. Response of dwarf mistletoe–infested ponderosa pine to
thinning: 2. Dwarf mistletoe propagation. USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. PNW-331. 20 pp.
Scharpf, R. F., Kinloch, B. B., and Jenkinson, J. L. 1991. One seed source of Jeffrey pine shows
resistance to dwarf mistletoe. USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. PSW-RP 207. 8 pp.
Scharpf, R. F., and Roth, L. F. 1992. Resistance of ponderosa pine to western dwarf mistletoe in
central Oregon. USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. PSW-RP 208. 9 pp.
Scharpf, R. F., Smith, R. S., and Vogler, D. 1987. Pruning dwarf mistletoe brooms reduces stress
on Jeffrey pines, Cleveland National Forest, California. USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. PSW186. 7 pp.
-----------------Dwarf mistletoes, continued, Plate 224, page 451
Arceuthobium occidentale
Hawksworth, F. G. 1969. Rapid intensification and upward spread of dwarf mistletoe in
inoculated digger pines. Plant Dis. Rep. 53:615–617.
Hawksworth, F. G., and Wiens, D. 1996 . Dwarf mistletoes: biology, pathology, and systematics.
USDA Agric. Handb. 709. 410 pp.
Nickrent, D. L., García, M. A., Martín, M. P., and Mathiasen, R. L. 2004. A Phylogeny of all
species of Arceuthobium (Viscaceae) using nuclear and chloroplast DNA sequences. Am. J.
Bot. 91:125–138.
Schaffer, B., Hawksworth, F. G., Wullschleger, S. D., and Reid, C. P. P. 1983. Cytokinin-like
activity related to host reactions to dwarf mistletoes (Arceuthobium spp.). For. Sci. 29:66–70.
Scharpf, R. F. 1962. Growth rate of the endophytic system of the dwarf mistletoe on digger pine.
USDA For. Serv. Pac. Southwest For. Range Exp. Stn. Res. Note 193. 5 pp.
-----------------Arceuthobium laricis
Beatty, J. L., Filip, G. M., and Mathiasen, R. L. 1997. Larch dwarf mistletoe. USDA For. Serv.
For. Insect Dis. Leafl. 169. Internet pub.
Hawksworth, F. G., and Scharpf, R. F., tech. coords. 1984. Biology of dwarf mistletoes:
proceedings of the symposium. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-111. 131 pp.
Hawksworth, F. G., and Wiens, D. 1996 . Dwarf mistletoes: biology, pathology, and systematics.
USDA Agric. Handb. 709. 410 pp.
Mathiasen, R. L. 1998. Comparative susceptibility of conifers to larch dwarf mistletoe in the
Pacific Northwest. For. Sci. 44:559–568.
Mathiasen, R. L. 1998. Infection of young western larch by larch dwarf mistletoe in northern
Idaho and western Montana. West. J. Appl. For. 13:41–46.
Mathiasen, R. L., Beatty, J. S., and Hildebrand, D. M. 1995. First report of larch dwarf mistletoe
on Pacific silver fir and on mountain hemlock in the Cascade Mountains. Plant Dis. 79:1249.
281
Nickrent, D. L., García, M. A., Martín, M. P., and Mathiasen, R. L. 2004. A Phylogeny of all
species of Arceuthobium (Viscaceae) using nuclear and chloroplast DNA sequences. Am. J.
Bot. 91:125–138.
Sala, A., Carey, E. V., and Callaway, R. M. 2001. Dwarf mistletoe affects whole-tree water
relations of Douglas fir and western larch primarily through changes in leaf to sapwood
ratios. Oecologia 126:42–52.
Schmidt, W. C., and McDonald, K. J., compilers. 1995. Ecology and management of Larix
forests: a look ahead. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-GTR-319. 521 pp.
Wicker, E. F., and Hawksworth, F. G. 1991. Upward advance, intensification, and spread of
dwarf mistletoe in a thinned stand of western larch. USDA For. Serv. Res. Note RM-504. 4
pp.
Wicker, E. F., and Wells, J. M. 1983. Intensification and lateral spread of Arceuthobium laricis
in a young stand of western larch with stocking control. Can. J. For. Res. 13:314–319.
-----------------Arceuthobium apachecum and A. cyanocarpum
Mathiasen, R. L. 1979. Distribution and effect of dwarf mistletoes parasitizing Pinus
strobiformis in Arizona and New Mexico, USA, and northern Mexico. Southwest. Nat.
24:455-461.
Nickrent, D. L., García, M. A., Martín, M. P., and Mathiasen, R. L. 2004. A Phylogeny of all
species of Arceuthobium (Viscaceae) using nuclear and chloroplast DNA sequences. Am. J.
Bot. 91:125–138.
Taylor, J. E., and Mathiasen, R. L. 1999. Limber pine dwarf mistletoe. USDA For. Serv. For.
Insect Dis. Leafl. 171. Internnet pub.
-----------------Arceuthobium tsugense
Alfaro, R. I., Bloomberg, W. J., Smith, R. B., and Thomson, A. J. 1985. Epidemiology of dwarf
mistletoe in western hemlock stands in south coastal British Columbia. Can. J. For. Res.
15:909–913.
Bloomberg, W. J., Smith, R. B., and van der Wereld, A. 1980. A model of spread and
intensification of dwarf mistletoe infection in young western hemlock stands. Can. J. For.
Res. 10:42–52.
Carpenter, L. R., Nelson, E. E., and Stewart, J. L. 1979. Development of dwarf mistletoe
infections on western hemlock in coastal Oregon. For. Sci. 25:237–243.
Filip, G. M., Hadfield, J. S., and Schmitt, C. 1979. Branch mortality of true firs in west–central
Oregon associated with dwarf mistletoe and canker fungi. Plant Dis. Rep. 63:189–193.
Hawksworth, F. G., and Scharpf, R. F., tech. coords. 1984. Biology of dwarf mistletoes:
proceedings of the symposium. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM–111. 131 pp.
Hawksworth, F. G., and Wiens, D. 1996 . Dwarf mistletoes: biology, pathology, and systematics.
USDA Agric. Handb. 709. 410 pp.
Hennon, P. E., Beatty, J. S., and Hildebrand, D. 2001. Hemlock dwarf mistletoe. USDA For.
Serv. For. Insect Dis. Leafl. 135. 8 pp. Internet pub.
Hunt, R. S., Owens, J. N., and Smith, R. B. 1996. Penetration of western hemlock, Tsuga
heterophylla, by the dwarf mistletoe Arceuthobium tsugense, and development of the
parasite cortical system. Can. J. Plant Pathol. 18:342–346.
282
Mathiasen, R. L. 1994. Natural infection of new hosts by hemlock dwarf mistletoe. USDA For.
Serv. Res. Note RM–530. 6 pp.
Miller, J. R., and Tocher, R. D. 1975. Photosynthesis and respiration of Arceuthobium tsugense
(Loranthaceae). Am. J. Bot. 62:765–769.
Nickrent, D. L., García, M. A., Martín, M. P., and Mathiasen, R. L. 2004. A Phylogeny of all
species of Arceuthobium (Viscaceae) using nuclear and chloroplast DNA sequences. Am. J.
Bot. 91:125–138.
Nickrent, D. L., and Stell, A. L. 1990. Electrophoretic evidence for genetic differentiation in two
host races of hemlock dwarf mistletoe (Arceuthobium tsugense). Biochem. Syst. Ecol.
18:267–280.
Paquet, P. J., Knutson, D. M., Tinnin, R. O., and Tocher, R. D. 1986. Characteristics of viscin
from the seeds of dwarf mistletoe. Bot. Gaz. 147:156–158.
Richardson, K. S., and van der Kamp, B. J. 1972. The rate of upward advance and intensification
of dwarf mistletoe on immature western hemlock. Can. J. For. Res. 2:313–316.
Shaw, C. G. 1991. Spread, intensification, and upward advances of dwarf mistletoe in thinned
young stands of western hemlock in southeast Alaska. Plant Dis. 75:363–367.
Shaw, C. G. III, and Loopstra, E. M. 1991. Development of dwarf mistletoe infections on
inoculated western hemlock trees in southeast Alaska. Northwest Sci. 65:48–52.
Shaw, D. C., and Weiss, S. B. 2000. Canopy light and the distribution of hemlock dwarf
mistletoe (Arceuthobium tsugense (Rosendahl) G. N. Jones subsp. tsugense) aerial shoots in
an old-growth Douglas-fir/western hemlock forest. Northwest Sci. 74:306–315.
Smith, R. B. 1973. Factors affecting dispersal of dwarf mistletoe seeds from an overstory
western hemlock tree. Northwest Sci. 47:9–19.
Smith, R. B., and Wass, E. F. 1979. Infection trials with three dwarf mistletoe species within and
beyond their known ranges in British Columbia. Can. J. Plant Pathol. 1:47–57.
Smith, R. B., Wass, E. F., and Meagher, M. D. 1993. Evidence of resistance to hemlock dwarf
mistletoe (Arceuthobium tsugense) in western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) clones. Eur. J.
For. Pathol. 23:163–170.
Thomson, A. J., Alfaro, R. I., Bloomberg, W. J., and Smith, R. B. 1985. Impact of dwarf
mistletoe on the growth of western hemlock trees having different patterns of suppression
and release. Can. J. For. Res. 15:665–668.
Wass, E., and Mathiasen, R. 2003. A new subspecies of Arceuthobium tsugense (Viscaceae)
from British Columbia and Washington. Novon 13:268–276.
-----------------Dwarf mistletoes, continued, Plate 225, page 453
Arceuthobium douglasii
Filip, G. M., Colbert, J. J., Shaw, C. G. III, Hessburg, P. F., and Hosman, K. P. 1993. Influence
of dwarf mistletoe and western spruce budworm on growth and mortality of Douglas-fir in
unmanaged stands. For. Sci. 39:465–477.
Geils, B. W., and Mathiasen, R. L. 1990. Intensification of dwarf mistletoe on southwestern
Douglas-fir. For. Sci. 36:955–969.
Hadfield, J. S., Mathiasen, R. L., and Hawksworth, F. G. 2002. Douglas-fir dwarf mistletoe. U.
S. For. Serv. For. Insect Dis. Leafl. 54. 10 pp. Internet pub.
Hawksworth, F. G., and Wiens, D. 1996 . Dwarf mistletoes: biology, pathology, and systematics.
USDA Agric. Handb. 709. 410 pp.
283
Marshall, K., and Filip, G. M. 1999. The relationship of Douglas-fir dwarf mistletoe
(Arceuthobium douglasii) to stand conditions and plant associations in the southern Cascade
Mountains, Oregon. Northwest Sci. 73:301–311.
Mathiasen, R. L. 1999. Comparative susceptibility of subalpine firs to Douglas-fir dwarf
mistletoe. Can. J. Plant Pathol. 21:45–51.
Mathiasen, R. L., Hawksworth, F. G., and Edminster, C. B. 1990. Effects of dwarf mistletoe on
growth and mortality of Douglas-fir in the Southwest. Great Basin Nat. 50:173–179.
Parks, C. G., Bull, E. L., Tinnin, R. O., Shepherd, J. F., and Blumton, A. K. 1999. Wildlife use
of dwarf mistletoe brooms in Douglas-fir in northeast Oregon. West. J. Appl. For. 14:100–
105.
Sala, A., Carey, E. V., and Callaway, R. M. 2001. Dwarf mistletoe affects whole–tree water
relations of Douglas-fir and western larch primarily through changes in leaf to sapwood
ratios. Oecologia 126:42–52.
Smith, R. B., and Wass, E. F. 1979. Infection trials with three dwarf mistletoe species within and
beyond their known ranges in British Columbia. Can. J. Plant Pathol. 1:47–57.
Tinnin, R. O., and Knutson, D. M. 1980. Growth characteristics of the brooms on Douglas-fir
caused by Arceuthobium douglasii. For. Sci. 26:149–158.
Tinnin, R. O., Parks, C. G., and Knutson, D. M. 1999. Effects of Douglas-fir dwarf mistletoe on
trees in thinned stands in the Pacific Northwest. For. Sci. 45:359–365.
-----------------Arceuthobium gillii
Hawksworth, F. G., and Wiens, D. 1996 . Dwarf mistletoes: biology, pathology, and systematics.
USDA Agric. Handb. 709. 410 pp.
Nickrent, D. L., García, M. A., Martín, M. P., and Mathiasen, R. L. 2004. A Phylogeny of all
species of Arceuthobium (Viscaceae) using nuclear and chloroplast DNA sequences. Am. J.
Bot. 91:125–138.
-----------------Arceuthobium vaginatum
Bennetts, R. E., White, G. C., Hawksworth, F. G., and Severs, S. E. 1996. The influence of
dwarf mistletoe on bird communities in Colorado ponderosa pine forests. Ecol. Applic.
6:899–909.
Hawksworth, F. G. 1961. Dwarfmistletoe of ponderosa pine in the Southwest. USDA Tech. Bull.
1246. 112 pp.
Hawksworth, F. G., and Geils, B. W. 1990. How long do mistletoe-infected ponderosa pines
live? West. J. Appl. For. 5:47–48.
Hawksworth, F. G., and Scharpf, R. F., tech. coords. 1984. Biology of dwarf mistletoes:
proceedings of the symposium. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-111. 131 pp.
Hawksworth, F. G., and Wiens, D. 1996 . Dwarf mistletoes: biology, pathology, and systematics.
USDA Agric. Handb. 709. 410 pp.
Hudler, G. W., Oshima, N., and Hawksworth, F. G. 1979. Bird dissemination of dwarf mistletoe
on ponderosa pine in Colorado. Am. Midl. Nat. 102:273–280.
Merrill, L. M., Hawksworth, F. G., and Jacobi, W. R. 1987. Frequency and severity of ponderosa
pine dwarf mistletoe in relation to habitat type and topography in Colorado. Plant Dis.
71:342–344.
284
Schaffer, B., Hawksworth, F. G., Wullschleger, S. D., and Reid, C. P. P. 1983. Cytokinin-like
activity related to host reactions to dwarf mistletoes (Arceuthobium spp.). For. Sci. 29:66–70.
Snyder, M. A., Fineschi, B., Linhart, Y. B., and Smith, R. H. 1996. Multivariate discrimination
of host use by dwarf mistletoe Arceuthobium vaginatum subsp. cryptopodum: inter- and
intraspecific comparisons. J. Chem. Ecol. 22:295–305.
-----------------Arceuthobium pusillum,
Anderson, N. A., and Kaufert, F. H. 1959. Brooming response of black spruce to dwarfmistletoe
infection. For. Sci. 5:356–364.
Baker, F. A., and French, D. W. 1980. Spread of Arceuthobium pusillum and rates of infection
and mortality in black spruce stands. Plant Dis. 64:1074–1076.
Baker, F. A., and French, D. W. 1986. Dispersal of Arceuthobium pusillum seeds. Can. J. For.
Res. 16:1–5.
Baker, F. A., and French, D. W. 1991. Radial enlargement of mortality centers caused by
Arceuthobium pusillum Peck in black spruce stands. For. Sci. 37:364–367.
Baker, F. A., French, D. W., and Hudler, G. W. 1981. Development of Arceuthobium pusillum
on inoculated black spruce. For. Sci. 27:203–205.
Baker, F. A., French, D. W., Kulman, H. M., Davis, O., and Bright, R. C. 1985. Pollination of
the eastern dwarf mistletoe. Can. J. For. Res. 15:708–714.
Clark, J., and Bonga, J. M. 1970. Photosynthesis and respiration in black spruce (Picea mariana)
parasitized by eastern dwarf mistletoe (Arceuthobium pusillum). Can. J. Bot. 48:2029–2031.
Gilbert, J., and Punter, D. 1990. Release and dispersal of pollen from dwarf mistletoe on jack
pine in Manitoba in relation to microclimate. Can. J. For. Res. 20:267–273.
Gilbert, J., and Punter, D. 1991. Germination of pollen of the dwarf mistletoe Arceuthobium
americanum. Can. J. Bot. 69:685–688.
Hawksworth, F. G., and Scharpf, R. F., tech. coords. 1984. Biology of dwarf mistletoes:
proceedings of the symposium. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-111. 131 pp.
Hawksworth, F. G., and Shigo, A. L. 1980. Dwarf mistletoe on red spruce in the White
Mountains of New Hampshire. Plant Dis. 64:880–882.
Hawksworth, F. G., and Wiens, D. 1996 . Dwarf mistletoes: biology, pathology, and systematics.
USDA Agric. Handb. 709. 410 pp.
Hudler, G. W., and French, D. W. 1976. Dispersal and survival of seed of eastern dwarf
mistletoe. Can. J. For. Res. 6:335–340.
Livingston, W. H., Ritz, G. F., and Rombold, J. S. 1991. Eastern dwarf mistletoe on red spruce
in eastern Maine. North. J. Appl. For. 8:123–125.
Ostry, M. E., Nicholls, T. H., and French, D. W. 1983. Animal vectors of eastern dwarf mistletoe
of black spruce. USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. NC-232. 16 pp.
Punter, D., and Gilbert, J. 1991. Explosive discharge of jack pine dwarf mistletoe (Arceuthobium
americanum) seed in Manitoba. Can. J. For. Res. 21:434–438.
Singh, P., and Carew, G. C. 1989. Impact of eastern dwarf mistletoe in black spruce forests of
Newfoundland. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 19:305–322.
Tainter, F. H., and French, D. W. 1971. The role of wound periderm in the resistance of eastern
larch and jack pine to dwarf mistletoe. Can. J. Bot. 49:501–504.
------------------
285
Cassytha and dodder, Plate 226, page 455
Cassytha
Debabrata, D. 2000. A preliminary taxonomic survey of host-range of Cassytha filiformis L.
(Cassythaceae) in the lateritic district of Purulia, West Bengal. J. Econ. Taxon. Bot. 24:467–
473.
Heide, J. H. S. 1991. Anatomy and ultrastructure of the haustorium of Cassytha pubescens R. Br.
I. The adhesive disk. Bot. Gaz. 152:321–334.
Knorr, L. C. 1973. Citrus diseases and disorders. Univ. Presses Fla., Gainesville. 163 pp.
Kuijt, J. 1969. The biology of parasitic flowering plants. Univ. California Press, Berkeley. 246
pp.
Kuijt, J. 1977. Haustoria of phanerogamic parasites. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 15:91–118.
Kuijt, J., and Toth, R. 1976. Ultrastructure of angiosperm haustoria—a review. Ann. Bot.
40:1121–1130.
Missouri Botanical Garden, W3TROPICOS VAST (VAScular Tropicos) database. St. Louis,
MO. Internet resource.
Musselman, L. J., Worsham, A. D., and Eplee, R. E. 1979. Proceedings, the second international
symposium on parasitic weeds. N.C. State Univ., Raleigh. 296 pp.
Parker, C., and Riches, C. R. 1993. Parasitic weeds of the world: biology and control. CAB
International, Wallingford, UK. 332 pp.
Press, M. C., and Graves, J. D., eds. 1995. Parasitic plants. Chapman & Hall, London. 292 pp.
Rajanna, L., and Shivamurthy, G. R. 2001. Occurrence of graniferous tracheary elements in the
haustorium of Cassytha filiformis Linn., a stem parasite of Lauraceae. Taiwania 46:40–48.
U.S. Natural Resources Conservation Service. National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, LA.
The PLANTS database. Internet resource.
-----------------Dodder
Bringmann, G., Schlauer, J., Ruckert, M., Wiesen, B., Ehrenfeld, K., Proksch, P., and Czygan, F.
C. 1999. Host-derived acetogenins involved in the incompatible parasitic relationship
between Cuscuta reflexa (Convolvulaceae) and Ancistrocladus heyneanus
(Ancistrocladaceae). Plant Biol. 1:581–584.
Dawson, J. H., Musselman, L. J., Wolswinkel, P., and Dorr, I. 1994. Biology and control of
Cuscuta. Rev. Weed Sci. 6:265–317.
Furuhashi, K., Tada, Y., Okamoto, K., Sugai, M., Kubota, M., and Watanabe, M. 1997.
Phytochrome participation in induction of haustoria in Cuscuta japonica, a holoparasitic
flowering plant. Plant Cell Physiol. 38:935–940.
Haidar, M. A., Orr, G. L., and Westra, P. 1998. The response of dodder (Cuscuta spp.) seedlings
to phytohormones under various light regimes. Ann. Appl. Biol. 132:331–338.
Haupt, S., Oparka, K. J., Sauer, N., and Neumann, S. 2001. Macromolecular trafficking between
Nicotiana tabacum and the holoparasite Cuscuta reflexa. J. Exp. Bot. 52:173–177.
Hibberd, J. M., Bungard, R. A., Press, M. C., Jeschke, W. D., Scholes, J. D., and Quick, W. P.
1998. Localization of photosynthetic metabolism in the parasitic angiosperm Cuscuta
reflexa. Planta 205:506–513.
Ihl, B., and Wiese, K. 2000. Studies on Cuscuta reflexa Roxb.: VIII. Mechanical induction of
haustoria formation in non-twining stems of the parasite. Flora 195:1–8.
286
Kelly, C. K., Harris, D., and Perez, I. R. 2001. Is breaking up hard to do? Breakage, growth, and
survival in the parasitic clonal plant Cuscuta corymbosa (Convolvulaceae). Am. J. Bot.
88:1458–1468.
Kooij, T. A. W. van der, Krause, K., Dorr, I., and Krupinska, K. 2000. Molecular, functional and
ultrastructural characterisation of plastids from six species of the parasitic flowering plant
genus Cuscuta. Planta 210:701–707.
Kuijt, J. 1969. The biology of parasitic flowering plants. Univ. Calif. Press, Berkeley. 246 pp.
Kuijt, J. 1977. Haustoria of phanerogamic parasites. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 15:91–118.
Kuijt, J., and Toth, R. 1976. Ultrastructure of angiosperm haustoria—a review. Ann. Bot.
40:1121–1130.
Loffler, C., Czygan, F. C., and Proksch, P. 1999. Role of indole-3-acetic acid in the interaction
of the phanerogamic parasite Cuscuta and host plants. Plant Biol. 1:613–617.
Musselman, L. J., Worsham, A. D., and Eplee, R. E. 1979. Proceedings, the second international
symposium on parasitic weeds. N.C. State Univ., Raleigh. 296 pp.
Neyland, R. 2001. A phylogeny inferred from large ribosomal subunit (26S) rDNA sequences
suggests that Cuscuta is a derived member of Convolvulaceae. Brittonia 53:108–115.
Parker, C., and Riches, C. R. 1993. Parasitic weeds of the world: biology and control. CAB
International, Wallingford, UK. 332 pp.
Press, M. C., and Graves, J. D., eds. 1995. Parasitic plants. Chapman & Hall, London. 292 pp.
U.S. Natural Resources Conservation Service. National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, LA.
The PLANTS database. Internet resource.
Wolswinkel, P., Ammerlaan, A., and Peters, H. F. C. 1984. Phloem unloading of amino acids at
the site of attachment of Cuscuta europaea. Plant Physiol. 75:13–20.
-----------------Vines that damage trees, Plate 227, page 457
Carter, G. A., and Teramura, A. L. 1988. Vine photosynthesis and relationships to climbing
mechanics in a forest understory. Am. J. Bot. 75:1011–1018.
Davison, S. E., and Forman, R. T. T. 1982. Herb and shrub dynamics in a mature oak forest: a
thirty-year study. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 109:64–73.
Dreyer, G. 1994. Element stewardship abstract for Celastrus orbiculatus Thunb. (C. articulatus).
The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, VA. Internet pub.
Dreyer, G., Baird, L., and Fickler, C. 1987. Celastrus scandens and Celastrus orbiculatus:
Comparisons of reproductive potential between a native and an introduced woody vine. Bull.
Torrey Bot. Club 114:260–264.
Duncan, W. H. 1975. Woody vines of the southeastern United States. Univ. Ga. Press, Athens.
76 pp.
Featherly, H. L. 1941. The effect of grapevines on trees. Proc. Okla. Acad. Sci. 21:61–62.
Fike, J., and Niering, W. A. 1999. Four decades of old field vegetation development and the role
of Celastrus orbiculatus in the northeastern United States. J. Veg. Sci. 10:483–492.
Lamson, N. I., and Smith, H. C. 1978. Response to crop tree release: sugar maple, red oak, black
cherry, and yellow poplar saplings in a 9-year-old stand. USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. NE394. 8 pp.
Lutz, H. J. 1943. Injuries to trees caused by Celastrus and Vitis. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 70:436–
439.
287
McNab, W. H., and Meeker, M. 1987. Oriental bittersweet: a growing threat to hardwood
silviculture in the Appalachians. North. J. Appl. For. 4:174–177.
Miller, J. H., and Edwards, B. 1983. Kudzu: where did it come from? And how can we stop it?
South. J. Appl. For. 7:165–169.
Mitich, L. W. 2000. Kudzu [Pueraria lobata (Willd.) Ohwi]. Weed Technol. 14:231–235.
Nuzzo, V. 2002. Element stewardship abstract for Lonicera japonica, rev. 2002. The Nature
Conservancy, Arlington, VA.. Internet pub.
Pappert, R. A., Hamrick, J. L., and Donovan, L. A. 2000. Genetic variation in Pueraria lobata
(Fabaceae), an introduced, clonal, invasive plant of the southeastern United States. Am. J.
Bot. 87:1240–1245.
Reuschel, D., Mattheck, C., and Althaus, C. 1998. The mechanical effect of climbing plants on
host trees. Allg. Forst Jagdz. 169:87–91.
Shurtleff, W., and Aoyagi, A. 1977. The book of kudzu. Autumn Press, Brookline, MA. 102 pp.
Siccama, T. G., Weir, G., and Wallace, K. 1976. Ice damage in a mixed hardwood forest in
Connecticut in relation to Vitis infestation. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 103:180–183.
Thomas, L. K. Jr. 1980. The impact of three exotic plant species on a Potomac island. U.S. Natl.
Park Serv. Sci. Monogr. Ser. No. 13. 179 pp.
Tibbetts, T. J., and Ewers, F. W. 2000. Root pressure and specific conductivity in temperate
lianas: exotic Celastrus orbiculatus (Celastraceae) vs. native Vitis riparia (Vitaceae). Am. J.
Bot. 87:1272–1278.
Trimble, G. R. Jr., and Tryon, E. H. 1974. Grapevines a serious obstacle to timber production on
good hardwood sites in Appalachia. North. Logger 23(5):22, 23, 44.
Whigham, D. 1984. The influence of vines on the growth of Liquidambar styraciflua L.
(sweetgum). Can. J. For. Res. 14:37–39.
-----------------Decline diseases with multiple or obscure causal factors, Plate 228, page 459
Concepts and overview
Auclair, A. N. D., Eglinton, P. D., and Minnemeyer, S. L. 1997. Principal forest dieback
episodes in northern hardwoods: development of numeric indices of areal extent and
severity. Water Air Soil Pollut. 93:175–198.
Auclair, A. N. D., Lill, J. T., and Revenga, C. 1996. The role of climate variability and global
warming in the dieback of northern hardwoods. Water Air Soil Pollut. 91:163–186.
Hall, R. C. 1933. Post-logging decadence in northern hardwoods. Univ. Mich. Sch. For.
Conserv. Bull. 3. 66 pp.
Houston, D. R. 1981. Stress triggered tree diseases. The diebacks and declines. USDA For. Serv.
NS-INF-41-81. 36 pp.
Houston, D. R. 1985. Dieback and declines of urban trees. J. Arboric. 11:65–72.
Houston, D. R. 1985. Diebacks and declines of urban trees. Pages 120–137 in: Improving the
quality of urban life with plants. D. F. and S. L. Karnosky, eds. N.Y. Bot. Gard., Inst. Urban
Hortic. Pub. No. 2. 200 pp.
Huettl, R. F., and Mueller-Dombois, D., eds. 1993. Forest decline in the Atlantic and Pacific
region. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, New York. 366 pp.
Klinger, L. F. 1990. Global patterns in community succession: 1. Bryophytes and forest decline.
Mem. Torrey Bot. Club 24:1–50.
Manion, P. D., and Griffin, D. H. 2001. Large landscape scale analysis of tree death in the
288
Adirondack Park, New York. For. Sci. 47:542–579.
Manion, P. D., and Lachance, D., eds. 1992. Forest decline concepts. APS Press, St. Paul, MN.
249 pp.
McLaughlin, D. 1998. A decade of forest tree monitoring in Canada: evidence of air pollution
effects. Environ. Rev. 6:151–171.
Mickler, R. A., Birdsey, R. A., and Hom, J., eds. 2000. Responses of northern U.S. forests to
environmental change. Springer-Verlag, New York. 578 pp.
Mueller-Dombois, D., Canfield, J. E., Holt, R. A., and Buelow, G. P. 1983. Tree group death in
North American and Hawaiian forests: a pathological problem or a new problem for
vegetation ecology? Phytocoenologia 11:117–137.
Patterson, J. C. 1977. Soil compaction—effects on urban vegetation. J. Arboric. 3:161–167.
Sinclair, W. A., and Hudler, G. W. 1988. Tree declines: four concepts of causality. J. Arboric.
14:29–35.
Wargo, P. M. 1981. Defoliation and secondary-action organism attack: with emphasis on
Armillaria mellea. J. Arboric. 7:64–69.
-----------------Maple decline
Auclair, A. N. D., Lill, J. T., and Revenga, C. 1996. The role of climate variability and global
warming in the dieback of northern hardwoods. Water Air Soil Pollut. 91:163–186.
Baker, J. H. 1965. Relationship between salt concentrations in leaves and sap and the decline of
sugar maples along roadsides. Mass. Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull. 553. 16 pp.
Bauce, E., and Allen, D. C. 1991. Etiology of a sugar maple decline. Can. J. For. Res. 21:686–
693.
Bernier, B., and Brazeau, M. 1988. Foliar nutrient status in relation to sugar maple dieback and
decline in the Quebec Appalachians. Can. J. For. Res. 18:754–761.
Bernier, B., Pare, D., and Brazeau, M. 1989. Natural stresses, nutrient imbalances and forest
decline in southeastern Quebec. Water Air Soil Pollut. 48:239–250.
Bertrand, A., Robitaille, G., Nadeau, P., and Boutin, R. 1994. Effects of soil freezing and
drought stress on abscisic acid content of sugar maple sap and leaves. Tree Physiol. 14:413–
425.
Dessureault, M., Lachance, D., Roy, G., Robitaille, L., and Gagnon, G. 1985. Symposium: maple
decline in Quebec. Phytoprotection 66:69–99.
Drilias, M. J., Kuntz, J. E., and Worf, G. L. 1982. Collar rot and basal canker of sugar maple. J.
Arboric. 8:29–33.
Dyer, S. M., and Mader, D. L. 1986. Declined urban sugar maples: growth patterns, nutritional
status and site factors. J. Arboric. 12:6–13.
Giese, R. L., Houston, D. R., Benjamin, D. M., Kuntz, J. E., and Skilling, D. D. 1964. Studies of
maple blight. Wisc. Agric. Exp. Stn. Res. Bull. 250. 129 pp.
Griffin, H. D. 1965. Maple dieback in Ontario. For. Chron. 41:295–300.
Hall, R., Hofstra, G., and Lumis, G. P. 1973. Leaf necrosis of roadside sugar maple in Ontario in
relation to elemental composition of soil and leaves. Phytopathology 63:1426–1427.
Hall, R. C. 1933. Post-logging decadence in northern hardwoods. Univ. Mich. Sch. For.
Conserv. Bull. 3. 66 pp.
Hibben, C. R. 1959. Relations of Stegonosporium ovatum (Pers. ex Mérat) Hughes with dieback
of sugar maple (Acer saccharum Marsh.). M.S. thesis, Cornell Univ., Ithaca, NY. 63 pp.
289
Hibben, C. R. 1964. Identity and significance of certain organisms associated with sugar maple
decline in New York woodlands. Phytopathology 54:1389–1392.
Horsley, S. B., Long, R. P., Bailey, S. W., Hallett, R. A., and Hall, T. J. 2000. Factors associated
with the decline disease of sugar maple on the Allegheny Plateau. Can. J. For. Res. 30:1365–
1378.
Horsley, S. B., Long, R. P., Bailey, S. W., Hallett, R. A., and Wargo, P. M. 2002. Health of
eastern North American sugar maple forests and factors affecting decline. North. J. Appl.
For. 19:34–44.
Hutchinson, T. C., Watmough, S. A., Sager, E. P. S., and Karagatzides, J. D. 1998. Effects of
excess nitrogen deposition and soil acidification on sugar maple (Acer saccharum) in
Ontario, Canada: an experimental study. Can. J. For. Res. 28:299–310.
Kolb, T. E., and McCormick, L. H. 1993. Etiology of sugar maple decline in four Pennsylvania
stands. Can. J. For. Res. 23:2395–2402.
Lacasse, N. L., and Rich, A. E. 1964. Maple decline in New Hampshire. Phytopathology
54:1071–1075.
Long, R. P., Horsley, S. B., and Lilja, P. R. 1997. Impact of forest liming on growth and crown
vigor of sugar maple and associated hardwoods. Can. J. For. Res. 27:1560–1573.
Lyon, J., and Sharpe, W. E. 1999. An assessment of the Ca:Al ratios of selected Pennsylvania
forest soils. Water Air Soil Pollut. 109:53–65.
Mader, D. L., and Thompson, B. W. 1969. Foliar and soil nutrients in relation to maple decline.
Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc. 33:794–800.
Manion, P. D. 1981. Norway maple decline. J. Arboric. 7:38–42.
Manion, P. D. 1991. Tree disease concepts. 2nd ed. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. 402 pp.
228
Manion, P. D., and Lachance, D., eds. 1992. Forest decline concepts. APS Press, St. Paul, MN.
249 pp.
Mohamed, H. K., Pathak, S., Roy, D. N., Hutchinson, T. C., McLaughlin, D. L., and Kinch, J. C.
1997. Relationship between sugar maple decline and corresponding chemical changes in the
stem tissue. Water Air Soil Pollut. 96:321–327.
National Mycological Herbarium (Canada). 1973–1993. Fungi Canadenses Nos. 1–330. Agric.
Can. Res. Branch, Biosyst. Res. Inst., Ottawa.
Ouimet, R., and Camire, C. 1995. Foliar deficiencies of sugar maple stands associated with soil
cation imbalances in the Quebec Appalachians. Can. J. Soil Sci. 75:169–175.
Patterson, J. C. 1977. Soil compaction—effects on urban vegetation. J. Arboric. 3:161–167.
Payette, S., Fortin, M. J., and Morneau, C. 1996. The recent sugar maple decline in southern
Quebec: probable causes deduced from tree rings. Can. J. For. Res. 26:1069–1078.
Rich, S., and Walton, G. S. 1979. Decline of curbside sugar maples in Connecticut. J. Arboric.
5:265–268.
Robitaille, G., Boutin, R., and Lachance, D. 1995. Effects of soil freezing stress on sap flow and
sugar content of mature sugar maples (Acer saccharum). Can. J. For. Res. 25:577–587.
Robitaille, G., Boutin, R., and Lachance, D. 1996. Effect of deep soil frost on sugar maple (Acer
saccharum Marsh.) leaf dry weight and area. Pages 35–41 in: Air pollutants and natural
stresses. IUFRO proceedings 16th international meeting for specialists in air pollution effects
on forest ecosystems, Fredericton, NB, Canada, 1994. R. Cox, K. Percy, and K. Jensen, eds.
Can. For. Serv., Fredericton, NB.
290
Ruark, G. A., Mader, D. L., Veneman, P. L. M., and Tattar, T. A. 1983. Soil factors related to
urban sugar maple decline. J. Arboric. 9:1–6.
Wargo, P. M. 1981. Defoliation and secondary-action organism attack: with emphasis on
Armillaria mellea. J. Arboric. 7:64–69.
Wargo, P. M., and Houston, D. R. 1974. Infection of defoliated sugar maple trees by Armillaria
mellea. Phytopathology 64:817–822.
Wargo, P. M., Parker, J., and Houston, D. R. 1972. Starch content in roots of defoliated sugar
maple. For. Sci. 18:203–204.
Warmelo, K. T. Van, and Sutton, B. C. 1981. Coelomycetes VII. Stegonsporium. Commonw.
Mycol. Inst. Mycol. Pap. No. 145. 45 pp.
Watmough, S., Brydges, T., and Hutchinson, T. 1999. The tree-ring chemistry of declining sugar
maple in central Ontario, Canada. Ambio 28:613–618.
Westing, A. H. 1966. Sugar maple decline: an evaluation. J. Econ. Bot. 20:196–212.
-----------------Decline diseases with multiple or obscure causal factors, continued, Plate 229, page 461
Ash decline
Castello, J. D., Amico, L. A., and O'Shea, M. T. 1984. Detection of tobacco mosaic and tobacco
ringspot viruses in white ash trees by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Plant Dis.
68:787–790.
Castello, J. D., Silverborg, S. B., and Manion, P. D. 1985. Intensification of ash decline in New
York State from 1962 through 1980. Plant Dis. 69:243–246.
Défago, G. 1942. Seconde contribution à la connaissance des Valsées v. Höhnel. Phytopathol. Z.
14:103–147.
Feeley, C. J., Hart, E. R., Thompson, J. R., and Harrington, T. C. 2001. Occurrence, associated
symptoms, and potential insect vectors of the ash yellows phytoplasma in Iowa, U.S. J.
Arboric. 27:331–339.
Han, Y., Castello, J. D., and Leopold, D. J. 1991. Ash yellows, drought, and decline in radial
growth of white ash. Plant Dis. 75:18–23.
Hibben, C. R., and Hagar, S. S. 1975. Pathogenicity of an ash isolate of tobacco ringspot virus.
Plant Dis. Rep. 59:57–60.
Hibben, C. R., Reese, J. A., and Castello, J. D. 1988. Identification of tomato ringspot virus in
ash in New York. Plant Dis. 72:175.
Hibben, C. R., and Silverborg, S. B. 1978. Severity and causes of ash dieback. J. Arboric. 4:274–
279.
Houston, D. R. 1981. Stress triggered tree diseases. The diebacks and declines. USDA For. Serv.
NS-INF-41-81. 36 pp.
Houston, D. R. 1985. Diebacks and declines of urban trees. Pages 120–137 in: Improving the
quality of urban life with plants. D. F. and S. L. Karnosky, eds. N.Y. Bot. Gard., Inst. Urban
Hortic. Pub. No. 2. 200 pp.
Kepley, J. B., and Jacobi, W. R. 2000. Pathogenicity of Cytospora fungi on six hardwood
species. J. Arboric. 26:326–333.
Lana, A. O., and Agrios, G. N. 1974. Transmission of a mosaic disease of white ash to woody
and herbaceous hosts. Plant Dis. Rep. 58:536–540.
Livingston, W. H., and White, A. S. 1997. May drought confirmed as likely cause of brown ash
dieback in Maine (Abstr.). Phytopathology 87:S59.
291
Luley, C. J., Mielke, M. E., Castello, J. D., Cummings Carlson, J., Appleby, J., and Hatcher, R.
1992. Ash crown condition and the incidence of ash yellows and other insects and diseases in
Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, and Wisconsin. Plant Dis. 76:1209–1212.
Matteoni, J. A., and Sinclair, W. A. 1985. Role of the mycoplasmal disease, ash yellows, in
decline of white ash in New York State. Phytopathology 75:355–360.
Pomerleau, R. 1944. Observations sur quelques maladies non parasitaires des arbres dans le
Québec. Can. J. Res. C22:171–189.
Pomerleau, R. 1953. History of hardwood species dying in Quebec. Can. Dep. Agric., Ottawa.
report of Symposium on Birch Dieback, Part 1:10–11.
Ross, E. W. 1964. Cankers associated with ash die-back. Phytopathology 54:272–275.
Ross, E. W. 1966. Ash dieback: etiological and developmental studies. State Univ. Coll. For.
(Syracuse, NY) Tech. Pub. 88. 80 pp.
Sandermann, H. J., Wellburn, A. R., and Heath, R. L., eds. 1997. Forest decline and ozone : a
comparison of controlled chamber and field experiments. Springer, New York. 400 pp.
Sinclair, W. A., and Griffiths, H. M. 1994. Ash yellows and its relationship to dieback and
decline of ash. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 32:49–60.
Sinclair, W. A., Griffiths, H. M., and Treshow, M. 1994. Ash yellows in velvet ash in Zion
National Park, Utah: high incidence but low impact. Plant Dis. 78:486–490.
Sinclair, W. A., Griffiths, H. M., and Whitlow, T. H. 1997. Comparisons of tolerance of ash
yellows phytoplasmas in Fraxinus species and rootstock-scion combinations. Plant Dis.
81:395–398.
Tobiessen, P., and Buchsbaum, S. 1976. Ash dieback and drought. Can. J. Bot. 54:543–545.
Walla, J. A. 1984. Incidence of Phellinus punctatus on living woody plants in North Dakota.
Plant Dis. 68:252–253.
Walla, J. A., Jacobi, W. R., Tisserat, N. A., Harrell, M. O., Ball, J. J., Neill, G. B., Reynard, D.
A., Guo, Y. H., and Spiegel, L. 2000. Condition of green ash, incidence of ash yellows
phytoplasmas, and their association in the Great Plains and Rocky Mountain regions of
North America. Plant Dis. 84:268–274.
Walla, J. A., and Riffle, J. W. 1981. Fomes fraxinophilus on green ash in North Dakota
windbreaks. Plant Dis. 65237:669–670.
Woodcock, H., Davies, K. M. Jr., and Patterson, W. A. III. 1997. White ash decline hazard
assessment and management strategies in Massachusetts stands. North. J. Appl. For. 14:10–
15.
Woodcock, H., Patterson, W. A. III, and Davies, K. M. Jr. 1993. The relationship between site
factors and white ash (Fraxinus americana L.) decline in Massachusetts. For. Ecol. Manag.
60:271–290.
-----------------Decline diseases with multiple or obscure causal factors, continued, Plate 230, page 463
Birch decline
Ahokas, H. 1997. Acidification of forest top soils in 60 years to the southwest of Helsinki. For.
Ecol. Manag. 94:187–193.
Auclair, A. N. D., Eglinton, P. D., and Minnemeyer, S. L. 1997. Principal forest dieback
episodes in northern hardwoods: development of numeric indices of areal extent and
severity. Water Air Soil Pollut. 93:175–198.
Auclair, A. N. D., Lill, J. T., and Revenga, C. 1996. The role of climate variability and global
292
warming in the dieback of northern hardwoods. Water Air Soil Pollut. 91:163–186.
Berbee, J. G. 1957. Virus symptoms associated with birch dieback. Can. Dep. Agric., Sci. Serv.,
For. Biol. Div. Bi-mon. Prog. Rep. 13(1):1.
Braathe, P. 1996. Birch dieback—the effects of artificial spring frost on budburst and foliage.
Norweg. J. Agric. Sci. 10:1–6.
Clark, J. 1961. Birch dieback. Pages 1551–1555 in: Recent advances in botany. Univ. Toronto
Press, Toronto.
Clark, J., and Barter, G. W. 1958. Growth and climate in relation to dieback of yellow birch. For.
Sci. 4:343–364.
Cox, R. M., Lemieux, G., and Lodin, M. 1996. The assessment and condition of Fundy white
birches in relation to ambient exposure to acid marine fogs. Can. J. For. Res. 26:682–688.
Cox, R. M., and Malcolm, J. W. 1997. Effects of duration of a simulated winter thaw on dieback
and xylem conductivity of Betula papyrifera. Tree Physiol. 17:389-396.
Gotlieb, A. R., and Berbee, J. G. 1973. Line pattern of birch caused by apple mosaic virus.
Phytopathology 63:1470–1477.
Greenidge, K. N. H. 1953. Further studies of birch dieback in Nova Scotia. Can. J. Bot. 31:548–
559.
Hall, R. C. 1933. Post-logging decadence in northern hardwoods. Univ. Mich. Sch. For.
Conserv. Bull. 3. 66 pp.
Hepting, G. H. 1963. Climate and forest diseases. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 1:31–50.
Jones, E. A., Reed, D. D., Mroz, G. D., Liechty, H. O., and Cattelino, P. J. 1993. Climate stress
as a precursor to forest decline: paper birch in northern Michigan, 1985–1990. Can. J. For.
Res. 23:229–233.
McLaughlin, J. A., and Setliff, E. C. 1990. Chondrostereum purpureum associated with decline
of Betula papyrifera in Thunder Bay, Ontario. Plant Dis. 74:331.
Mickler, R. A., Birdsey, R. A., and Hom, J., eds. 2000. Responses of northern U.S. forests to
environmental change. Springer-Verlag, New York. 578 pp.
Mueller-Dombois, D., Canfield, J. E., Holt, R. A., and Buelow, G. P. 1983. Tree group death in
North American and Hawaiian forests: a pathological problem or a new problem for
vegetation ecology? Phytocoenologia 11:117–137.
Pomerleau, R., Auclair, A., and Lachance, D. 1991. Experiments on the causal mechanisms of
dieback on deciduous forests in Quebec. For. Can. Inf. Rep. LAU-X-96. 48 pp.
Pomerleau, R., and Lortie, M. 1962. Relationships of dieback to the rooting depth of white birch.
For. Sci. 8:219–224.
Redmond, D. R. 1955. Studies in forest pathology. XV. Rootlets, mycorrhiza, and soil
temperature in relation to birch dieback. Can. J. Bot. 33:595–627.
Spaulding, P., and MacAloney, H. J. 1931. A study of organic factors concerned in the
decadence of birch on cut-over lands in northern New England. J. For. 29:1134–1149.
Zhu, X. B., Cox, R. M., and Arp, P. A. 2000. Effects of xylem cavitation and freezing injury on
dieback of yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis) in relation to a simulated winter thaw. Tree
Physiol. 20:541–547.
-----------------Pine declines
Auclair, A. N. D., Martin, H. C., and Walker, S. L. 1990. A case study of forest decline in
western Canada and the adjacent United States. Water Air Soil Pollut. 53:13–31.
293
Bennett, J. P., Anderson, R. L., Mielke, M. L., and Ebersole, J. J. 1994. Foliar injury air
pollution surveys of eastern white pine (Pinus strobus L.): a review. Environ. Monit. Assess.
30:247–274.
Futai, K., Togashi, K., and Ikeda, T., eds. 1999. Sustainability of pine forests in relation to pine
wilt and decline. Proceedings of international symposium, Tokyo, 1998. Shokado, Tokyo.
336 pp.
Grulke, N. E., Andersen, C. P., Fenn, M. E., and Miller, P. R. 1998. Ozone exposure and
nitrogen deposition lowers root biomass of ponderosa pine in the San Bernardino Mountains,
California. Environ. Pollut. 103:63–73.
Hepting, G. H. 1963. Climate and forest diseases. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 1:31–50.
Hess, N. J., Otrosina, W. J., Jones, J. P., Goddard, A. J., Walkinshaw, C. H., and Haywood, J. D.
1999. Reassessment of loblolly pine decline on the Oakmulgee Ranger District, Talladega
National Forest, Alabama. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-30:560–564.
Leaphart, C. D., and Gill, L. S. 1959. Effects of inoculations with Leptographium spp. on
western white pine. Phytopathology 49:350–353.
Leaphart, C. D., and Stage, A. R. 1971. Climate: a factor in the origin of the pole blight disease
of Pinus monticola Dougl. Ecology 52:229–239.
Leaphart, C. D., and Wicker, E. F. 1966. Explanation of pole blight from responses of seedlings
grown in modified environments. Can. J. Bot. 44:121–137.
Messenger, A. S., and Stelford, M. W. 1997. White pine chlorosis in northern Illinois: iron
deficiency or not? J. Arboric. 23:191–195.
Mueller-Dombois, D., Canfield, J. E., Holt, R. A., and Buelow, G. P. 1983. Tree group death in
North American and Hawaiian forests: a pathological problem or a new problem for
vegetation ecology? Phytocoenologia 11:117–137.
Parker, A. K. 1957. The nature of the association of Europhium trinacriforme with pole blight
lesions. Can. J. Bot. 35:845–856.
Peacock, C. H., and Webb, R. S. 1984. Screening potential causes of pine tree decline on Florida
golf courses. Soil Crop Sci. Soc. Fla. Proc. 43:34–35.
Schmieden, U., and Wild, A. 1995. The contribution of ozone to forest decline. Physiol. Plant.
94:371–378.
Shan, Y. 2000. Phenological disorder induced by atmospheric nitrogen deposition: original
causes of pine forest decline over Japan. Part II. Relationship among earlier phenological
development, extreme of minimum air temperature, and forest decline of pines over the
Japan. Water Air Soil Pollut. 117:205–215.
Weaver, M. J., and Stipes, R. J. 1988. White pine decline: a case study from Virginia landscapes.
J. Arboric. 14:109–120.
-----------------Decline diseases with multiple or obscure causal factors, continued, Plate 231, page 465
Oak decline
Appel, D. N., and Stipes, R. J. 1984. Canker expansion on water-stressed pin oaks colonized by
Endothia gyrosa. Plant Dis. 68:851–853.
Bassett, E. N., and Fenn, P. 1984. Latent colonization and pathogenicity of Hypoxylon
atropunctatum on oaks. Plant Dis. 68:317–319.
Berrang, P., Karnosky, D. F., and Stanton, B. J. 1985. Environmental factors affecting tree health
in New York City. J. Arboric. 11:185–189.
294
Biocca, M., Tainter, F. H., Starkey, D. A., Oak, S. W., and Williams, J. G. 1993. The persistence
of oak decline in the western North Carolina Nantahala Mountains. Castanea 58:178–184.
Brasier, C. M. 1996. Phytophthora cinnamomi and oak decline in southern Europe.
Environmental constraints including climate change. Ann. Sci. For. 53:347–358.
Bruhn, J. N., Wetteroff, J. J. Jr., Mihail, J. D., Kabrick, J. M., and Pickens, J. B. 2000.
Distribution of Armillaria species in upland Ozark Mountain forests with respect to site,
overstory species composition and oak decline. For. Pathol. 30:43–60.
Demchik, M. C., and Sharpe, W. E. 2000. The effect of soil nutrition, soil acidity and drought on
northern red oak (Quercus rubra L.) growth and nutrition on Pennsylvania sites with high
and low red oak mortality. For. Ecol. Manag. 136:199–207.
Doane, C. C., and McManus, M. L., eds. 1981. The gypsy moth: research toward integrated pest
management. USDA Tech. Bull. 1584. 757 pp.
Donaubauer, E. 1998. The role of pathogens in the present oak decline in Europe—a literature
review. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 28:91–98.
Gallego, F. J., Perez de Algaba, A., and Fernandez, E. R. 1999. Etiology of oak decline in Spain.
Eur. J. For. Pathol. 29:17–27.
Hartmann, G., and Blank, R. 1992. Winter frost, insect defoliation and attack by Agrilus
biguttatus as causal factors in the complex of oak decline in northern Germany. Forst Holz
47:443–452.
Hecht-Poinar, E. I., Britton, J. C., and Parmeter, J. R. Jr. 1981. Dieback of oaks in California.
Plant Dis. 65:281.
Houston, D. R. 1981. Stress triggered tree diseases. The diebacks and declines. USDA For. Serv.
NS-INF-41-81. 36 pp.
Houston, D. R. 1985. Diebacks and declines of urban trees. Pages 120–137 in: Improving the
quality of urban life with plants. D. F. and S. L. Karnosky, eds. N.Y. Bot. Gard., Inst. Urban
Hortic. Pub. No. 2. 200 pp.
Jenkins, M. A., and Pallardy, S. G. 1995. The influence of drought on red oak group species
growth and mortality in the Missouri Ozarks. Can. J. For. Res. 25:1119–1127.
Jung, T., Blaschke, H., and Osswald, W. 2000. Involvement of soilborne Phytophthora species
in Central European oak decline and the effect of site factors on the disease. Plant Pathol.
49:706–718.
Kulman, H. M. 1971. Effects of insect defoliation on growth and mortality of trees. Annu. Rev.
Entomol. 16:289–324.
Lewis, R. Jr. 1981. Decline symptoms in Mississippi Gulf coastal live oaks. (Abstr.) J. Miss.
Acad. Sci. 27 (Suppl.):6.
Lewis, R. Jr. 1981. Hypoxylon spp., Ganoderma lucidum, and Agrilus bilineatus in association
with drought related oak mortality in the South. (Abstr.) Phytopathology 71:890.
Lewis, R. Jr., and Oliveria, F. L. 1979. Live oak decline in Texas. J. Arboric. 5:241–244.
Luisi, N., Lerario, P., and Vannini, A., eds. 1993. Recent advances in studies on oak decline.
Dipartimento di Patologia vegetale, Università degli Studi, Bari, Italy. 541 pp.
MacDonald, J. D. 1982. Role of environmental stress in the development of Phytophthora root
rots. J. Arboric. 8:217–223.
Manion, P. D., and Lachance, D., eds. 1992. Forest decline concepts. APS Press, St. Paul, MN.
249 pp.
Mircetich, S. M., Campbell, R. N., and Matheron, M. E. 1977. Phytophthora trunk canker of
coast live oak and cork oak trees in California. Plant Dis. Rep. 61:66–70.
295
Moraal, L. G., and Hilszczanski, J. 2000. The oak buprestid beetle, Agrilus biguttatus (F.) (Col.,
Buprestidae), a recent factor in oak decline in Europe. Anzeiger für Schadlingsk. 73:134–
138.
Nichols, J. O. 1968. Oak mortality in Pennsylvania: a ten-year study. J. For. 66:681–684.
Oak, S. W., Huber, C. M., and Sheffield, R. M. 1991. Incidence and impact of oak decline in
western Virginia, 1986. USDA For. Serv. Resour. Bull. SE-123. 16 pp.
Oak, S., Tainter, F., Williams, J., and Starkey, D. 1996. Oak decline risk rating for the
southeastern United States. Ann. Sci. For. 53:721–730.
Oszako, T., and Delatour, C., eds. 2000. Recent advances on oak health in Europe. Selected
papers from a conference held in Warsaw, Poland, 1999. For. Res. Inst., Warsaw. 281 pp.
Pedersen, B. S. 1998. The role of stress in the mortality of midwestern oaks as indicated by
growth prior to death. Ecology 79:79–93.
Rink, G., and Budelsky, C. A., eds. 1989. Seventh central hardwood forest conference.
Proceedings. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-132. 313 pp.
Sicoli, G., Gioia, T. de, Luisi, N., and Lerario, P. 1998. Multiple factors associated with oak
decline in southern Italy. Phytopathol. Medit. 37:1–8.
Siwecki, R., and Liese, W., eds. 1991. Oak decline in Europe: proceedings of an international
symposium, Kornik, Poland, 1990. Polish Acad. Sci., Kornik. 360 pp.
Siwecki, R., and Ufnalski, K. 1998. Review of oak stand decline with special reference to the
role of drought in Poland. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 28:99–112.
Staley, J. M. 1965. Decline and mortality of red and scarlet oaks. For. Sci. 11:2–17.
Starkey, D. A., Oak, S. W., Ryan, G. W., Tainter, F. H., Redmond, C., and Brown, H. D. 1989.
Evaluation of oak decline areas in the South. USDA For. Serv. Prot. Rep. R8-PR-17. 36 pp.
Tainter, F. H., Retzlaff, W. A., Starkey, D. A., and Oak, S. W. 1990. Decline of radial growth in
red oaks is associated with short-term changes in climate. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 20:95–105.
Tainter, F. H., Williams, T. M., and Cody, J. B. 1983. Drought as a cause of oak decline and
death on the South Carolina coast. Plant Dis. 67:195–197.
Thomas, F. M., Blank, R., and Hartmann, G. 2002. Abiotic and biotic factors and their
interactions as causes of oak decline in Central Europe. For. Pathol. 32:277–307.
Thomas, F. M., and Hartmann, G. 1998. Tree rooting patterns and soil water relations of healthy
and damaged stands of mature oak (Quercus robur L. and Quercus petraea [Matt.] Liebl.).
Plant Soil 203:145–158.
Vajna, L. 1986. Branch canker and dieback of sessile oak (Quercus petraea) in Hungary caused
by Diplodia mutila. I. Identification of the pathogen. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 16:223–229.
Vannini, A., Valentini, R., and Luisi, N. 1996. Impact of drought and Hypoxylon mediterraneum
on oak decline in the Mediterranean region. Ann. Sci. For. 53:753–760.
Ware, G. H. 1982. Decline in oaks associated with urbanization. Pages 61–64 in: Urban and
suburban trees: pest problems, needs, prospects, and solutions. Conference proceedings,
Mich. State Univ., April, 1982. B. O. Parks, F. A. Fear, M. T. Lambur, and G. A. Simmons,
eds. Dep. Resour. Dev. and Dep. Entomol., Mich. State Univ. East Lansing. 253 pp.
Wargo, P. M. 1977. Armillariella mellea and Agrilus bilineatus and mortality of defoliated oak
trees. For. Sci. 23:485–492.
Wargo, P. M., Houston, D. R., and La Madeleine, L. A. 1983. Oak decline. USDA For. Serv.
For. Insect Dis. Leafl. 165. Internet pub.
------------------
296
Citrus blight
Berger, R. D. 1998. Cause and control of citrus blight. Laranja 19:91–105.
Brlansky, R. H., Lee, R. F., and Collins, M. H. 1985. Structural comparison of xylem occlusions
in the trunks of citrus trees with blight and other decline diseases. Phytopathology 75:145–
150.
Brlansky, R. H., Timmer, L. W., Lee, R. F., and Graham, J. H. 1984. Relationship of xylem
plugging to reduced water uptake and symptom development in citrus trees with blight and
blightlike declines. Phytopathology 74:1325–1328.
Cohen, M., Pelosi, R. R., and Brlansky, R. H. 1983. Nature and location of xylem blockage
structures in trees with citrus blight. Phytopathology 73:1125–1130.
Derrick, K. S. 1998. Evidence indicating citrus blight is an infectious disease. Laranja 19:107–
116.
Gardner, J. M., Feldman, A. W., and Stamper, D. H. 1983. Role and fate of bacteria in vascular
occlusions of citrus. Physiol. Plant Pathol. 23:295–309.
Graham, J. H., Timmer, L. W., and Young, R. H. 1983. Necrosis of major roots in relation to
citrus blight. Plant Dis. 67:1273–1276.
Hopkins, D. L., Thompson, C. M., Wichman, R. L., Bistline, F. W., and Russo, L. W. 1995.
Effect of inoculation of mature citrus trees in the grove with Xylella fastidiosa on citrus
blight incidence. Proc. Fla. State Hortic. Soc. 108:103–106.
Kumar, J., Chaube, H. S., Singh, U. S., and Mukhopadhyay, A. N., eds. 1992. Plant diseases of
international importance. Volume III. Diseases of fruit crops. Prentice-Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, NJ. 456 pp.
Lee, R. F., Marais, L. J., Timmer, L. W., and Graham, J. H. 1984. Syringe injection of water into
the trunk: a rapid diagnostic test for citrus blight. Plant Dis. 68:511–513.
Lindbeck, A. G. C., and Brlansky, R. H. 2000. Cytology of fibrous roots from citrus blight–
affected trees. Plant Dis. 84:164–167.
Nemec, S., and Lee, O. 1996. Management of citrus blight with soil amendments. Proc. Soil
Crop Sci. Soc. Fla. 55:12–16.
Nemec, S., Myhre, D. L., and Bryan, D. S. 1995. Nitrogen forms affect citrus blight and alter soil
factors affecting root systems. Proc. Soil Crop Sci. Soc. Fla. 54:60–65.
Rensburg, J. C. J. van, Labuschagne, N., and Nemec, S. 2001. Occurrence of Fusarium-produced
naphthazarins in citrus trees and sensitivity of rootstocks to isomarticin in relation to citrus
blight. Plant Pathol. 50:258–265.
Taylor, K. C., Albrigo, L. G., and Chase, C. D. 1996. Purification of a Zn-binding phloem
protein with sequence identity to chitin-binding proteins. Plant Physiol. 110:657–664.
Tucker, D. P. H., Lee, R. F., Timmer, L. W., Albrigo, L. G., and Brlansky, R. H. 1984.
Experimental transmission of citrus blight. Plant Dis. 68:979–980.
Wutscher, H. K., Cohen, M., and Young, R. H. 1977. Zinc and water-soluble phenolics levels in
the wood for the diagnosis of citrus blight. Plant Dis. Rep. 61:572–576.
Wutscher, H. K., and Derrick, K. S. 1995. Development of citrus blight symptoms and recovery
of 'Valencia' orange trees in solution culture. Proc. Fla. State Hortic. Soc. 108:106–109.
Wutscher, H. K., Gottwald, T. R., Berger, R. D., Parys-Naday, L. van, and Parys-de Wit. C. van.
1992. Progression curves of citrus blight in Brazil and Florida. Proc. Interamer. Soc. Trop.
Hortic. 36:20–25.
------------------
297
Damage by salt and other inorganic poisons, Plates 232–233, pages 467–469
Salt damage
Alaoui, S. B., Sehmer, L., Barnola, P., and Dizengremel, P. 1998. Effect of NaCl salinity on
growth and mineral partitioning in Quercus robur L., a rhythmically growing species. Trees
Struct. Funct. 12:424–430.
Allen, J. A., Chambers, J. L., and Stine, M. 1994. Prospects for increasing the salt tolerance of
forest trees: a review. Tree Physiol. 14:843–853.
Appleton, B. L:, Huff, R. R., and French, S. C. 1999. Evaluating trees for saltwater spray
tolerance for oceanfront sites. J. Arboric. 25:205–210.
Arsdel, E. P. Van. 1979. Symptoms and conditions of environmental tree disease. Weeds Trees
Turf 18(6):16–20, 23, 26, 28, 29.
Arsdel, E. P. Van. 1980. Managing trees to reduce damage from low-level saline irrigation.
Weeds Trees Turf 19(6):26–28, 61.
Bajji, M., Kinet, J. M., and Lutts, S. 1998. Salt stress effects on roots and leaves of Atriplex
halimus L. and their corresponding callus cultures. Plant Sci. 137:131–142.
Baker, J. H. 1965. Relationship between salt concentrations in leaves and sap and the decline of
sugar maples along roadsides. Mass. Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull. 553. 16 pp.
Barrick, K. A., and Noble, M. G. 1993. The iron and manganese status of seven upper montane
tree species in Colorado, USA, following long-term waterlogging. J. Ecol. 81:523–531.
Barrick, W. E., Flore, J. A., and Davidson, H. 1979. Deicing salt spray injury in selected Pinus
spp. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 104:617–622.
Berrang, P., and Karnosky, D. F. 1983. Street trees for metropolitan New York. N.Y. Bot. Gard.,
Inst. Urban Hortic. Pub. No. 1. 177 pp.
Boyce, S. G. 1954. The salt spray community. Ecol. Monogr. 24:29–67.
Carpenter, E. D. 1970. Salt tolerance of ornamental plants. Am. Nurseryman 131(2):12, 54...71.
Conner, W. H. 1994. The effect of salinity and waterlogging on growth and survival of
baldcypress and Chinese tallow seedlings. J. Coast. Res. 10:1045–1049.
Dirr, M. A., and Biedermann, J. 1980. Amelioration of salt damage to cotoneaster by gypsum. J.
Arboric. 6:108–110.
Dobson, M. C. 1991. De-icing salt damage to trees and shrubs. HMSO, London. 64 pp.
Flückiger, W., and Braun, S. 1981. Perspectives of reducing the deleterious effect of de-icing salt
upon vegetation. Plant Soil 63:527–529.
Francois, L. E. 1982. Salt tolerance of eight ornamental tree species. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci.
107:66–68.
Gibbs, J. N., and Palmer, C. A. 1994. A survey of damage to roadside trees in London caused by
the application of de-icing salt during the 1990/91 winter. Arboric. J. 18:321–343.
Guidi, L., Lorenzini, G., and Soldatini, G. F. 1988. Phytotoxicity of sea-water aerosols on forest
plants with special reference to the role of surfactants. Environ. Exp. Bot. 28:85–94.
Gustafsson, M. E. R. 1997. Raised levels of marine aerosol deposition owing to increased storm
frequency; a cause of forest decline in southern Sweden? Agric. For. Meteorol. 84:169–177.
Hall, R., Hofstra, G., and Lumis, G. P. 1972. Effects of deicing salt on eastern white pine: foliar
injury, growth suppression, and seasonal changes in foliar concentrations of sodium and
chloride. Can. J. For. Res. 2:244–249.
Hall, R., Hofstra, G., and Lumis, G. P. 1973. Leaf necrosis of roadside sugar maple in Ontario in
relation to elemental composition of soil and leaves. Phytopathology 63:1426–1427.
298
Hautala, E. L., Wulff, A., and Oksanen, J. 1992. Effects of deicing salt on visible symptoms,
element concentrations and membrane damage in first-year needles of roadside Scots pine
(Pinus sylvestris). Ann. Bot. Fenn. 29:179–185.
Headley, D. B., and Bassuk, N. 1991. Effect of time and application of sodium chloride in the
dormant season on selected tree seedlings. J. Environ. Hortic. 9:130–136.
Hofstra, G., Hall, R., and Lumis, G. P. 1979. Studies of salt-induced damage to roadside plants
in Ontario. J. Arboric. 5:25–31.
Hootman, R. G., Kelsey, P. D., Reid, R., and von der Heide-Spravka, K. 1994. Factors affecting
accumulation of deicing salts in soils around trees. J. Arboric. 20:196–201.
Jones, R. K., and Benson, D. M., eds. 2001. Diseases of woody ornamentals and trees in
nurseries. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 482 pp.
Kerr, A. M. 2000. Defoliation of an island (Guam, Mariana Archipelago, Western Pacific
Ocean) following a saltspray-laden 'dry' typhoon. J. Trop. Ecol. 16:895–901.
Kozlowski, T. T. 1997. Responses of woody plants to flooding and salinity. Tree Physiol.
Monogr. No. 1. 29 pp. Internet pub.
Lacasse, N. L., and Rich, A. E. 1964. Maple decline in New Hampshire. Phytopathology
54:1071–1075.
Little, S., Mohr, J. J., and Spicer, L. L. 1958. Salt-water storm damage to loblolly pine forests. J.
For. 56:27–28.
Lumis, G. P., Hofstra, G., and Hall, R. 1973. Sensitivity of roadside trees and shrubs to aerial
drift of deicing salt. HortScience 8:475–477.
Lumis, G. P., Hofstra, G., and Hall, R. 1976. Roadside woody plant susceptibility to sodium and
chloride accumulation during winter and spring. Can. J. Plant Sci. 56:853–859.
Moss, A. E. 1940. Effect on trees of wind-driven salt water. J. For. 38:421–425.
Northover, J. 1987. Sodium chloride injury to dormant roadside peach trees and its effect on the
incidence of infections by Leucostoma spp. Phytopathology 77:835–840.
Percival, G. C., Biggs, M. P., and Dixon, G. R. 1998. The influence of sodium chloride and
waterlogging stresses on Alnus cordata. J. Arboric. 24:19–27.
Santamour, F. S. Jr., Gerhold, H. D., and Little, S., eds. 1976. Better trees for metropolitan
landscapes. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-22. 256 pp.
Shannon, M. C., Banuelos, G. S., Draper, J. H., Ajwa, H., Jordahl, J., and Licht, L. 1999.
Tolerance of hybrid poplar (Populus) trees irrigated with varied levels of salt, selenium, and
boron. Int. J. Phytoremed. 1:273–288.
Storey, R., and Walker, R. R. 1999. Citrus and salinity. Sci. Hortic. 78:39–81.
Sucoff, E. 1975. Effect of deicing salts on woody vegetation along Minnesota roads. Minn.
Agric. Exp. Stn. Tech. Bull. 303. 49 pp.
Touliatos, P., and Roth, E. 1971. Hurricanes and trees: ten lessons from Camille. J. For. 69:285–
289.
Viskari, E. L., and Karenlampi, L. 2000. Roadside Scots pine as an indicator of deicing salt use
—a comparative study from two consecutive winters. Water Air Soil Pollut. 122:405–419.
Wells, B. W. 1939. A new forest climax: the salt spray climax of Smith Island, N.C. Bull. Torrey
Bot. Club 66:629–634.
Westing, A. H. 1969. Plants and salt in the roadside environment. Phytopathology 59:1174–
1179.
Wyman, D. 1939. Salt water injury of woody plants resulting from the hurricane of September
21, 1938. Arnold Arbor. Bull. Pop. Inf. Ser. 4, Vol. 7:45–51.
299
-----------------Other inorganic poisons in soil
Ashworth, L. J. Jr., Gaona, S. A., and Surber, E. 1985. Nutritional diseases of pistachio trees:
potassium and phosphorus deficiencies and chloride and boron toxicities. Phytopathology
75:1084–1091.
Barrick, K. A., and Noble, M. G. 1993. The iron and manganese status of seven upper montane
tree species in Colorado, USA, following long-term waterlogging. J. Ecol. 81:523–531.
Cobbett, C. S. 2000. Phytochelatin biosynthesis and function in heavy-metal detoxification.
Curr. Opin. Plant Biol. 3:211–216.
Francois, L. E., and Clark, R. A. 1979. Boron tolerance of twenty-five ornamental shrub species.
J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 104:319–322.
Gilliam, C. H., and Smith, E. M. 1980. Sources and symptoms of boron toxicity in container
grown woody ornamentals. J. Arboric. 6:209–212.
Gilliam, C. H., Smith, E. M., Still, S. M., and Sheppard, W. J. 1981. Treating boron toxicity in
Rhododendron catawbiense. HortScience 16:764–765.
Grattan, S. R., Shannon, M. C., Grieve, C. M., Poss, J. A., Suarez, D., and Leland, F. 1997.
Interactive effects of salinity and boron on the performance and water use of eucalyptus.
Acta Hortic. No. 449:607–613.
Heale, E. L., and Ormrod, D. P. 1982. Effects of nickel and copper on Acer rubrum, Cornus
stolonifera, Lonicera tatarica, and Pinus resinosa. Can. J. Bot. 60:2674–2681.
Jentschke, G., and Godbold, D. L. 2000. Metal toxicity and ectomycorrhizas. Physiol. Plant.
109:107–116.
Lumis, G. P., and Johnson, A. G. 1982. Boron toxicity and growth suppression of Forsythia and
Thuja grown in mixes amended with municipal waste compost. HortScience 27:821–822.
McLeod, K. W., and Ciravolo, T. G. 1998. Boron tolerance and potential boron removal by
bottomland tree seedlings. Wetlands 18:431–436.
Shannon, M. C., Banuelos, G. S., Draper, J. H., Ajwa, H., Jordahl, J., and Licht, L. 1999.
Tolerance of hybrid poplar (Populus) trees irrigated with varied levels of salt, selenium, and
boron. Int. J. Phytoremed. 1:273–288.
Sinclair, W. A., and Stone, E. L. 1974. Boron toxicity to pines subject to home laundry waste
water. Arborist's News 39:71–72.
Sinclair, W. A., Stone, E. L., and Scheer, C. F. Jr. 1975. Toxicity to hemlocks grown in arseniccontaminated soil previously used for potato production. HortScience 10:35–36.
Snydor, T. D., and Kuhns, L. 1976. Visual symptoms of copper toxicity on woody ornamentals.
Weeds Trees Turf 15(7):58–59.
Stone, E. L. 1990. Boron deficiency and excess in forest trees: a review. For. Ecol. Manag.
37:49–75.
Stone, E. L., and Baird, G. 1956. Boron level and boron toxicity in red and white pine. J. For.
54:11–12.
Stone, E. L., and Greweling, T. 1971. Arsenic toxicity in red pine and the persistence of arsenic
in nursery soils. Tree Planters Notes 22(1):5–7.
Trappe, J. M., Stahly, E. A., Benson, N. R., and Duff, D. M. 1973. Mycorrhizal deficiency of
apple trees in high arsenic soils. HortScience 8:52–53.
Woolhouse, H. W. 1983. Toxicity and tolerance in the responses of plants to metals. Pages 245–
300 in: Physiological plant ecology. III. Responses to the chemical and biological
300
environment. O. L. Lange, P. S. Nobel, C. B. Osmond, and H. Ziegler, eds. Springer-Verlag,
Berlin.
-----------------Damage by misapplied pesticides, Plates 234–236, pages 471–475
Herbicides
Al-Khatib, K., and Parker, P. 1993. Herbicide injury symptoms on cherry, grape, alfalfa and
rose. Wash. State Univ. Coop. Ext. Bull. EB1748. 16 pp.
Bachman, G., Wilson, C., and Whitwell, T. 1995. Tolerance of containerized landscape plants to
the postemergence herbicides Stinger, Manage and Basagran. J. Environ. Hortic. 13:129–
132.
Beigl, H. J. 1977, 1978. Veränderung der Krankheitsdisposition von Forstpflanzen durch
Herbizide. I. Freilandversuche mit Lophodermium pinastri. III. Versuche mit Erregern der
Umfallkrankheit. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 7:200–219; 8:240–258.
Bovey, R. W. 1977. Response of selected woody plants in the United States to herbicides. USDA
Agric. Handb. 493. 101 pp.
Carpenter, P. L. 1972. Dicamba injury to Taxus. HortScience 7:573.
Derr, J. F., and Appleton, B. L. 1988. Herbicide injury to trees and shrubs: a pictorial guide to
symptom diagnosis. Blue Crab Press, Virginia Beach, VA. 72 pp.
Derr, J. F., and Appleton, B. L. 1989. Behind herbicide injury. Am. Nurseryman 169(10):56–59.
Dochinger, L. S. 1973. Trees for polluted air. USDA Misc. Pub. 1230. 12 pp.
Feucht, J. R. 1988. Herbicide injuries to trees—symptoms and solutions. J. Arboric. 14:215–219.
Hamel, C., Morin, F., Fortin, A., Granger, R. L., and Smith, D. L. 1994. Mycorrhizal
colonization increases herbicide toxicity in apple. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 119:1255–1260.
Hibbs, R. H. 1976. Decline of hackberry attributed to ambient herbicide drift. Proc. Iowa Acad.
Sci. 72:187–190.
Itoh, M., and Manabe, K. 1997. Effect of leaching of a soil-applied herbicide, diuron, on its
phytotoxicity in grape and peach. J. Jap. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 66:221–228.
Jones, R. K., and Benson, D. M., eds. 2001. Diseases of woody ornamentals and trees in
nurseries. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 482 pp.
Lockerman, R. H., Putnam, A. R., Rice, R. P. Jr., and Meggitt, W. F. 1975. Diagnosis and
prevention of herbicide injury. Mich. State Univ., Coop. Exten. Serv. Bull. E-809. 19 pp.
Matschke, J., and Amenda, R. 1995. The dying of root tips in woody plants caused by
herbicides. Allg. Forst Z. 50:1100–1104.
Neal, J. C., and Skroch, W. A. 1985. Effects of timing and rate of glyphosate application on
toxicity to selected woody ornamentals. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 110:860–864.
Neal, J. C., and Skroch, W. A. 1987. Influence of timing and rate of glyphosate applications on
conifer growth. J. Environ. Hortic. 5:97–101.
Neely, D., and Crowley, W. R. Jr. 1974. Toxicity of soil-applied herbicides to shade trees.
HortScience 9:147–149.
Otta, J. D. 1974. Effects of 2,4-D herbicide on Siberian elm. For. Sci. 20:287–290.
Phipps, H. M. 1963. The role of 2,4-D in the appearance of a leaf blight of some plains tree
species. For. Sci. 9:283–288.
Radosevich, S. R., Roncoroni, E. J., Conrad, S. G., and McHenry, W. B. 1980. Seasonal
tolerance of six coniferous species to eight foliage-active herbicides. For. Sci. 26:3–9.
301
Riffle, J. W., and Peterson, G. W., tech. coords. 1986. Diseases of trees in the Great Plains.
USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-129. 149 pp.
Schnelle, M. A., Feucht, J. R., and Klett, J. E. 1989. Root systems of trees—facts and fallacies. J.
Arboric. 15:201–205.
Sherwood, C. H., Weigle, J. L., and Denisen, E. L. 1970. 2,4-D as an air pollutant: effects on
growth of representative horticultural plants. HortScience 5:211–213.
Skroch, W. A., and Catanzaro, C. J. 1994. Variation in sensitivity of azaleas to herbicides. Int.
Plant Prop. Soc. Comb. Proc. 43:395–396.
Smith, E. M. 1975. Tree stress from salts and herbicides. J. Arboric. 1:201–205.
Smith, L. J., and Skroch, W. A. 1995. Turf herbicide injury to landscape trees as influenced by
mulch. J. Environ. Hortic. 13:60–63.
Stasiak, M. A., Hofstra, G., Payne, N. J., Prasad, R., and Fletcher, R. A. 1991. Alterations of
growth and shikimic acid levels by sublethal glyphosate applications on pin cherry and
trembling aspen. Can. J. For. Res. 21:1086–1090.
-----------------Plant injury by insecticides and fungicides
Ayers, J. C. Jr., and Barden, V. A. 1975. Net photosynthesis and dark respiration of apple leaves
as affected by pesticides. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 100:24–28.
Davies, W. J., and Kozlowski, T. T. 1974. Short- and long-term effects of antitranspirants on
water relations and photosynthesis of woody plants. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 99:297–304.
Forsyth, J., and Maynard, J. 1969. The sensitivity of ornamental plants to insecticides and
acaricides. Commonw. Bur. Hortic. Plantation Crops, Hortic. Rev. No. 1. 66 pp.
Herridge, E. A., and Lambe, R. C. 1960. A holly leafspot associated with the use of copper
fungicides. (Abstr.) Phytopathology 50:84.
Hicock, H. W., and Olson, A. R. 1954. The toxicity to plants of wood preservatives and their
solvents. Conn. Agric. Exp. Stn. Circ. 189. 4 pp.
Ito, K., Kobayashi, T., and Hayashi, H. 1972. Stem gall or stem swelling of larch seedlings
caused by a phytotoxicity of benzene hexachloride (BHC). Bull. Gov. For. Exp. Stn., Tokyo
No. 245, 19 pp.
Jones, L. H. 1943. Creosote injurious to plants. Horticulture, n.s., 21:462–463.
Oetting, R. D., Morishita, F. S., Helmkamp, A. L., and Bowen, W. R. 1980. Phytotoxicity of
eight insecticides to some nursery-grown ornamentals. J. Econ. Entomol. 73:29–31.
Tarjan, A. C., and Howard, F. L. 1954. Detrimental effects of copper sprays to Norway maple in
Rhode Island. Plant Dis. Rep. 38:58.
-----------------Injuries and diseases caused by air pollutants, Plates 237–239, pages 477–481
Overview
Baes, C. F. III, and McLaughlin, S. B. 1984. Trace elements in tree rings: evidence of recent and
historical air pollution. Science 224:494–496.
Bartholmess, H. 1989. Relations between lichens, air pollution load and forest decline in BadenWurttemberg. Forstwiss. Centralbl. 108:188–196.
Berrang, P., and Karnosky, D. F. 1983. Street trees for metropolitan New York. N.Y. Bot. Gard.,
Inst. Urban Hortic. Pub. No. 1. 177 pp.
302
Bussotti, F., and Ferretti, M. 1998. Air pollution, forest condition and forest decline in southern
Europe: an overview. Environ. Pollut. 101:49–65.
Carlson, C. E., and Gilligan, C. J. 1983. Histological differentiation among abiotic causes of
conifer needle necrosis. USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. INT-298. 16 pp.
Chappelka, A. H., and Freer-Smith, P. H. 1995. Predisposition of trees by air pollutants to low
temperatures and moisture stress. Environ. Pollut. 87:105–117.
Cox, R. M., Percy, K. L., Jensen, K. F., and Simpson, C. M., eds. 1996. Air pollution and
multiple stresses: IUFRO proceedings, 16th international meeting for specialists in air
pollution effects on forest ecosystems, Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada, 1994. Can.
For. Serv., Fredericton, NB. 402 pp.
Eagar, C., and Adams, M. B., eds. 1992. Ecology and decline of red spruce in the eastern United
States. Ecol. Stud. 96. Springer-Verlag, New York. 417 pp.
Fox, S., and Mickler, R. A., eds. 1996. Impact of air pollutants on southern pine forests. Ecol.
Stud. 118. Springer-Verlag, New York. 513 pp.
Friedland, A. J., Gregory, R. A., Kärenlampi, L., and Johnson, A. H. 1984. Winter damage to
foliage as a factor in red spruce decline. Can. J. For. Res. 14:963–965.
Grulke, N. E., Andersen, C. P., Fenn, M. E., and Miller, P. R. 1998. Ozone exposure and
nitrogen deposition lowers root biomass of ponderosa pine in the San Bernardino Mountains,
California. Environ. Pollut. 103:63–73.
Innes, J. L., and Haron, A. H., eds. 2000. Air pollution and the forests of developing and rapidly
industrializing regions. Report No. 4 of the IUFRO Task Force on Environmental Change.
CABI Pub., Wallingford, UK. 262 pp.
Innes, J. L., and Oleksyn, J., eds. 2000. Forest dynamics in heavily polluted regions: Report No.
1 of the IUFRO task force on environmental change. CABI Pub., Oxford, UK. 248 pp.
International Union of Forest Research Organizations Research Group 7.04.00. 1999.
Contributions from 18th IUFRO workshop on air pollution stress. Forest growth responses to
the pollution climate of the 21st century. Water Air Soil Poll. 116(1/2):1–448.
Jacobson, J. S., and Hill, A. C., eds. 1970. Recognition of air pollution injury to vegetation: a
pictorial atlas. Air Pollut. Control Assoc. Pittsburgh, PA. 109 pp.
Kandler, O., and Innes, J. L. 1995. Air pollution and forest decline in Central Europe. Environ.
Pollut. 90:171–180.
Krupa, S. V. 1997. Air pollution, people, and plants. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 197 pp.
Lacasse, N. L., and Treshow, M., eds. 1977. Diagnosing vegetation injury caused by pollution.
U.S. EPA Air Pollut. Training Inst. Chapters paginated separately.
Laurence, J. A. 1981. Effects of air pollutants on plant-pathogen interactions. Z. Pflanzenkr.
Pflanzenschutz 88:156–172.
Lorenzini, G., and Soldatini, G. F., eds. 1995. Responses of plants to air pollution: biological and
economic aspects. Proceedings of a conference held in Pisa, Italy, 1994. Agric. Medit. Spec.
Vol. Pacini Editore, Pisa. 415 pp.
McClenahen, J. R., and Dochinger, L. S. 1985. Tree ring response of white oak to climate and air
pollution near the Ohio River valley. J. Environ. Qual. 14:274–280.
McLaughlin, D. 1998. A decade of forest tree monitoring in Canada: evidence of air pollution
effects. Environ. Rev. 6:151–171.
McLaughlin, S. B., McConathy, R. K., Duvick, D., and Mann, L. K. 1982. Effects of chronic air
pollution stress on photosynthesis, carbon allocation, and growth of white pine trees. For.
Sci. 28:60–70.
303
McLaughlin, S. B., and Percy, K. 1999. Forest health in North America: some perspectives on
actual and potential roles of climate and air pollution. Water Air Soil Pollut. 116:151–197.
Miller, P. R., tech. coord. 1980. Proceedings of symposium on effects of air pollutants on
Mediterranean and temperate forest ecosystems. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-43.
Mudd, J. B., and Kozlowski, T. T., eds. 1975. Responses of plants to air pollution. Academic
Press, New York. 383 pp.
Naegele, J. A., ed. 1973. Air pollution damage to vegetation. Am. Chem. Soc., Washington, DC.
137 pp.
Olson, R. K., Binkley, D., and Böhm, M., eds. 1992. The response of western forests to air
pollution. Ecol. Stud. 97. Springer-Verlag, New York. 532 pp.
Sandermann, H., Wellburn, A. R., and Heath, R. L., eds. 1997. Forest decline and ozone : a
comparison of controlled chamber and field experiments. Springer, New York. 400 pp.
Santamour, F. S. Jr., Gerhold, H. D., and Little, S., eds. 1976. Better trees for metropolitan
landscapes. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-22. 256 pp.
Skarby, L., Ro, P. H., Wellburn, F. A. M., and Sheppard, L. J. 1998. Impacts of ozone on forests:
a European perspective. New Phytol. 139:109–122.
Skelly, J. M. 2000. Tropospheric ozone and its importance to forests and natural plant
communities of the northeastern United States. Northeast. Nat.. 7:221–236.
Skelly, J. M., Davis, D. D., Merrill, W., Cameron, E. A., Brown, H. D., Drummond, D. B.,
Dochinger, L. S., and Hellmann, R. 1988. Shadendiagnose an Waldbaümen im Osten der
USA: ein Handbuch zur Identifizierung von Shäden versursacht durch Luftschadstoffe,
Pathogene, Insekten, und abiotischen Stress. USDA For. Serv. For. Pest Manag. and Penn
State Univ., University Park. 122 pp.
Smith, W. H. 1981. Air pollution and forests. Interactions between air contaminants and forest
ecosystems. Springer-Verlag, New York. 379 pp.
Stern, A. C., ed. 1976. Air pollution. 3rd ed. Vol. 2: The effects of air pollution. Academic Press,
New York. 684 pp.
Vann, D. R., Strimbeck, G. R., and Johnson, A. H. 1992. Effects of ambient levels of airborne
chemicals on freezing resistance of red spruce foliage. For. Ecol. Manag. 51:69–79.
-----------------Injuries and diseases caused by air pollutants, continued, Plate 239, page 481
Damage by ozone,
Bartholomay, G. A., Eckert, R. T., and Smith, K. T. 1997. Reductions in tree-ring widths of
white pine following ozone exposure at Acadia National Park, Maine, USA. Can. J. For. Res.
27:361–368.
Bennett, J. P., Anderson, R. L., Mielke, M. L., and Ebersole, J. J. 1994. Foliar injury air
pollution surveys of eastern white pine (Pinus strobus L.): a review. Environ. Monit. Assess.
30:247–274.
Benoit, L. F., Skelly, J. M., Moore, L. D., and Dochinger, L. S. 1982. Radial growth reductions
of Pinus strobus L. correlated with foliar ozone sensitivity as an indicator of ozone-induced
losses in eastern forests. Can. J. For. Res. 12:673–678.
Brennan, E., Leone, I., Harkov, R., and Rhoads, A. 1981. Austrian pine injury traced to ozone
and sulfur dioxide pollution. Plant Dis. 65:363–364.
Carlson, C. E., and Gilligan, C. J. 1983. Histological differentiation among abiotic causes of
conifer needle necrosis. USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. INT-298. 16 pp.
304
Chappelka, A. H., and Freer-Smith, P. H. 1995. Predisposition of trees by air pollutants to low
temperatures and moisture stress. Environ. Pollut. 87:105–117.
Chappelka, A. H., and Samuelson, L. J. 1998. Ambient ozone effects on forest trees of the
eastern United States: a review. New Phytol. 139:91–108.
Cobb, F. W. Jr., Wood, D. L., Stark, R. W., and Parmeter, J. R. Jr. 1968. Photochemical oxidant
injury and bark beetle (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) infestation of ponderosa pine. IV. Theory on
the relationships between oxidant injury and bark beetle infestation. Hilgardia 39:141–152.
Costonis, A. C. 1970. Acute foliar injury of eastern white pine induced by sulfur dioxide and
ozone. Phytopathology 60:994–999.
Costonis, A. C. 1971. Effects of ambient sulfur dioxide and ozone on eastern white pine in a
rural environment. Phytopathology 61:717–720.
Davis, D. D., Umbach, D. M., and Coppolino, J. B. 1981. Susceptibility of tree and shrub species
and response of black cherry foliage to ozone. Plant Dis. 65:904–907.
Dizengremel, P. 2001. Effects of ozone on the carbon metabolism of forest trees. Plant Physiol.
Biochem. 39:729–742.
Findley, D. A., Keever, G. J., Chappelka, A. H., Gilliam, C. H., and Eakes, D. J. 1997. Ozone
sensitivity of selected southeastern landscape plants. J. Environ. Hortic. 15:51–55.
Freer-Smith, P. H. 1984. The responses of six broadleaved trees during long-term exposure to
SO2 and NO2. New Phytol. 97:49–61.
Grulke, N. E., Andersen, C. P., Fenn, M. E., and Miller, P. R. 1998. Ozone exposure and
nitrogen deposition lowers root biomass of ponderosa pine in the San Bernardino Mountains,
California. Environ. Pollut. 103:63–73.
Hibben, C. R., and Walker, J. T. 1966. A leaf roll–necrosis complex of lilacs in an urban
environment. Proc. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 89:636–642.
Hildebrand, E., Skelly, J. M., Fredericksen, T. S., Percy, K. E., Cox, R. M., and Jensen, K. F.
1996. Foliar response of ozone-sensitive hardwood tree species from 1991 to 1993 in the
Shenandoah National Park, Virginia. Can. J. For. Res. 26:658–669.
Isebrands, J. G., McDonald, E. P., Kruger, E., Hendrey, G., Percy, K., Pregitzer, K., Sober, J.,
and Karnosky, D. F. 2001. Growth responses of Populus tremuloides clones to interacting
elevated carbon dioxide and tropospheric ozone. Environ. Pollut. 115:359–371.
Jacobson, J. S., and Hill, A. C., eds. 1970. Recognition of air pollution injury to vegetation: a
pictorial atlas. Air Pollut. Control Assoc., Pittsburgh, PA. 109 pp.
James, R. L., Cobb, F. W. Jr., Miller, P. R., and Parmeter, J. R. Jr. 1980. Effects of oxidant air
pollution on susceptibility of pine roots to Fomes annosus. Phytopathology 70:560–563.
James, R. L., Cobb, F. W. Jr., Wilcox, W. W., and Rowney, D. L. 1980. Effects of
photochemical oxidant injury of ponderosa and Jeffrey pines on susceptibility of sapwood
and freshly cut stumps to Fomes annosus. Phytopathology 70:704–708.
Karnosky, D. F. 1977. Evidence for genetic control of response to sulfur dioxide and ozone in
Populus tremuloides. Can. J. For. Res. 7:437–440.
Karnosky, D. F. 1981. Chamber and field evaluations of air pollution tolerances of urban trees. J.
Arboric. 7:99–105.
Karnosky, D. F., and Steiner, K. C. 1981. Provenance and family variation in response of
Fraxinus americana and F. pennsylvanica to ozone and sulfur dioxide. Phytopathology
71:804–807.
Kress, L. W., and Skelly, J. M. 1982. Response of several eastern forest tree species to chronic
doses of ozone and nitrogen dioxide. Plant Dis. 66:1149–1152.
305
Krupa, S. [V.], McGrath, M. T., Andersen, C. P., Booker, F. L., Burkey, K. O., Chappelka, A.
H., Chevone, B. I., Pell, E. J., and Zilinskas, B. A. 2001. Ambient ozone and plant health.
Plant Dis. 85:4–12.
Lee, J. C., Skelly, J. M., Steiner, K. C., Zhang, J. W., and Savage, J. E. 1999. Foliar response of
black cherry (Prunus serotina) clones to ambient ozone exposure in central Pennsylvania.
Environ. Pollut. 105:325–331.
Linzon, S. N. 1966. Damage to eastern white pine by sulfur dioxide, semimature-tissue needle
blight, and ozone. J. Air Pollut. Control Assn. 16:140–144.
Linzon, S. N. 1967. Histological studies of symptoms in semimature-tissue needle blight of
eastern white pine. Can. J. Bot. 45:133–143.
Mahoney, M. J., Skelly, J. M., Chevone, B. I., and Moore, L. D. 1984. Response of yellow
poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera L.) seedling shoot growth to low concentrations of O3, SO2,
and NO2. Can. J. For. Res. 14:150–153.
Maier, M. U. 1999. Predisposition of trees to drought stress by ozone. Tree Physiol. 19:71–78.
Miller, P. R., tech. coord. 1980. Proceedings of symposium on effects of air pollutants on
Mediterranean and temperate forest ecosystems. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-43.
256 pp.
Miller, P. R., and Evans, L. S. 1974. Histopathology of oxidant injury and winter fleck injury on
needles of western pines. Phytopathology 64:801–806.
Miller, P. R., Parmeter, J. R. Jr., Taylor, O. C., and Cardiff, E. A. 1963. Ozone injury to the
foliage of Pinus ponderosa. Phytopathology 53:1072–1076.
Sandermann, H. J. 1996. Ozone and plant health. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 34:347–366.
Sandermann, H. J., Wellburn, A. R., and Heath, R. L., eds. 1997. Forest decline and ozone : a
comparison of controlled chamber and field experiments. Springer, New York. 400 pp.
Santamour, F. S. Jr., Gerhold, H. D., and Little, S., eds. 1976. Better trees for metropolitan
landscapes. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-22. 256 pp.
Schmieden, U., and Wild, A. 1995. The contribution of ozone to forest decline. Physiol. Plant.
94:371–378.
Skarby, L., Ro, P. H., Wellburn, F. A. M., and Sheppard, L. J. 1998. Impacts of ozone on forests:
a European perspective. New Phytol. 139:109–122.
Skelly, J. M. 2000. Tropospheric ozone and its importance to forests and natural plant
communities of the northeastern United States. Northeast. Natural. 7:221–236.
●●Skelly, J. M., Davis, D. D., Merrill, W., Cameron, E. A., Brown, H. D., Drummond, D. B.,
Dochinger, L. S., and Hellmann, R. 1988. Shadendiagnose an Waldbaümen in Osten der
USA: Ein Handbuch zur Identifizierung Von Shäden Versursacht Durch Luftschad Stoffe,
Pathogene, Insekten, und AbiotisServ. Veg. Survey Coop. and Penn State Univ., University
Park. 122 pp.
Smith, G. C., and Brennan, E. G. 1984. Response of honeylocust cultivars to air pollution stress
in an urban environment. J. Arboric. 10:289–293.
Thornton, F. C., Joslin, J. D., Pier, P. A., Neufeld, H., Seiler, J. R., and Hutcherson, J. D. 1994.
Cloudwater and ozone effects upon high elevation red spruce: a summary of study results
from Whitetop Mountain, Virginia. J. Environ. Qual. 23:1158–1167.
Wenner, N. G., and Merrill, W. 1998. Pathological anatomy of needles of Pinus strobus exposed
to carbon-filtered air or to three times ambient ozone concentrations, or infected by
Canavirgella banfieldii. Can. J. Bot. 76:1331–1339.
306
Wohlgemuth, H., Mittelstrass, K., Kschieschan, S., Bender, J., Weigel, H. J., Overmyer, K.,
Kangasjarvi, J., Sandermann, H., and Langebartels, C. 2002. Activation of an oxidative burst
is a general feature of sensitive plants exposed to the air pollutant ozone. Plant Cell Environ.
25:717–726.
Yang, Y.-S., Skelly, J. M., and Chevone, B. I. 1982. Clonal response of eastern white pine to low
doses of O3, SO2, and NO3, singly and in combination. Can. J. For. Res. 12:803–808.
-----------------Injuries and diseases caused by air pollutants, continued, Plate 240, page 483
Damage by sulfur dioxide
Amiro, B. D., and Courtin, G. M. 1981. Patterns of vegetation in the vicinity of an industrially
disturbed ecosystem, Sudbury, Ontario. Can. J. Bot. 59:1623–1629.
Biggs, A. R., and Davis, D. D. 1981. Effect of SO2 on growth and sulfur content of hybrid
poplar. Can. J. For. Res. 11:830–833.
Brennan, E., Leone, I., Harkov, R., and Rhoads, A. 1981. Austrian pine injury traced to ozone
and sulfur dioxide pollution. Plant Dis. 65:363–364.
Carlson, C. E., and Gilligan, C. J. 1983. Histological differentiation among abiotic causes of
conifer needle necrosis. USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. INT-298. 16 pp.
Chiba, O., and Tanaka, K. 1968. The effect of sulfur dioxide on the development of pine needle
blight caused by Rhizosphaera kalkhoffii Bubak (I). J. Jap. For. Soc. 50:135–139.
Costonis, A. C. 1970. Acute foliar injury of eastern white pine induced by sulfur dioxide and
ozone. Phytopathology 60:994–999.
Costonis, A. C. 1971. Effects of ambient sulfur dioxide and ozone on eastern white pine in a
rural environment. Phytopathology 61:717–720.
Davis, D. D., and Wilhour, R. G. 1976. Susceptibility of woody plants to sulfur dioxide and
photochemical oxidants. EPA Ecol. Res. Ser. EPA-600/3-76-102. 71 pp.
Freer-Smith, P. H. 1984. The responses of six broadleaved trees during long-term exposure to
SO2 and NO2. New Phytol. 97:49–61.
Garsed, S. G., and Rutter, A. J. 1982. Relative performance of conifer populations in various
tests for sensitivity to SO2, and the implications for selecting trees for planting in polluted
areas. New Phytol. 92:349–367.
Gordon, A. G., and Gorham, E. 1963. Ecological aspects of air pollution from an iron-sintering
plant at Wawa, Ontario. Can. J. Bot. 41:1063–1078.
Hällgren, J. E., and Fredriksson, S.-A. 1982. Emission of hydrogen sulfide from sulfur dioxide–
fumigated pine trees. Plant Physiol. 70:456–459.
Jacobson, J. S., and Hill, A. C., eds. 1970. Recognition of air pollution injury to vegetation: a
pictorial atlas. Air Pollut. Control Assoc., Pittsburgh, PA. 109 pp.
Jensen, K. F. 1983. Growth relationships in silver maple seedlings fumigated with O3 and SO2.
Can. J. For. Res. 13:298–302.
Jensen, K. F., and Kozlowski, T. T. 1975. Absorption and transportation of sulfur dioxide by
seedlings of four forest tree species. J. Environ. Qual. 4:379–382.
Karnosky, D. F. 1977. Evidence for genetic control of response to sulfur dioxide and ozone in
Populus tremuloides. Can. J. For. Res. 7:437–440.
Karnosky, D. F. 1981. Chamber and field evaluations of air pollution tolerances of urban trees. J.
Arboric. 7:99–105.
307
Karnosky, D. F., and Steiner, K. C. 1981. Provenance and family variation in response of
Fraxinus americana and F. pennsylvanica to ozone and sulfur dioxide. Phytopathology
71:804–807.
Leininger, T. D., Miller, P. R., Schilling, S. L., and Dunn, P. H. 1991. Seedling responses of five
species of western conifers to simulated ambient sulfur dioxide exposures. For. Sci.
37:1538–1549.
Linzon, S. N. 1966. Damage to eastern white pine by sulfur dioxide, semimature-tissue needle
blight, and ozone. J. Air Pollut. Control Assn. 16:140–144.
Mahoney, M. J., Skelly, J. M., Chevone, B. I., and Moore, L. D. 1984. Response of yellow
poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera L.) seedling shoot growth to low concentrations of O3, SO2,
and NO2. Can. J. For. Res. 14:150–153.
Malhotra, S. S., and Blauel, R. A. 1980. Diagnosis of air pollutant and natural stress symptoms
on forest vegetation in western Canada. Environ. Can. Inf. Rep. NOR-X-228. 84 pp.
Malhotra, S. S., and Hocking, D. 1976. Biochemical and cytological effects of sulfur dioxide on
plant metabolism. New Phytol. 76:227–237.
McLaughlin, S. B., McConathy, R. K., Duvick, D., and Mann, L. K. 1982. Effects of chronic air
pollution stress on photosynthesis, carbon allocation, and growth of white pine trees. For.
Sci. 28:60–70.
Santamour, F. S. Jr., Gerhold, H. D., and Little, S., eds. 1976. Better trees for metropolitan
landscapes. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-22. 256 pp.
Scheffer, T. C., and Hedgcock, C. G. 1955. Injury to northwestern forest trees by sulfur dioxide
from smelters. USDA Tech. Bull. 1117. 49 pp.
Shaw, P. J. A., Holland, M. R., Darrall, N. M., and McLeod, A. R. 1993. The occurrence of SO2related foliar symptoms on Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) in an open-air forest fumigation
experiment. New Phytol. 123:143–152.
Slovik, S. 1996. Early needle senescence and thinning of the crown structure of Picea abies as
induced by chronic SO2 pollution. II. Field data basis, model results and tolerance limits.
Global Change Biol. 2:459–477.
Ulrich, B. 1995. The history and possible causes of forest decline in central Europe, with
particular attention to the German situation. Environ. Rev. 3:262–276.
Umbach, D. M., and Davis, D. D. 1984. Severity and frequency of SO2-induced leaf necrosis on
seedlings of 57 tree species. For. Sci. 30:587–596.
Yang, Y.-S., Skelly, J. M., and Chevone, B. I. 1982. Clonal response of eastern white pine to low
doses of O3, SO2, and NO2, singly and in combination. Can. J. For. Res. 12:803–808.
-----------------Injuries and diseases caused by air pollutants, continued, Plate 241, page 485
Damage by fluorides and minor pollutant gases
Carlson, C. E. 1978. Fluoride induced impact on a coniferous forest near the Anaconda
aluminum plant in northwestern Montana. Ph.D. diss., Univ. Montana. 176 pp.
Carlson, C. E., and Gilligan, C. J. 1983. Histological differentiation among abiotic causes of
conifer needle necrosis. USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. INT-298. 16 pp.
Dochinger, L. S. 1973. Trees for polluted air. USDA Misc. Pub. 1230. 12 pp.
Garrec, J. P., and Plébin, R. 1981. Étude de la relation entre la pluviosité et l'accumulation du
fluor dans les forêts résineuses soumises à une pollution fluorée. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 11:129–
136.
308
Horntvedt, R. 1995. Fluoride uptake in conifers related to emissions from aluminum smelters in
Norway. Sci. Total Environ. 163:35–37.
Jacobson, J. S., and Hill, A. C., eds. 1970. Recognition of air pollution injury to vegetation: a
pictorial atlas. Air Pollut. Control Assoc., Pittsburgh, PA. 109 pp.
Lacasse, N. L., and Treshow, M., eds. 1977. Diagnosing vegetation injury caused by pollution.
U.S. EPA Air Pollut. Training Inst. Chapters paginated separately.
Malhotra, S. S., and Blauel, R. A. 1980. Diagnosis of air pollutant and natural stress symptoms
on forest vegetation in western Canada. Environ. Can. Inf. Rep. NOR-X-228. 84 pp.
Treshow, M. 1971. Fluorides as air pollutants affecting plants. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 9:21–44.
Treshow, M., Anderson, F. K., and Harner, F. 1967. Responses of Douglas-fir to elevated
atmospheric fluorides. For. Sci. 13:114–120.
Vike, E., and Habjorg, A. 1995. Variation in fluoride content and leaf injury on plants associated
with three aluminum smelters in Norway. Sci. Total Environ. 163:25–34.
-----------------Mineral nutrient deficiencies, Plates 242–243, pages 487–489
Ashworth, L. J. Jr., Gaona, S. A., and Surber, E. 1985. Nutritional diseases of pistachio trees:
potassium and phosphorus deficiencies and chloride and boron toxicities. Phytopathology
75:1084–1091.
Barney, D. L., Walser, R. H., Davis, T. D., and Williams, C. F. 1985. Trunk injection of iron
compounds as a treatment for overcoming iron chlorosis in apple trees. HortScience 20:236–
238.
Bernier, B., and Brazeau, M. 1988. Foliar nutrient status in relation to sugar maple dieback and
decline in the Quebec Appalachians. Can. J. For. Res. 18:754–761.
Bernier, B., Pare, D., and Brazeau, M. 1989. Natural stresses, nutrient imbalances and forest
decline in southeastern Quebec. Water Air Soil Pollut. 48:239–250.
Berrang, P., and Steiner, K. C. 1980. Resistance of pin oak progenies to iron chlorosis. J. Am.
Soc. Hortic. Sci. 105:519–522.
Binns, W. O., Mayhead, G. J., and MacKenzie, J. M. 1980. Nutrient deficiencies of conifers in
British forests. G.B. For. Comm. Leafl. 76. 23 pp.
Blaser, H. W., Marr, C., and Takahashi, D. 1967. Anatomy of boron-deficient Thuja plicata.
Am. J. Bot. 54:1107–1113.
Chase, A. R., and Broschat, T. K., eds. 1991. Diseases and disorders of ornamental palms. APS
Press, St. Paul, MN. 56 pp.
Demchik, M. C., and Sharpe, W. E. 2000. The effect of soil nutrition, soil acidity and drought on
northern red oak (Quercus rubra L.) growth and nutrition on Pennsylvania sites with high
and low red oak mortality. For. Ecol. Manag. 136:199–207.
Dickey, R. D. 1977. Nutritional deficiencies of woody ornamental plants used in Florida
landscapes. Fla. Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull. 791. 63 pp.
Elliott, M. L. Broschat, T. K., Uchida, Y., and Simone, G. W. 2004. Compendium of ornamental
palm diseases and disorders. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 69. pp.
Engelhard, A. W., ed. 1989. Soilborne plant pathogens: management of diseases with macroand microelements. APS Press, St. Paul, Minn. 217 pp.
Florida Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services, Division of Plant Industry. 1962–
present. Plant Pathology Circulars 1– .
309
Hacskaylo, J., Finn, R. F., and Vimmerstedt, J. P. 1969. Deficiency symptoms of some forest
trees. Ohio Agric. Res. Devel. Cent. Res. Bull. 1015. 68 pp.
Heiberg, S. O., and White, D. P. 1951. Potassium deficiency of reforested pine and spruce stands
in northern New York. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc. 15:369–376.
Himelick, E. B., and Himelick, K. J. 1980. Systemic treatment for chlorotic trees. J. Arboric.
6:192–196.
Hüttl, R. F., and Schaaf, W., eds. 1997. Magnesium deficiency in forest ecosystems. Nutrients in
ecosystems. Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht. 362 pp.
Iglesias, I., Dalmau, R., Marce, X., Campillo, M. C. del, Barron, V., and Torrent, J. 2000.
Fertilization with iron(II)-phosphate effectively prevents iron chlorosis in pear trees, Pyrus
communis L. Acta Hortic. No. 511:65–72.
Jalkanen, R. E., Redfern, D. B., and Sheppard, L. J. 1998. Nutrient deficits increase frost
hardiness in Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) needles. For. Ecol. Manag. 107:191–201.
Jandl, R., Glatzel, G., Katzensteiner, K., and Eckmüllner, O. 2001. Amelioration of magnesium
deficiency in a Norway spruce stand (Picea abies) with calcined magnesite. Water Air Soil
Pollut. 125:1–17.
Leaf, A. L. 1968. K, Mg, and S deficiencies in forest trees. Pages 88–122 in: Forest fertilization:
theory and practice. Tenn. Valley Authority, Muscle Shoals, AL. 306 pp.
Marschner, H. 1995. Mineral nutrition of higher plants. 2nd ed. Academic Press, San Diego,
London. 889 pp.
Mengel, K., and Kirby, E. A., eds. 2001. Principles of plant nutrition, 5th ed. Kluwer Academic,
Dordrecht. 849 pp.
Messenger, A. S. 1984. Seasonal variations of foliar nutrients in green and chlorotic red maples.
J. Environ. Hortic. 2:117–119.
Ouimet, R., and Camire, C. 1995. Foliar deficiencies of sugar maple stands associated with soil
cation imbalances in the Quebec Appalachians. Can. J. Soil Sci. 75:169–175.
Perala, D. A., and Sucoff, E. 1965. Diagnosing potassium deficiency in American elm, silver
maple, Russian olive, hackberry, and box elder. For. Sci. 11:347–352.
Reuter, D. J., and Robinson, J. B., eds. 1997. Plant analysis: an interpretation manual. 2nd ed.
CSIRO Pub., Collingwood, Australia. 572 pp.
Smith, E. M., and Treaster, S. A. 1981. Preventing habitual iron chlorosis of woody landscape
plants. Ohio Agric. Res. Devel. Cent. Res. Circ. 263:26–29.
Stone, E. L. Jr. 1953. Magnesium deficiency of some northeastern pines. Proc. Soil Sci. Soc.
Am. 17:297–300.
Stone, E. L. 1968. Microelement nutrition of forest trees: a review. Pages 132–175 in: Forest
fertilization: theory and practice. Tenn. Valley Authority, Muscle Shoals, AL. 306 pp.
Vlamis, J., and Raabe, R. D. 1985. Copper deficiency of manzanita grown in a bark-sand
mixture. HortScience 20:61–62.
Walker, L. C. 1956. Foliage symptoms as indicators of potassium-deficient soils. For. Sci.
2:113–120.
Werther, F., and Havranek, W. M. 2000. Effects of nutrient-deficient soil on gas-exchange,
chlorophyll fluorescence and C-allocation in young Picea abies (L.) Karst. Phyton 40:179–
184.
Westerman, R. L., ed. 1990. Soil testing and plant analysis. 3rd ed. Soil Sci. Soc. Am., Madison,
WI. 784 pp.
Whitcomb, C. E. 1986. Solving the iron chlorosis problem. J. Arboric. 12:44–48.
310
Worley, R. E., Littrell, R. L., and Dutcher, J. D. 1980. A comparison of tree trunk injection and
implantation of zinc capsules for correction of zinc deficiency. J. Arboric. 6:253–257.
-----------------Damage by drought, heat, and freezing, Plates 244–245, pages 491–493
Water shortage
Bega, R. V., tech. coord. 1978. Diseases of Pacific Coast conifers. USDA Agric. Handb. 521.
206 pp.
Boyer, J. S. 1995. Biochemical and biophysical aspects of water deficits and the predisposition
to disease. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 33:251–274.
Fan, S., Blake, T. J., and Blumwald, E. 1994. The relative contribution of elastic and osmotic
adjustments to turgor maintenance of woody species. Physiol. Plant. 90:408–413.
Friedland, A. J., Gregory, R. A., Kärenlampi, L., and Johnson, A. H. 1984. Winter damage to
foliage as a factor in red spruce decline. Can. J. For. Res. 14:963–965.
Guicherd, P., Peltier, J. P., Gout, E., Bligny, R., and Marigo, G. 1997. Osmotic adjustment in
Fraxinus excelsior L.: malate and mannitol accumulation in leaves under drought conditions.
Trees Struct. Funct. 11:155–161.
Hamerlynck, E., and Knapp, A. K. 1996. Photosynthetic and stomatal responses to high
temperature and light in two oaks at the western limit of their range. Tree Physiol. 16:557–
565.
Hursh, C. R., and Haasis, F. W. 1931. Effects of 1925 summer drought on southern Appalachian
hardwoods. Ecology 12:380–386.
Kozlowski, T. T. 1982. Water supply and tree growth. For. Abstr. 43:57–95, 145–161.
Kozlowski, T. T., ed. 1978. Water deficits and plant growth. Vol. V. Water and plant disease.
Academic Press, New York. 323 pp.
Kozlowski, T. T., ed. 1981. Water deficits and plant growth. Vol. VI. Woody plant communities.
Academic Press, New York. 582 pp.
Kozlowski, T. T., Kramer, P. J., and Pallardy, S. G. 1991. The physiological ecology of woody
plants. Academic Press, San Diego. 657 pp.
Kramer, P. J., and Boyer, J. S. 1995. Water relations of plants and soils. Academic Press, San
Diego. 495 pp.
Ladjal, M., Epron, D., and Ducrey, M. 2000. Effects of drought preconditioning on
thermotolerance of photosystem II and susceptibility of photosynthesis to heat stress in cedar
seedlings. Tree Physiol. 20:1235–1241.
Leaphart, C. D. 1959. Drought damage to western white pine and associated tree species. Plant
Dis. Rep. 43:809–813.
Meier, C. E., Newton, R. J., Puryear, J. D., and Sen, S. 1992. Physiological responses of loblolly
pine (Pinus taeda L.) seedlings to drought stress: osmotic adjustment and tissue elasticity. J.
Plant Physiol. 140:754–760.
Mielke, J. L., and Kimmey, J. W. 1942. Heat injury to the leaves of California black oak and
some other broadleaves. Plant Dis. Rep. 26:116–119.
Munger, T. T. 1916. Parch blight on Douglas fir in the Pacific Northwest. Plant World 19:46–47.
Oszako, T., and Delatour, C., eds. 2000. Recent advances on oak health in Europe. Selected
papers from a conference held in Warsaw, Poland, 1999. Forest Res. Institute, Warsaw. 281
pp.
311
Palomaki, V., Holopainen, J. K., and Holopainen, T. 1995. Effects of drought and waterlogging
on ultrastructure of Scots pine and Norway spruce needles. Trees Struct. Funct 9:98–105.
Patton, R. F., and Riker, A. J. 1954. Needle droop and needle blight of red pine. J. For. 52:412–
418.
Rosen, P. M., Good, G. L., and Steponkus, P. L. 1983. Desiccation injury and direct freezing
injury to evergreen azaleas: a comparison of cultivars. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 108:28–31.
Tainter, F. H., Williams, T. M., and Cody, J. B. 1983. Drought as a cause of oak decline and
death on the South Carolina coast. Plant Dis. 67:195–197.
Thomas, F. M. 2000. Growth and water relations of four deciduous tree species (Fagus sylvatica
L., Quercus petraea [Matt.] Liebl., Q. pubescens Willd., Sorbus aria [L.] Cr.) occurring at
Central-European tree-line sites on shallow calcareous soils: physiological reactions of
seedlings to severe drought. Flora 195:104–115.
True, R. P., and Tryon, E. H. 1956. Oak stem cankers initiated in the drought year 1953.
Phytopathology 46:617–622.
Tyree, M. T., and Sperry, J. S. 1989. Vulnerability of xylem to cavitation and embolism. Annu.
Rev. Plant Physiol. 40:19–38.
Vannini, A., Valentini, R., and Luisi, N. 1996. Impact of drought and Hypoxylon mediterraneum
on oak decline in the Mediterranean region. Ann. Sci. For. 53:753–760.
Weber, D. J., Gang, D., Halls, S., and Nelson, D. L. 1995. Juniper decline in Natural Bridges
National Monument and Canyonlands National Park. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep.
INT-GTR-315:258–262.
Wiersum, L. K., and Harmanny, K. 1983. Changes in the water-permeability of roots of some
trees during drought stress and recovery, as related to problems of growth in urban
environment. Plant Soil 75:443–448.
-----------------Damage by drought, heat, and freezing, continued, Plate 246, page 495
Heat stress
Auclair, A. N. D., Lill, J. T., and Revenga, C. 1996. The role of climate variability and global
warming in the dieback of northern hardwoods. Water Air Soil Pollut. 91:163–186.
Curry, J. R., and Church, T. W. Jr. 1952. Observations on winter drying of conifers in the
Adirondacks. J. For. 50:114–116.
Hamerlynck, E., and Knapp, A. K. 1996. Photosynthetic and stomatal responses to high
temperature and light in two oaks at the western limit of their range. Tree Physiol. 16:557–
565.
Hartley, C. 1918. Stem lesions caused by excessive heat. J. Agric. Res. 14:595–604.
Helgerson, O. T. 1990. Heat damage in tree seedlings and its prevention. New For. 3:333–358.
Huberman, M. A. 1943. Sunscald of eastern white pine, Pinus strobus L. Ecology 24:456–471.
Kolb, P. F., and Robberecht, R. 1996. High temperature and drought stress effects on survival of
Pinus ponderosa seedlings. Tree Physiol. 16:665–672.
Lachmund, H. G. 1921. Some phases in the formation of fire scars. J. For. 19:638–640.
Mielke, J. L., and Kimmey, J. W. 1942. Heat injury to the leaves of California black oak and
some other broadleaves. Plant Dis. Rep. 26:116–119.
Vann, D. R., Johnson, A. H., and Casper, B. B. 1994. Effect of elevated temperatures on carbon
dioxide exchange in Picea rubens. Tree Physiol. 14:1339–1349.
312
Weber, D. J., Gang, D., Halls, S., and Nelson, D. L. 1995. Juniper decline in Natural Bridges
National Monument and Canyonlands National Park. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep.
INT-GTR-315:258–262.
-----------------Damage by drought, heat, and freezing, continued, Plates 247–248, pages 497–499
Frost and freeze damage
Ashworth, E. N. 1993. Formation and spread of ice in plant tissues. Hortic. Rev. 13:215–255.
Auclair, A. N. D., Lill, J. T., and Revenga, C. 1996. The role of climate variability and global
warming in the dieback of northern hardwoods. Water Air Soil Pollut. 91:163–186.
Bega, R. V., tech. coord. 1978. Diseases of Pacific Coast conifers. USDA Agric. Handb. 521.
206 pp.
Bella, I. E., and Navratil, S. 1987. Growth losses from winter drying (red belt damage) in
lodgepole pine stands on the east slopes of the Rockies in Alberta. Can. J. For. Res.
17:1289–1292.
Bertrand, A., Robitaille, G., Nadeau, P., and Boutin, R. 1994. Effects of soil freezing and
drought stress on abscisic acid content of sugar maple sap and leaves. Tree Physiol. 14:413–
425.
Boyce, R. L. 1995. Patterns of foliar injury to red spruce on Whiteface Mountain, New York,
during a high-injury winter. Can. J. For. Res. 25:166–169.
Burke, M. J., Gusta, L. V., Quamme, H. A., Weiser, C. J., and Li, P. H. 1976. Freezing and
injury in plants. Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. 27:507–528.
Calkins, J. B., and Swanson, B. T. 1998. Plant cold acclimation, hardiness, and winter injury in
response to bare soil and groundcover-based nursery field management systems. J. Environ.
Hortic. 16:82–89.
Cameron, R. W. F., and Dixon, G. R. 2000. The influence of temperature, daylength and
calendar date on cold tolerance of Rhododendron. J. Hortic. Sci. Biotechnol. 75:481–487.
Caporn, S. J. M., Ashenden, T. W., and Lee, J. A. 2000. The effect of exposure to NO2 and SO2
on frost hardiness in Calluna vulgaris. Environ. Exp. Bot. 43:111–119.
Chappelka, A. H., and Freer-Smith, P. H. 1995. Predisposition of trees by air pollutants to low
temperatures and moisture stress. Environ. Pollut. 87:105–117.
Cox, R. M., Percy, K. L., Jensen, K. F., and Simpson, C. M., eds. 1996. Air pollution and
multiple stresses: IUFRO proceedings, 16th international meeting for specialists in air
pollution effects on forest ecosystems, Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada, 1994. Can.
For. Serv., Fredericton, NB. 402 pp.
Crandall, B. S. 1943. Bacterial infection and decay of the inner wood of winter-injured young
London plane trees. Phytopathology 33:963–964.
Curry, J. R., and Church, T. W. Jr. 1952. Observations on winter drying of conifers in the
Adirondacks. J. For. 50:114–116.
Davis, S. H. Jr., and Peterson, J. L. 1980. Trunk decay on Greenspire linden. J. Arboric. 6:258–
260.
Day, W. R. 1928. Damage by late frost on Douglas fir, Sitka spruce, and other conifers. Forestry
2:19–30.
DeHayes, D. H., Thornton, F. C., Waite, C. E., and Ingle, M. A. 1991. Ambient cloud deposition
reduces cold tolerance of red spruce seedlings. Can. J. For. Res. 21:1292–1295.
313
Evans, L. S., Cocchiara, J., Jaklitsch, P., Feliciano, J., and Biesemeyer, P. T. 1999. Needle and
stem injuries of Picea rubens (Pinaceae) in the Adirondack Mountains, USA. Environ. Exp.
Bot. 41:267–280.
Friedland, A. J., Gregory, R. A., Kärenlampi, L., and Johnson, A. H. 1984. Winter damage to
foliage as a factor in red spruce decline. Can. J. For. Res. 14:963–965.
Fujikawa, S., Jitsuyama, Y., and Kuroda, K. 1999. Determination of the role of cold
acclimation–induced diverse changes in plant cells from the viewpoint of avoidance of
freezing injury. J. Plant Res. 112:237–244.
Glerum, C., and Farrar, J. L. 1966. Frost ring formation in the stems of some coniferous species.
Can. J. Bot. 44:879–886.
Hadley, J. L., and Amundson, R. G. 1992. Effects of radiational heating at low air temperature
on water balance, cold tolerance, and visible injury of red spruce foliage. Tree Physiol. 11:1–
17.
Harris, H. A. 1934. Frost ring formation in some winter-injured deciduous trees and shrubs. Am.
J. Bot. 21:485–498.
Hepting, G. H., Miller, J. H., and Campbell, W. A. 1951. Winter of 1950–51 damaging to
southeastern woody vegetation. Plant Dis. Rep. 35:502–503.
Hiratsuka, Y., and Zalasky, H. 1993. Frost and other climate-related damage of forest trees in the
prairie provinces. Can. For. Serv. Northwest Reg. Inf. Rep. NOR-X-331. 25 pp.
Hoshino, T., Odaira, M., Yoshida, M., and Tsuda, S. 1999. Physiological and biochemical
significance of antifreeze substances in plants. J. Plant Res. 112:255–261.
Huberman, M. A. 1943. Sunscald of eastern white pine, Pinus strobus L. Ecology 24:456–471.
Ishikawa, M., Price, W. S., Ide, H., and Arata, Y. 1997. Visualization of freezing behaviors in
leaf and flower buds of full-moon maple by nuclear magnetic resonance microscopy. Plant
Physiol. 115:1515–1524.
Johnson, A. H. 1992. The role of abiotic stresses in the decline of red spruce in high elevation
forests of the eastern United States. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 30:349–367.
Kienholz, R. 1933. Frost damage to red pine. J. For. 31:392–399.
Larsen, F. E., and Higgins, S. S. 1992. Longitudinal bark cracking on trunks of young Asian pear
trees in response to a rapid drop in winter temperature. Fruit Var. J. 46:225–229.
Lee, R. E. J., Warren, G. J., and Gusta, L. V., eds. 1995. Biological ice nucleation and its
applications. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 420 pp.
Lemoine, D., Granier, A., and Cochard, H. 1999. Mechanism of freeze-induced embolism in
Fagus sylvatica L. Trees Struct. Funct. 13:206–210.
Lindow, S. E. 1983. The role of bacterial ice nucleation in frost injury to plants. Annu. Rev.
Phytopathol. 21:363–384.
Lindow, S. E., and Connell, J. H. 1984. Reduction of frost injury to almond by control of ice
nucleation active bacteria. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 109:48–53.
Lund, A. E., and Livingston, W. H. 1999. Freezing cycles enhance winter injury in Picea rubens.
Tree Physiol. 19:65–69.
Malone, S. R., and Ashworth, E. N. 1991. Freezing stress response in woody tissues observed
using low-temperature scanning electron microscopy and freeze substitution techniques.
Plant Physiol. 95:871–881.
Melcher, P. J., Cordell, S., Jones, T. J., Scowcroft, P. G., Niemczura, W., Giambelluca, T. W.,
and Goldstein, G. 2000. Supercooling capacity increases from sea level to tree line in the
Hawaiian tree species Metrosideros polymorpha. Int. J. Plant Sci. 161:369–379.
314
Mix, A. J. 1916. Sun-scald of fruit trees. A type of winter injury. Cornell Univ. Agric. Exp. Stn.
Bull. 382:235–284.
Parker, J. 1963. Cold resistance in woody plants. Bot. Rev. 29:124–201.
Peace, T. R. 1962. Pathology of trees and shrubs. Clarendon Press, Oxford. 722 pp.
Pellett, H., Gearhart, M., and Dirr, M. 1981. Cold hardiness capability of woody ornamental
plant taxa. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 106:239–243.
Pomerleau, R., and Ray, R. G. 1957. Occurrence and effects of summer frost in a conifer
plantation. Can. For. Serv. Tech. Note 51. 15 pp.
Quamme, H. A. 1985. Avoidance of freezing injury in woody plants by deep supercooling. Acta
Hortic. No. 168:11–30.
Rajashekar, C. B., and Burke, M. J. 1996. Freezing characteristics of rigid plant tissues.
Development of cell tension during extracellular freezing. Plant Physiol. 111:597–603.
Reich, R. W., and van der Kamp, B. J. 1993. Frost, canker, and dieback of Douglas-fir in the
central interior of British Columbia. Can. J. For. Res. 23:373–379.
Rhoads, A. S. 1923. The formation and pathological anatomy of frost rings in conifers injured by
late frosts. USDA Tech. Bull. 1131. 15 pp.
Ristic, Z., and Ashworth, E. N. 1995. Response of xylem ray parenchyma cells of supercooling
wood tissues to freezing stress: microscopic study. Int. J. Plant Sci. 156:784–792.
Rosen, P. M., Good, G. L., and Steponkus, P. L. 1983. Desiccation injury and direct freezing
injury to evergreen azaleas: a comparison of cultivars. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 108:28–31.
Sakai, A. 1982. Freezing resistance of ornamental trees and shrubs. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci
107:572–581.
Sheppard, L. J., Leith, I. D., Murray, M. B., Cape, J. N., and Kennedy, V. H. 1998. The response
of Norway spruce seedlings to simulated acid mist. New Phytol. 138:709–723.
Steinmetz, H. F., and Hilborn, M. T. 1937. A histological evaluation of low temperature injury to
apple trees. Maine Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull. 388. 32 pp.
Stone, E. L. Jr. 1952. An unusual type of frost injury in pine. J. For. 50:560–561.
Sydnor, T. D., Chatfield, J. A., Zondang, R. H., Bennett, P. J., Boggs, J. F., and Cochran, K. D.
1995. Winter injury in woody ornamental plants in Ohio: the winter of 1993–1994. Ohio
Agric. Res. Devel. Cent. Spec. Circ. 142:18–23.
Thomas, F. M., Blank, R., and Hartmann, G. 1996. The effects of stem exposure, nitrogen status
and insect defoliation on the frost hardiness of bark tissue of mature oaks. Verhandl.
Gesellsch. Okol. 26:153–160.
Tobi, D. R., Wargo, P. M., and Bergdahl, D. R. 1995. Growth response of red spruce after
known periods of winter injury. Can. J. For. Res. 25:669–681.
Tryon, E. H. 1971. Frost damage to tree species related to time of budbreak. Proc. West Va.
Acad. Sci. 43:1–8.
Tryon, E. H., and True, R. P. 1952. Blister-shake of yellow poplar. West Va. Agric. Exp. Stn.
Bull. 350T. 15 pp.
Uemura, M., and Steponkus, P. L. 1999. Cold acclimation in plants: relationship between the
lipid composition and the cryostability of the plasma membrane. J. Plant Res. 112:245–254.
Vann, D. R., Strimbeck, G. R., and Johnson, A. H. 1992. Effects of ambient levels of airborne
chemicals on freezing resistance of red spruce foliage. For. Ecol. Manag. 51:69–79.
Wagener, W. W. 1949. Top dying of conifers from sudden cold. J. For. 47:49–53.
Weber, G. F. 1957. Cold injury to young pine trees. Plant Dis. Rep. 41:494–495.
315
Weiser, R. L., and Wallner, S. J. 1988. Freezing woody plant stems produces acoustic emissions.
J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 113:636–639.
Wene, E. G., and Schoeneweiss, D. F. 1980. Localized freezing predisposition to Botryosphaeria
canker in differentially frozen woody stems. Can. J. Bot. 58:1455–1458.
Zalasky, H. 1975. Chimeras, hyperplasia, and hypoplasia in frost burls induced by low
temperature. Can. J. Bot. 53:1888–1898.
Zalasky, H. 1975. Low-temperature-induced cankers and burls in test conifers and hardwoods.
Can. J. Bot. 53:2526–2535.
Zalasky, H. 1980. Lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta Dougl. var. latifolia Engelm.) shoot
abnormalities from frost injury. Can. For. Serv. Bi-mon. Res. Notes 36:21–22.
Zhu, X. B., Cox, R. M., Meng, F.-R., and Arp, P. A. 2001. Responses of xylem cavitation,
freezing injury and shoot dieback to a simulated winter thaw in yellow birch seedlings
growing in different nursery culture regimes. For. Ecol. Manag. 145:243–253.
Zweifel, R., and Hasler, R. 2000. Frost-induced reversible shrinkage of bark of mature subalpine
conifers. Agric. For. Meteorol. 102:213–222.
-----------------Predisposition to attack by opportunistic pathogens
Bachi, P. R., and Peterson, J. L. 1985. Enhancement of Sphaeropsis sapinea stem invasion of
pines by water deficits. Plant Dis. 69:798–799.
Bassett, E. N., and Fenn, P. 1984. Latent colonization and pathogenicity of Hypoxylon
atropunctatum on oaks. Plant Dis. 68:317–319.
Bier, J. E. 1959–1961. The relation of bark moisture content to the development of canker
diseases caused by native, facultative parasites. I. Cryptodiaporthe canker on willow. II.
Fusarium canker of black cottonwood. IV. Pathogenicity studies of Cryptodiaporthe salicella
(Fr.) Petrak, and Fusarium lateritium Nees., on Populus trichocarpa Torrey and Gray, P.
'Robusta', P. tremuloides Michx. and Salix sp. VI. Pathogenicity studies of Hypoxylon
pruinatum (Klotzsch) Cke. and Septoria musiva Pk. on species of Acer, Populus, and Salix.
Can. J. Bot. 37:229–238, 781–788; 39:139–144, 1555–1561.
Blodgett, J. T., Kruger, E. L., and Stanosz, G. R. 1997. Sphaeropsis sapinea and water stress in a
red pine plantation in central Wisconsin. Phytopathology 87:429–434.
Boyer, J. S. 1995. Biochemical and biophysical aspects of water deficits and the predisposition
to disease. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 33:251–274.
Chapela, I. H. 1989. Fungi in healthy stems and branches of American beech and aspen: a
comparative study. New Phytol. 113:65–75.
Crandall, B. S. 1943. Bacterial infection and decay of the inner wood of winter-injured young
London plane trees. Phytopathology 33:963–964.
Croise, L., Lieutier, F., Cochard, H., and Dreyer, E. 2001. Effects of drought stress and high
density stem inoculations with Leptographium wingfieldii on hydraulic properties of young
Scots pine trees. Tree Physiol. 21:427–436.
Davis, S. H. Jr., and Peterson, J. L. 1980. Trunk decay on Greenspire linden. J. Arboric. 6:258–
260.
Johnson, J. W., Gleason, M. L., Parker, S. K., Provin, E. B., Iles, J. K., and Flynn, P. H. 1997.
Duration of water stress affects development of Sphaeropsis canker on Scots pine. J. Arboric.
23:73–76.
316
Lindberg, M., and Johansson, M. 1992. Resistance of Picea abies seedlings to infection by
Heterobasidion annosum in relation to drought stress. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 22:115–124.
Schoeneweiss, D. F. 1975. Predisposition, stress, and plant disease. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol.
13:193–211.
Schoeneweiss, D. F. 1981. Infectious diseases of trees associated with water and freezing stress.
J. Arboric. 7:13–18.
Schoeneweiss, D. F. 1981. The role of environmental stress in diseases of woody plants. Plant
Dis. 65:308–314.
Schoeneweiss, D. F. 1983. Drought predisposition to Cytospora canker in blue spruce. Plant Dis.
67:383–385.
Schoeneweiss, D. F., and Wene, E. G. 1977. Freezing stress predisposes Euonymus alatus stems
to attack by Nectria cinnabarina. Plant Dis. Rep. 61:921–925.
-----------------Damage by flooding or waterlogged soil, Plate 249, page 501
Anderson, P. H., and Pezeshki, S. R. 2001. Effects of flood pre-conditioning on responses of
three bottomland tree species to soil waterlogging. J. Plant Physiol. 158:227–233.
Angeles, G., Evert, R. F., and Kozlowski, T. T. 1986. Development of lenticels and adventitious
roots in flooded Ulmus americana seedlings. Can. J. For. Res. 16:585–590.
Arthur, J. J., Leone, I. A., and Flower, F. B. 1981. Flooding and landfill gas effects on red and
sugar maples. J. Environ. Qual. 10:431–433.
Ball, M. C. 1988. Ecophysiology of mangroves. Trees Struct. Funct. 2:129–142.
Barrick, K. A., and Noble, M. G. 1993. The iron and manganese status of seven upper montane
tree species in Colorado, USA, following long-term waterlogging. J. Ecol. 81:523–531.
Baxter, D. V. 1967. Disease in forest plantations: thief of time. Cranbrook Inst. Sci. Bull. 51. 251
pp.
Berrang, P., Karnosky, D. F., and Stanton, B. J. 1985. Environmental factors affecting tree health
in New York City. J. Arboric. 11:185–189.
Broadfoot, W. M., and Williston, H. L. 1973. Flooding effects on southern forests. J. For.
71:584–587.
Conner, W. H. 1994. The effect of salinity and waterlogging on growth and survival of
baldcypress and Chinese tallow seedlings. J. Coast. Res. 10:1045–1049.
Copeland, O. L. Jr., and McAlpine, R. G. 1962. Soil characteristics associated with spot die-out
in loblolly pine plantations. For. Sci. 8:12–15.
Coutts, M. P., and Philipson, J. J. 1978. Tolerance of tree roots to waterlogging. II. Adaptation of
Sitka spruce and lodgepole pine to waterlogged soil. New Phytol. 80:71–77.
Drew, M. C., and Lynch, J. M. 1980. Soil anaerobiosis, microorganisms, and root function.
Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 18:37–66.
Fisher, H. M., and Stone, E. L. 1990. Air-conducting porosity in slash pine roots from saturated
soils. For. Sci. 36:18–33.
Florida Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services, Division of Plant Industry. 1962–
present. Plant Pathology Circulars 1– .
Frye, J., and Grosse, W. 1992. Growth responses to flooding and recovery of deciduous trees. Z.
Naturforsch. Sec. C, Biosci. 47:683–689.
317
Gardiner, E. S., and Hodges, J. D. 1996. Physiological, morphological and growth responses to
rhizosphere hypoxia by seedlings of North American bottomland oaks. Ann. Sci. For.
53:303–316.
Gill, C. J. 1970. The flooding tolerance of woody species—a review. For. Abstr. 31:671–688.
Hook, D. D. 1984. Waterlogging tolerance of lowland tree species of the South. South. J. Appl.
For. 8:136–149.
Jackson, M. B., and Attwood, P. A. 1996. Roots of willow (Salix viminalis L.) show marked
tolerance to oxygen shortage in flooded soils and in solution culture. Plant Soil 187:37–45.
Kawase, M. 1981. Anatomical and morphological adaptation of plants to waterlogging.
HortScience 16:30–34.
Kawase, M. 1981. Effect of ethylene on aerenchyma development. Am. J. Bot. 68:651–658.
Kozlowski, T. T. 1997. Responses of woody plants to flooding and salinity. Tree Physiol.
Monogr. No. 1. Heron Publishing, Victoria, BC. 29 pp.
Kozlowski, T. T., ed. 1984. Flooding and plant growth. Academic Press, New York. 356 pp.
Kozlowski, T. T., Kramer, P. J., and Pallardy, S. G. 1991. The physiological ecology of woody
plants. Academic Press, San Diego. 657 pp.
Kramer, P. J., and Boyer, J. S. 1995. Water relations of plants and soils. Academic Press, San
Diego. 495 pp.
Laderman, A. D., ed. 1998. Coastally restricted forests. Oxford Univ. Press, New York. 334 pp.
MacDonald, J. D. 1982. Role of environmental stress in the development of Phytophthora root
rots. J. Arboric. 8:217–223.
Percival, G. C., Biggs, M. P., and Dixon, G. R. 1998. The influence of sodium chloride and
waterlogging stresses on Alnus cordata. J. Arboric. 24:19–27.
Philipson, J. J., and Coutts, M. P. 1980. The tolerance of tree roots to waterlogging. IV. Oxygen
transport in woody roots of Sitka spruce and lodgepole pine. New Phytol. 65:489–494.
Schmull, M., and Thomas, F. M. 2000. Morphological and physiological reactions of young
deciduous trees (Quercus robur L., Q. petraea [Matt.] Liebl., Fagus sylvatica L.) to
waterlogging. Plant Soil 225:227–242.
Schreiber, L. R., and Green, R. J. Jr. 1959. Die-back and root rot disease of Taxus spp. in
Indiana. Plant Dis. Rep. 43:814–817.
Stone, E. L., Morrow, R. R., and Welch, D. S. 1954. A malady of red pine on poorly drained
sites. J. For. 52:104–114.
Topa, M. A., and McLeod, K. W. 1988. Promotion of aerenchyma formation in Pinus serotina
seedlings by ethylene. Can. J. For. Res. 18:276–280.
Tripepi, R. R., and Mitchell, C. A. 1984. Metabolic response of river birch and European birch
roots to hypoxia. Plant Physiol. 76:31–35.
White, P. M. 1972. Plant tolerance for standing water: an assessment. Cornell Plantations 28:50–
52.
Xu, Y., Rohrig, E., and Folster, H. 1997. Reaction of root systems of grand fir (Abies grandis
Lindl.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies Karst.) to seasonal waterlogging. For. Ecol. Manag.
93:9–19.
Yamamoto, F., Sakata, T., and Terazawa, K. 1995. Physiological, morphological and anatomical
responses of Fraxinus mandshurica seedlings to flooding. Tree Physiol. 15:713–719.
-----------------Damage by girdling roots, hail, ice glaze, and sheet ice, Plate 250, pages 503–505
318
Girdling roots
Appleton, B. L. 1993. Nursery production alternatives for reduction or elimination of circling
tree roots. J. Arboric. 19:383–388.
Gouin, F. R. 1983. Girdling roots: fact or fiction? Comb. Proc. Int. Plant Prop. Soc. 33:428–432.
Holmes, F. W. 1984. Effects on maples of prolonged exposure by artificial girdling roots. J.
Arboric. 10:40–44.
Hudler, G. W., and Beale, M. A. 1981. Anatomical features of girdling root injury. J. Arboric.
7:29–32.
Johnson, G. R., and Hauer, R. J. 2000. A practitioner's guide to stem girdling roots of trees:
Impacts on trees, symptomology, and prevention. Univ. Minn. Exten. Serv. BU-07501-GO.
20 pp.
Tate, R. L. 1980. Detection, description, and treatment of girdling roots on urban Norway maple
trees. J. Arboric. 6:168.
Tate, R. L. 1981. Characteristics of girdling roots on urban Norway maples. J. Arboric. 7:268–
270.
Tinus, R. W. 1981. Root system configuration is important to long tree life. Plants Landscape
4(1):1–5.
Watson, G. W., and Clark, S. 1993. Regeneration of girdling roots after removal. J. Arboric.
19:278–280.
Watson, G. W., and Clark, S. 1996. When the roots go round and round. Arnoldia 56:15–21.
Watson, G. W., Clark, S., and Johnson, K. 1990. Formation of girdling roots. J. Arboric. 16:197–
202.
-----------------Damage by hail, ice glaze, and sheet ice
Boyce, R. L. 1988. Wind direction and fir wave motion. Can. J. For. Res. 18:461–466.
Bruederle, L. P., and Stearns, F. W. 1985. Ice storm damage to a southern Wisconsin mesic
forest. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 112:167–175.
Campbell, W. A., and Davidson, R. W. 1940. Top rot in glaze-damaged black cherry and sugar
maple on the Allegany Plateau. J. For. 38:963–965.
Carvell, K. L., Tryon, E. H., and True, R. P. 1957. Effects of glaze on the development of
Appalachian hardwoods. J. For. 55:130–132.
Croxton, W. C. 1939. A study of the tolerance of trees to breakage by ice accumulation. Ecology
20:71–73.
Downs, A. A. 1938. Glaze damage in the birch-beech-maple-hemlock type of Pennsylvania and
New York. J. For. 36:63–70.
Duguay, S. M., Arii, K., Hooper, M., and Lechowicz, M. J. 2001. Ice storm damage and early
recovery in an old-growth forest. Environ. Monit. Assess. 67:97–108.
Dyke, O. Van. 1999. A literature review of ice storm impacts on forests in eastern North
America. Ontario Minist. Nat. Resour. Southcent. Sci. Sect. Tech. Rep. 112. 29 pp.
Filip, G. M., Bryant, L. D., and Parks, C. A. 1989. Mass movement of river ice causes severe
tree wounds along the Grande Ronde River in northeastern Oregon. Northwest Sci. 63:211–
213.
Hooper, M. C., Arii, K., and Lechowicz, M. J. 2001. Impact of a major ice storm on an oldgrowth hardwood forest. Can. J. Bot. 79:70–75.
319
Hopkin, A., Griefenhagen, S., and Holland, J. 2001. Decay, stains, and beetles in ice-stormdamaged forests: a review. For. Chron. 77:605–611.
Lemon, P. C. 1961. Forest ecology of ice storms. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 88:21–29.
Manion, P. D., Griffin, D. H., and Rubin, B. D. 2001. Ice damage impacts on the health of the
northern New York State forest. For. Chron. 77:619–625.
McCulloch, W. F. 1943. Ice breakage in partially cut and uncut second growth Douglas-fir
stands. J. For. 41:275–278.
McKellar, A. D. 1942. Ice damage to slash pine, longleaf pine, and loblolly pine plantations in
the Piedmont section of Georgia. J. For. 40:794–797.
Mou, P., and Warrillow, M. P. 2000. Ice storm damage to a mixed hardwood forest and its
impacts on forest regeneration in the ridge and valley region of southwestern Virginia. J.
Torrey Bot. Soc. 127:66–82.
Read, R. A., and Sprackling, J. A. 1981. Hail damage variation by seed source in a ponderosa
pine plantation. USDA For. Serv. Res. Note RM-410. 6 pp.
Rebertus, A. J., Shifley, S. R., Richards, R. H., and Roovers, L. M. 1997. Ice storm damage to an
old-growth oak-hickory forest in Missouri. Am. Midl. Nat. 137:48–61.
Rhoades, R. W. 1999. Ice storm damage in a small valley in southwestern Virginia. Castanea
64:243–251.
Riley, C. G. 1953. Hail damage in forest stands. For. Chron. 29:139–143.
Rubin, B. D., and Manion, P. D. 2001. Landscape-scale forest structure in northern New York
and potential successional impacts of the 1998 ice storm. For. Chron. 77:613–618.
Seischab, F. K., Bernard, J. M., and Eberle, M. D. 1993. Glaze storm damage to western New
York forest communities. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 120:64–72.
Siccama, T. G., Weir, G., and Wallace, K. 1976. Ice damage in a mixed hardwood forest in
Connecticut in relation to Vitis infestation. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 103:180–183.
Sisinni, S. M., Zipperer, W. C., and Pleninger, A. G. 1995. Impacts from a major ice storm:
street-tree damage in Rochester, New York. J. Arboric. 21:156–167.
Smith, D. G., and Pearce, C. M. 2000. River ice and its role in limiting woodland development
on a sandy braid-plain, Milk River, Montana. Wetlands 20:232–250.
Smith, W. H. 2000. Ice and forest health. North. J. Appl. For. 17:16–19.
Spaulding, P., and Bratton, A. W. 1946. Decay following glaze storm damage in woodlands of
central New York. J. For. 44:515–519.
Dyke, O. Van. 1999. A literature review of ice storm impacts on forests in eastern North
America. Ontario Minist. Nat. Resour. Southcent. Sci. Sect. Tech. Rep. 112. 29 pp.
Whitney, H. E., and Johnson, W. C. 1984. Ice storms and forest succession in southwestern
Virginia. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 111:429–437.
Zarnovican, R. 2001. Glaze damage in a young yellow birch stand in southern Quebec, Canada.
North. J. Appl. For. 18:14–18.
-----------------Lightning damage, Plate 251, page 505
Canadian Forest Service, Forest Insect and Disease Survey. Forest insect and disease conditions
in Canada. (Issued annually beginning 1980; formerly titled Annual Report.)
Cripe, R. E. 1979. Lightning protection for trees and related property. J. Arboric. 5:145–149.
Cripe, R. E. 1985. Lightning protection for trees. Arbor Age 5(4):13, 14, 16, 18, 20.
Dolwin, J. A. 1985. Lightning and trees. Arboric. J. 9:251–258.
320
Freier, G. D. 1977. Lightning and trees. J. Arboric. 3:131–137.
Hiratsuka, Y., Langor, D. W., and Crane, P. E. 1995. Forest insects and diseases of the prairie
provinces. Can. For. Serv. North. For. Cent. Spec. Rep. 3. 297 pp.
Jackson, L. W. R. 1940. Lightning injury of black locust seedlings. Phytopathology 30:183–184.
Kucera, L. J., Eichenberger, B., and Stoll, A. 1985. The lightning gap—cause and development.
Pages 127–138 in: Xylorama. Trends in wood research. Birkhauser Verlag, Basel.
Kula, E., and Zabecki, W. 1997. Lightning-struck areas as the centres of bark-beetle-infested
patches within spruce stands. Sylwan 141:89–97.
Lovelady, C. N., Pulley, P. E., Coulson, R. N., and Flamm, R. O. 1991. Relation of lightning to
herbivory by the southern pine bark beetle guild (Coleoptera: Scolytidae). Environ. Entomol.
20:1279–1284.
Palik, B. J., and Pederson, N. 1996. Overstory mortality and canopy disturbances in longleaf pine
ecosystems. Can. J. For. Res. 26:2035–2047.
Peace, T. R. 1940. An interesting case of lightning damage to a group of trees. Q. J. For. 34:61–
63.
Rhoads, A. S. 1943. Lightning injury to pine and oak trees in Florida. Plant Dis. Rep. 27:556–
557.
Wadsworth, F. H. 1943. Lightning damage in ponderosa pine stands of northern Arizona. J. For.
41:684–685.
-----------------Noninfectious and unexplained growth abnormalities, Plate 252, page 507
Fasciation, chimeras, graft union abnormalities
Alioto, D., Marcone, C., and Ragozzino, E. 2000. Witches'-broom and fasciation diseases of
Spanish broom (Spartium junceum). Inf. Fitopatol. 50:61–64.
Beardsell, D. V., and Considine, J. A. 1987. Lineages, lineage stability and pattern formation in
leaves of variegated chimeras of Lophostemon confertus (R. Br.) Wilson & Waterhouse and
Tristaniopis laurina (Smith) Wilson & Waterhouse (Myrtaceae). Austral. J. Bot. 35:701–
714.
Eames, A. J., and Cox, L. G. 1945. A remarkable tree fall and an unusual type of graft-union
failure. Am. J. Bot. 32:331–335.
Goethals, K., Vereecke, D., Jaziri, M., Montague, M. Van, and Holsters, M. 2001. Leafy gall
formation by Rhodococcus fascians. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 39:27–52.
Hartmann, H. T., and Kester, D. E. 2002. Hartmann and Kester's plant propagation: principles
and practices. 7th ed. Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. 880 pp.
Herrero, J. 1951. Studies of compatible and incompatible graft combinations with special
reference to hardy fruit trees. J. Hortic. Sci. 26:186–237.
Klekowski, E. J. Jr., Lowenfeld, R., and Klekowski, E. H. 1996. Mangrove genetics. IV.
Postzygotic mutations fixed as periclinal chimeras. Int. J. Plant Sci. 157:398–405.
Li, H., Qiu, B., Shi, C., Jin, K., Zhou, Q., and Huang, X. 1997. PCR amplification of 16S rDNA
of phytoplasma associated with cherry fasciated disease and RFLP analysis. For. Res.
10:478–481.
Liu, X., Tian, S., Qin, G., and Shen, R. 1999. Examination of persimmon fasciation and black
locust witches' broom with the polymerase chain reaction. J. Beijing For. Univ. 21:26–28.
McClintock, J. A. 1948. A study of uncongeniality between peaches as scions and the Marianna
plum as a stock. J. Agric. Res. 77:253–260.
321
Moore, R., and Walker, D. B. 1981. Studies of vegetative compatibility-incompatibility in higher
plants. I. A structural study of a compatible autograft in Sedum telephoides (Crassulaceae).
II. A structural study of an incompatible heterograft between Sedum telephoides
(Crassulaceae) and Solanum pennellii (Solanaceae). Am. J. Bot. 68:820–830, 831–842.
Neilson-Jones, W. 1969. Plant chimeras. 2nd ed. Methuen, London. 123 pp.
Nilsson, O., Moritz, T., Sundberg, B., Sandberg, G., and Olsson, O. 1996. Expression of the
Agrobacterium rhizogenes rolC gene in a deciduous forest tree alters growth and
development and leads to stem fasciation. Plant Physiol. 112:493–502.
Purohit, S. S., ed. 1985. Hormonal regulation of plant growth and development. M. Nijhoff/W.
Junk, Dordrecht, Boston. 412 pp.
Rajaseger, G., Tan, H. T. W., Turner, I. M., Saw, L. G., and Kumar, P. P. 1999. Random
amplified polymorphic DNA variation among and within selected Ixora (Rubiaceae)
populations and mutants. Ann. Bot. 84:253-257.
Smilansky, Z., and Umiel, N. 1984. Mutations and breeding in roses. I. Spontaneous mutations
for flower colours in the Mercedes group of cultivars (Mercedes, Gabriela, Jaguar).
Hassadeh 64:952–955.
Sombrero, C. 1996. Enigma of variegations. New Plantsman 3:158–169.
Srivastava, P. S., and Glock, H. 1987. FPA-induced fasciation of shoots of birch in vitro.
Phytomorphology 37:395–399.
Tilney-Bassett, R. A. E. 1986. Plant chimeras. Arnold, Baltimore, London. 199 pp.
Tremblay, L., Levasseur, C., and Tremblay, F. M. 1999. Frequency of somaclonal variation in
plants of black spruce (Picea mariana, Pinaceae) and white spruce (P. glauca, Pinaceae)
derived from somatic embryogenesis and identification of some factors involved in genetic
instability. Am. J. Bot. 86:1373–1381.
White, O. E. 1948. Fasciation. Bot. Rev. 14:319–358.
Yeoman, M. M., Kilpatrick, D. C., Miedzybrodzka, M. B., and Gould, A. R. 1978. Cellular
interactions during graft formation in plants: a recognition phenomenon? Symp. Soc. Exp.
Biol. 32:139–160.
Zalasky, H. 1975. Chimeras, hyperplasia, and hypoplasia in frost burls induced by low
temperature. Can. J. Bot. 53:1888–1898.
Zalasky, H. 1975. Low-temperature-induced cankers and burls in test conifers and hardwoods.
Can. J. Bot. 53:2526–2535.
-----------------Noninfectious and unexplained growth abnormalities, continued, Plate 253, page 509
Adventitious shoots and roots, galls and burls, witches'-brooms
Angeles, G., Evert, R. F., and Kozlowski, T. T. 1986. Development of lenticels and adventitious
roots in flooded Ulmus americana seedlings. Can. J. For. Res. 16:585–590.
Boyce, J. S. 1961. Forest pathology. 3rd ed. McGraw-Hill, New York. 572 pp.
Cleene, M. De, and Ley, J. De. 1981. The reevaluation of pathogenicity of "Agrobacterium
pseudotsugae." Phytopathol. Z. 101:185–188.
Davidson, R. W., and Campbell, W. A. 1944. Observations on a gall of sugar maple.
Phytopathology 34:132–135.
DeYoung, R. M., Copeman, R. J., and Hunt, R. S. 1998. Two strains in the genus Erwinia cause
galls on Douglas-fir in southwestern British Columbia. Can. J. Plant Pathol. 20:194–200.
322
Hansen, H. N., and Smith, R. E. 1937. A bacterial gall disease of Douglas fir, Pseudotsuga
taxifolia. Hilgardia 10:569–577.
Huppuch, C. D. 1960. Observations on white oak stem swellings. Plant Dis. Rep. 44:238–239.
James, S. 1984. Lignotubers and burls—their structure, function, and significance in
Mediterranean ecosystems. Bot. Rev. 50:225–266.
Molotkov, P. I., Kirichenko, O. I., and Bengus, Y. V. 1989. The origin of 'witches'-brooms' on
Scots pine. Tsitologiya i Genet. 24:14–19.
Neilson-Jones, W. 1969. Plant chimeras, 2nd ed. Methuen, London. 123 pp.
Ouellette, G. B. 1999. Anomalies de croissance et dépérissement du tilleull au Québec: à
prévenir dès la production des plantes en pépinière. Phytoprotection 79:71–85.
Peterson, R. S. 1961. Conifer tumors in the central Rocky Mountains. Plant Dis. Rep. 45:472–
474.
Prasad, N. S., Rao, A. R., and Rao, G. M. 1997. Fasciation in Casuarina equisetifolia. Indian
For. 123:773–774.
Stone, E. L., and Cornwell, S. 1968. Basal bud burls in Betula populifolia. For. Sci. 14:64–65.
Szirmai, J. 1972. An Acer virus disease in maple trees planted in avenues. Acta Phytopathol.
Acad. Sci. Hung. 7:197–207.
Tiedemann, A. R., Clary, W. P., and Barbour, R. J. 1987. Underground systems of Gambel oak
(Quercus gambelii) in central Utah. Am. J. Bot. 74:1065–1071.
Tredici, P. del. 1999. Redwood burls: immortality underground. Arnoldia 59:14–22.
Tsoumis, G. 1965. Structural deformities in an epidemic tumor of white spruce, Picea glauca.
Can. J. Bot. 43:176–181.
Waxman, S. 1975. Witches'-brooms sources of new and interesting dwarf forms of Picea, Pinus,
and Tsuga species. Acta Hortic. No. 54:25–32.
Waxman, S. 1989. Variability among witches'-broom seedlings. Comb. Proc. Int. Plant Prop.
Soc. 39:433–436.
White, P. R., and Millington, W. F. 1954. The structure and development of a woody tumor
affecting Picea glauca. Am. J. Bot. 41:353–361.
White, P. R., Tsoumis, G., and Hyland, F. 1967. Some seasonal aspects of the growth of tumors
on the white spruce, Picea glauca. Can. J. Bot. 45:2229–2232.
Wise, F. C., McCulloch, S. M., Britt, J. L., Brand, M. H., Kiyomoto, R., Mudge, K. W., Lardner,
J. P., Mahoney, H. K., Good, G. L., Rowland, L. J., Levi, A., Zimmerman, R. H., LaMondia,
J. A., Smith, V. L., and Rathier, T. M. 1997. Tissue proliferation in micropropagated
rhododendrons. HortScience 32:985–1003.
Yamamoto, F., Sakata, T., and Terazawa, K. 1995. Physiological, morphological and anatomical
responses of Fraxinus mandshurica seedlings to flooding. Tree Physiol. 15:713–719.
-----------------Wounds, microbial colonization, and compartmentalization, Plates 254–255, pages 511–513
Bacon, C. W., and White, J. F., eds. 2000. Microbial endophytes. Marcel Dekker, New York.
487 pp.
Baum, S., and Schwarze, F. 2002. Large-leaved lime (Tilia platyphyllos) has a low ability to
compartmentalize decay fungi via reaction zone formation. New Phytol. 154:481–490.
Blanchette, R. A., and Biggs, A. R., eds. 1992. Defense mechanisms of woody plants against
fungi. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York. 458 pp.
323
Blanchette, R. A., Sutherland, J. B., and Crawford, D. L. 1981. Actinomycetes in discolored
wood of living silver maple. Can. J. Bot. 59:1–7.
Boddy, L., and Rayner, A. D. M. 1983. Origins of decay in living deciduous trees: the role of
moisture content and a re-appraisal of the expanded concept of tree decay. New Phytol.
94:623–641.
Bostock, R. M., and Stermer, B. A. 1989. Perspectives on wound healing in resistance to
pathogens. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 27:343–371.
Chapela, I. H., and Boddy, L. 1988. Fungal colonization of attached beech branches. I. Early
stages of development of fungal communities. II. Spatial and temporal organization of
communities arising from latent invaders in bark and functional sapwood, under different
moisture regimes. New Phytol. 110:39–45, 47–57.
Dujesiefken, D., Rhaesa, A., Eckstein, D., and Stobbe, H. 1999. Tree wound reactions of
differently treated boreholes. J. Arboric. 25:111–123.
Gallagher, P. W., and Snydor, T. D. 1983. Variation in wound response among cultivars of red
maple. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 108:744–746.
Garrett, P. W., Randall, W. K., Shigo, A. L., and Shortle, W. C. 1979. Inheritance of
compartmentalization of wounds in sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua L.) and eastern
cottonwood (Populus deltoides Bartr.). USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. NE-433. 4 pp.
Gill, A. M. 1974. Toward an understanding of fire-scar formation: field observation and
laboratory simulation. For. Sci. 20:198–205.
Griffith, G. S., and Boddy, L. 1990. Fungal decomposition of attached angiosperm twigs. I.
Decay community development in ash, beech and oak. New Phytol. 116:407–415.
Highley, T. L., Bar-Lev, S. S., Kirk, T. K., and Larsen, M. J. 1983. Influence of O2 and CO2 on
wood decay by heartrot and saprot fungi. Phytopathology 73:630–633.
International Association of Wood Anatomists. 1984. Special issue on discolored wood. IAWA
Bull., n.s., 5:91–154.
Leben, C. 1985. Wound occlusion and discoloration columns in red maple. New Phytol. 99:485–
490.
Lowerts, G. A., and Kellison, R. C. 1981. Genetically controlled resistance to discoloration and
decay in wounded trees of yellow-poplar. Silvae Genet. 30:98–101.
Mattheck, C., Bethge, K., and West, P. W. 1994. Breakage of hollow tree stems. Trees Struct.
Funct. 9:47–50.
Mattheck, C., and Kubler, H. 1995. Wood—the internal optimization of trees. Springer-Verlag,
Berlin, Heidelberg, New York. 129 pp.
Minardi, P. 1996. Defence mechanisms and microbial diffusion during the decay processes in the
xylem of living trees. Petria 6:11–35.
Mulhern, J., Shortle, W., and Shigo, A. 1979. Barrier zones in red maple: an optical and
scanning microscope examination. For. Sci. 25:311–316.
Neely, D. 1988. Tree wound closure. J. Arboric. 14:148–152.
Neely, D. 1988. Wound closure rates on trees. J. Arboric. 14:250–254.
Pearce, R. B. 1990. Occurrence of decay-associated xylem suberization in a range of woody
species. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 20:275–289.
Pearce, R. B. 1991. Reaction zone relics and the dynamics of fungal spread in the xylem of
woody angiosperms. Physiol. Mol. Plant Pathol. 39:41–55.
Pearce, R. B. 1996. Antimicrobial defences in the wood of living trees. New Phytol. 132:203–
233.
324
Pearce, R. B. 2000. Decay development and its restriction in trees. J. Arboric. 26:1–11.
Pearce, R. B., and Holloway, P. J. 1984. Suberin in the sapwood of oak (Quercus robur L.): its
composition from a compartmentalization barrier and its occurrence in tyloses in undecayed
wood. Physiol. Plant Pathol. 24:71–81.
Raychaudhuri, S. P., and Maramorosch, K., eds. 1996. Forest trees and palms: diseases and
control. Science Pub., Lebanon, NH. 336 pp.
Rayner, A. D. M., and Boddy, L. 1988. Fungal communities in the decay of wood. Adv. Microb.
Ecol. 10:115–166.
Rayner, A. D. M., and Boddy, L. 1988. Fungal decomposition of wood. Its biology and ecology.
Wiley, Chichester, UK. 587 pp.
Saikkonen, K., Faeth, S. H., Helander, M. L., and Sullivan T. J. 1998. Fungal endophytes: a
continuum of interactions with host plants. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 29:319–343.
Santamour, F. S. Jr. 1984. Wound compartmentalization in cultivars of Acer, Gleditsia, and other
genera. J. Environ. Hortic. 2:123–125.
Schmitt, U., and Liese, W. 1991. Suberin in wound reaction parenchyma of birch xylem (Betula
pendula Roth)—an electron microscopic study. Holzforschung 45:313–315.
Schmitt, U., and Liese, W. 1993. Response of xylem parenchyma by suberization in some
hardwoods after mechanical injury. Trees 8:23–30.
Schultz, T. P., Hubbard, T. F., Jin, L. H., Fisher, T. H., and Nicholas, D. D. 1990. Role of
stilbenes in the natural durability of wood—fungicidal structure activity relationships.
Phytochemistry 29:1501–1507.
Schwarze, F. W. M. R., and Baum, S. 2000. Mechanisms of reaction zone penetration by decay
fungi in wood of beech. New Phytol. 146:129–140.
Schwarze, F. W. M. R., Engels, J., and Mattheck, C. 2000. Fungal strategies of wood decay in
trees. English trans. W. Linnard, of Holzzersetzende Pilze in Bäumen: Strategien der
Holzzersetzung. Springer, Berlin, New York. 185 pp.
Shigo, A. L. 1967. Successions of organisms in discoloration and decay of wood. Int. Rev. For.
Res. 2:237–299.
Shigo, A. L. 1983. Tree defects: a photo guide. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-82. 167
pp.
Shigo, A. L. 1984. Compartmentalization: a conceptual framework for understanding how trees
grow and defend themselves. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 22:189–214.
Shigo, A. L. 1989. A new tree biology, 2nd ed. Shigo and Trees, Assoc., Durham, NH. 619 pp.
Shigo, A. L. 1991. Modern arboriculture. Shigo and Trees, Assoc., Durham, NH. 424 pp.
Shigo, A. L. 1994. Tree anatomy. Shigo and Trees, Assoc., Durham, NH. 104 pp.
Shigo, A. L., and Hillis, W. E. 1973. Heartwood, discolored wood, and microorganisms in living
trees. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 11:197–222.
Shigo, A. L., and Marx, H. G. 1977. Compartmentalization of decay in trees. USDA Agric. Inf.
Bull. 405. 73 pp.
Shigo, A. L., and Marx, H. G. 1979. Tree decay. An expanded concept. USDA Agric. Inf. Bull.
419. 73 pp.
Shigo, A. L., and Sharon, E. M. 1970. Mapping columns of discolored and decayed tissues in
sugar maple, Acer saccharum. Phytopathology 60:232–237.
Shigo, A. L., and Shortle, W. C. 1979. Compartmentalization of discolored wood in heartwood
of red oak. Phytopathology 69:710–711.
325
Shortle, W. C. 1979. Compartmentalization of decay in red maple and hybrid poplar trees.
Phytopathology 69:410–413.
Smith, K. T., and Sutherland, E. K. 1999. Fire-scar formation and compartmentalization in oak.
Can. J. For. Res. 29:166–171.
Tippett, J. T., and Shigo, A. L. 1981. Barrier zone formation: a mechanism of tree defense
against vascular pathogens. IAWA Bull., n.s., 2:163–168.
Tippett, J. T., and Shigo, A. L. 1981. Barriers to decay in conifer roots. Eur. J. For. Pathol.
11:51–59.
Weidensaul, T. C., Leben, C., and Ellett, C. W. 1977. Reducing decay losses in hardwood forests
and farm woodlots. Ohio State Univ. Coop. Ext. Serv. Bull. 629. 14 pp.
-----------------Frost cracks, drought cracks, and related defects, Plate 256, page 515
Boulet, G. B., and Nepveu, G. 1988. Relations between some wood properties and stem cracks in
standing trees of Abies grandis. Ann. Sci. For. 45:33–51.
Butin, H., and Shigo, A. L. 1981. Radial shakes and "frost cracks" in living oak trees. USDA
For. Serv. Res. Pap. NE-478. 21 pp.
Caspari, C. O., and Sachsse, H. 1990. Crack damage on Norway spruce—distribution,
symptoms, cause, effects. Forst. u. Holz 45:685–688.
Cherubini, P., Schweingruber, F. H., and Forster, T. 1997. Morphology and ecological
significance of intra-annual radial cracks in living conifers. Trees Struct. Funct. 11:216–222.
Day, W. R. 1954. Drought crack of conifers. G.B. For. Comm. For. Rec. No. 26. 40 pp.
Kubler, H. 1983. Mechanism of frost crack formation in trees—a review and synthesis. For. Sci.
29:559–568.
Kubler, H. 1988. Frost cracks in stems of trees. Arboric. J. 12:163–175.
Larsen, F. E., and Higgins, S. S. 1992. Longitudinal bark cracking on trunks of young Asian pear
trees in response to a rapid drop in winter temperature. Fruit Var. J. 46:225–229.
Lowell, E. C., and Fahey, T. D. 1994. The effect of frost cracks in sugar pine trees on lumber
grade. Forest Prod. J. 44:57–60.
Lutz, H. J. 1952. Occurrence of clefts in the wood of living white spruce in Alaska. J. For.
50:99–102.
Mattheck, C., and Bethge, K. 1990. Wind breakage of trees initiated by root delamination. Trees
Struct. Funct. 4:225–227.
Mattheck, C., and Kubler, H. 1995. Wood—the internal optimization of trees. Springer-Verlag,
Berlin, Heidelberg; New York. 129 pp.
Neely, D., and Himelick, E. B. 1987. Freeze-crack-related measurements on Platanus 
acerifolia trees. For. Sci. 33:239–244.
Persson, A. 1994. Stem cracks in Norway spruce in southern Scandinavia: causes and
consequences. Ann. Sci. For. 51:315–327.
Peters, M., Ossenbruggen, P., and Shigo, A. 1985. Cracking and failure behavior models of
defective balsam fir trees. Holzforschung 39:125–135.
Phelps, J. E., McGinnes, E. A. Jr., and Lieu, P. J.-Y. 1975. Anatomy of xylem tissue formation
associated with radial seams and cracks in black oak. Wood Sci. 8:397–405.
Sano, K., and Fukazawa, K. 1996. Timing of the occurrence of frost cracks in winter. Trees
Struct. Funct. 11:47–53.
326
Wichmann, C., Wulf, A., and Kehr, R. 1991. Evaluation of tree damage after injection treatment.
Nachrichtenbl. Deut. Pflanzenschutzd. 43:176–183.
-----------------Bark formation and restoration, Plate 257, page 517
Allen, E. A., Blenis, P. V., and Hiratsuka, Y. 1990. Histological evidence of resistance to
Endocronartium harknessii in Pinus contorta var. latifolia. Can. J. Bot. 68:1728–1737.
Biggs, A. R. 1984. Boundary-zone formation in peach bark in response to wounds and
Cytospora leucostoma infection. Can. J. Bot. 62:2814–2821.
Biggs, A. R. 1984. Intracellular suberin: occurrence and detection in tree bark. IAWA Bull., n.s.,
5:243–248.
Biggs, A. R. 1985. Suberized boundary zones and the chronology of wound response in bark.
Phytopathology 75:1191–1195.
Biggs, A. R., ed. 1993. Handbook of cytology, histology, and histochemistry of fruit tree
diseases. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. 330 pp.
Blanchette, R. A., and Biggs, A. R., eds. 1992. Defense mechanisms of woody plants against
fungi. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York. 458 pp.
Bostock, R. M., and Stermer, B. A. 1989. Perspectives on wound healing in resistance to
pathogens. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 27:343–371.
Franceschi, V. R., Krokene, P., Krekling, T., and Christiansen, E. 2000. Phloem parenchyma
cells are involved in local and distant defense responses to fungal inoculation or bark-beetle
attack in Norway spruce (Pinaceae). Am. J. Bot. 87:314–326.
Hawkins, S., and Boudet, A. 1996. Wound-induced lignin and suberin deposition in a woody
angiosperm (Eucalyptus gunnii Hook.): histochemistry of early changes in young plants.
Protoplasma 191:96–104.
Hudler, G. W. 1984. Wound healing in bark of woody plants. J. Arboric. 10:241–245.
Kommineni, K. V., and Ramsdell, D. C. 1997. An anatomical study of prune brown line disease
and immuno-localization of tomato ringspot virus in plum bark. Plant Dis. 81:855–861.
Lipetz, J. 1970. Wound-healing in higher plants. Int. Rev. Cytol. 27:1–28.
Mullick, D. B. 1977. The non-specific nature of defense in bark and wood during wounding,
insect and pathogen attack. Rec. Adv. Phytochem. 11:395–441.
Oven, P., and Torelli, N. 1994. Wound response of the bark in healthy and declining silver firs
(Abies alba). IAWA J. 15:407–415.
Oven, P., Torelli, N., Shortle, W. C., and Zupancic, M. 1999. The formation of a ligno-suberised
layer and necrophylactic periderm in beech bark (Fagus sylvatica L.). Flora 194:137–144.
Shigo, A. L. 1989. A new tree biology: facts, photos, and philosophies on trees and their
problems and proper care, 2nd ed. Shigo and Trees, Assoc., Durham, NH. 618 pp.
Shigo, A. L. 1994. Tree anatomy. Shigo and Trees, Assoc., Durham, NH. 104 pp.
Thomas, V., Premakumari, D., Reghu, C. P., Panikkar, A. O. N., and Amma, C. K. S. 1995.
Anatomical and histochemical aspects of bark regeneration in Hevea brasiliensis. Ann. Bot.
75:421–426.
Trockenbrodt, M. 1994. Light and electron microscopic investigations on wound reactions in the
bark of Salix caprea L. and Tilia tomentosa. Flora 189:131–140.
Wahlstrom, K. T., and Johansson, M. 1992. Structural responses in bark to mechanical wounding
and Armillaria ostoyae infection in seedlings of Pinus sylvestris. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 22:65–
76.
327
Woodward, S., and Pocock, S. 1996. Formation of the ligno-suberized barrier zone and wound
periderm in four species of European broad-leaved trees. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 26:97–105.
-----------------Smooth patch, bark rot, normal foliar shedding, Plate 258, page 519
Smooth patch and bark rot
Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Chamuris, G. P., and Rossman, A. Y. 1989. Fungi on plants and plant
products in the United States. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 1252 pp.
Flott, J. J., and Gilbertson, R. L. 1991. Cultural studies of four North American species of
Perenniporia (Aphyllophorales: Polyporaceae). Mycol. Res. 95:1113–1122.
Gao, M., and Chamuris, G. P. 1993. Microstructural and histochemical changes in Acer
platanoides rhytidome caused by Dendrothele acerina (Aphyllophorales) and Mycena
meliigena (Agaricales). Mycologia 85:987–995.
Gilbertson, R. L., and Blackwell, M. 1984. Two new basidiomycetes on living live oak in the
Southeast and Gulf Coast region. Mycotaxon 20:85–93.
Gilbertson, R. L., and Ryvarden, L. 1986, 1987. North American polypores. Vol. I: Albatrellus–
Lindtneria. Vol. II: Megasporaporia–Wrightoporia. Fungiflora, Oslo. 885 pp.
Ginns, J. H., and Lefebvre, M. N. L. 1993. Lignicolous, corticioid fungi (Basidiomycota) of
North America: Systematics, distribution, and ecology. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 247 pp.
Hansbrough, J. R. 1934. Occurrence and parasitism of Aleurodiscus amorphus in North
America. J. For. 32:452–458.
Lair, E. D. 1946. Smooth patch, a bark disease of oak. J. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. 62:212–220.
Lemke, P. A. 1964. The genus Aleurodiscus (sensu stricto) in North America. Can. J. Bot.
42:213–282.
Lemke, P. A. 1965. Dendrothele (1907) vs. Aleurocorticium (1963). Persoonia 3:365–367.
Núñez, M., and Ryvarden, L. 1997. The genus Aleurodiscus (Basidiomycotina). Synop.
Fungorum No. 12. Fungiflora, Oslo. 164 pp.
Overholts, L. O. 1923. Diagnoses of American Porias—II. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club. 50:245–253.
Smerlis, E. 1970. Pathogenicity of Aleurodiscus amorphus. Can. For. Serv. Bi-mon. Res. Notes
26:18.
Tehon, L. R., and Jacks, W. R. 1933. Smooth patch, a bark lesion of white oak. J. For. 31:430–
433.
-----------------Symbiotic relationships of roots, Plates 259–260, pages 521–523
Mycorrhizae
Adholeya, A., and Singh, S., eds. 1995. Mycorrhizae, biofertilizers for the future. Tata Energy
Res. Inst., New Delhi. 548 pp.
Allen, M. F. 1991. The ecology of mycorrhizae. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, New York.
184 pp.
Auge, R. M. 2001. Water relations, drought and vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis.
Mycorrhiza 11:3–42.
Blanchette, R. A., and Biggs, A. R., eds. 1992. Defense mechanisms of woody plants against
fungi. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York. 458 pp.
Bonfante, P., and Perotto, S. 1995. Strategies of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi when infecting
host plants. New Phytol. 130:3–21.
328
Brundrett, M., Bougher, N., Dell, B., Grove, T., and Malajczuk, N. 1996. Working with
mycorrhizas in forestry and agriculture. Austral. Cent. Int. Agric. Res. ACIAR Monogr. No.
32. 374 pp.
Cairney, J. W. G., and Chambers, S. M., eds. 1999. Ectomycorrhizal fungi: key genera in profile.
Springer, Berlin, New York. 369 pp.
Clark, R. B. 1997. Arbuscular mycorrhizal adaptation, spore germination, root colonization, and
host plant growth and mineral acquisition at low pH. Plant Soil 192:15–22.
Cordell, C. E., Anderson, R. L., Hoffard, W. H., Landis, T. D., Smith, R. S. Jr., and Toko, H. V.,
tech. coords. 1989. Forest nursery pests. USDA Agric. Handb. 680. 184 pp.
Dixon, R. K., Pallardy, S. G., Garrett, H. E., and Cox, G. S. 1983. Comparative water relations
of container-grown and bare-root ectomycorrhizal and nonmycorrhizal Quercus velutina
seedlings. Can. J. Bot. 61:1559–1565.
Dommergues, Y. R., and Krupa, S. V., eds. 1978. Interactions between non-pathogenic soil
microorganisms and plants. Elsevier, Amsterdam. 475 pp.
Gianinazzi-Pearson, V. 1996. Plant cell responses to arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi: getting to the
roots of the symbiosis. Plant Cell 8:1871–1883.
Godbold, D. L., Jentschke, G., Wintr, S., and Marschner, P. 1998. Ectomycorrhizas and
amelioration of metal stress in forest trees. Chemosphere 36:757–762.
Hacskaylo, E., ed. 1971. Mycorrhizae. USDA Misc. Pub. 1189. 255 pp.
Harrison, M. J. 1999. Molecular and cellular aspects of the arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis.
Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. Plant Mol. Biol. 50:361–389.
Jentschke, G., and Godbold, D. L. 2000. Metal toxicity and ectomycorrhizas. Physiol. Plant.
109:107–116.
Kerley, S. J., and Read, D. J. 1998. The biology of mycorrhiza in the Ericaceae XX. Plant and
mycorrhizal necromass as nitrogenous substrates for the ericoid mycorrhizal fungus
Hymenoscyphus ericae and its host. New Phytol. 139:353–360.
Landis, T. D., Tinus, R. W., McDonald, S. E., and Barnett, J. P., eds. 1990. The biological
component: nursery pests and mycorrhizae. USDA Agric. Handb. 674. 171 pp.
Marks, G. C., and Kozlowski, T. T., eds. 1973. Ectomycorrhizae: their ecology and physiology.
Academic Press, New York. 444 pp.
Marx, D. H., Cordell, C. E., Kenney, D. S., Mexal, J. G., Artman, J. D., Riffle, J. W., and
Molina, R. J. 1984. Commercial vegetative inoculum of Pisolithus tinctorius and inoculation
techniques for development of ectomycorrhizae on bare-root tree seedlings. For. Sci.
Monogr. 25. 101 pp.
Marx, D. H., and Davey, C. B. 1969. The influence of ectotrophic mycorrhizal fungi on the
resistance of pine roots to pathogenic infections. IV. Resistance of naturally occurring
mycorrhizae to infections by Phytophthora cinnamomi. Phytopathology 59:559–565.
Marx, D. H., and Schenck, N. C. 1983. Potential of mycorrhizal symbiosis in agricultural and
forest productivity. Pages 334–347 in: Challenging problems in plant health. T. Kommedahl
and P. H. Williams, eds. Am. Phytopathol. Soc., St. Paul, MN. 538 pp.
Mukerji, K. G., ed. 1996. Concepts in mycorrhizal research. Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht,
Boston. 374 pp.
Nehls, U., Mikolajewski, S., Magel, E., and Hampp, R. 2001. Carbohydrate metabolism in
ectomycorrhizas: gene expression, monosaccharide transport and metabolic control. New
Phytol. 150:533–541.
329
Pfleger, F. L., and Linderman, R. G., eds. 1994. Mycorrhizae and plant health. APS Press, St.
Paul, Minn. 344 pp.
Podila, G. K., and Douds, D. D. Jr., eds. 2000. Current advances in mycorrhizae research. APS
Press. St. Paul, MN. 193 pp.
Read, D. J., Lewis, D. H., and Alexander, I. J., eds. 1992. Mycorrhizas in ecosystems. CAB
International. Wallingford, UK. 419 pp.
Read, D. J., and Perez Moreno, J. 2003. Mycorrhizas and nutrient cycling in ecosystems—a
journey towards relevance? New Phytol. 157:475–492.
Rillig, M. C., Wright, S. F., Nichols, K. A., Schmidt, W. F., and Torn, M. S. 2001. Large
contribution of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi to soil carbon pools in tropical forest soils.
Plant Soil 233:167–177.
Sanders, F. E., Mosse, B., and Tinker, P. B., eds. 1975. Endomycorrhizas. Academic Press, New
York. 626 pp.
Sharma, A. K., and Johri, B. N., eds. 2002. Arbuscular mycorrhizae: interactions in plants,
rhizosphere, and soils. Science Pub., Enfield, NH. 311 pp.
Smith, F. A., and Smith, S. E. 1997. Structural diversity in (vesicular)-arbuscular mycorrhizal
symbioses. New Phytol. 137:373–388.
Smith, S. E., Dickson, S., and Smith, F. A. 2001. Nutrient transfer in arbuscular mycorrhizas:
how are fungal and plant processes integrated? Austral. J. Plant Physiol. 28:683–694.
Smith, S. E., and Read, D. J. 1997. Mycorrhizal symbiosis, 2nd ed. Academic Press, San Diego.
605 pp.
Straker, C. J. 1996. Ericoid mycorrhiza: ecological and host specificity. Mycorrhiza 6:215–225.
Torrey, J. G. 1992. Can plant productivity be increased by inoculation of tree roots with soil
microorganisms? Can. J. For. Res. 22:1815–1823.
Trappe, J. M., and Fogel, R. D. 1977. Ecosystematic functions of ectomycorrhizae. Pages 205–
214 in: The belowground ecosystem: a synthesis of plant-associated processes. J. K.
Marshall, ed. Colo. State Univ., Range Sci. Dep. Sci. Ser. No. 26.
Varma, A., and Hock, B., eds. 1999. Mycorrhiza: structure, function, molecular biology, and
biotechnology. 2nd ed. Springer, Berlin, New York. 704 pp.
Wright, S. F., and Upadhyaya, A.1998. A survey of soils for aggregate stability and glomalin, a
glycoprotein produced by hyphae of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Plant Soil 198:97–107.
Yao, Y. J., Pegler, D. N., and Young, T. W. K. 1996. Genera of Endogonales. R. Bot. Gard.,
Kew, UK. 229 pp.
-----------------Nitrogen-fixing associations
Boring, L. R., and Swank, W. T. 1984. Symbiotic nitrogen fixation in regenerating black locust
(Robinia pseudoacacia L.) stands. For. Sci. 30:528–537.
Broughton, W. J., ed. 1981, 1982. Nitrogen fixation. Vol. 1: Ecology. Vol. 2: Rhizobium.
Clarendon Press, Oxford. 306 and 353 pp.
Danso, S. K. A., Bowen, G. D., and Sanginga, N. 1992. Biological nitrogen fixation in trees in
agro-ecosystems. Plant Soil 141:177–196.
Dawson, J. O., Berg, R. H., Paschke, M. W, and Wheeler, C. T., eds. 1999. 11th International
conference on Frankia and actinorhizal plants. Can. J. Bot. 77:1203–1400.
Elmerich, C., Kondorosi, A., and Newton, W. E., eds. 1998. Biological nitrogen fixation for the
21st century. Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht. 708 pp.
330
Finan, T. M., O'Brian, M. R., Layzell, D. B., Vessey, J. K., and Newton, W., eds. 2002. Nitrogen
fixation: global perspectives. CABI Pub., Wallingford, UK; New York. 553 pp.
Gabriel, W. L. 2000. The actinorhizal symbiosis. J. Plant Growth Regul. 19:167–182.
Giles, K. L., and Atherly, A. G., eds. 1981. Biology of the Rhizobiaceae. Int. Rev. Cytol. Suppl.
13. 368 pp.
Giller, K. E. 2001. Nitrogen fixation in tropical cropping systems. 2nd ed. CABI Pub., New
York. 423 pp.
Gordon, J. C., and Wheeler, C. T., eds. 1983. Biological nitrogen fixation in forest ecosystems:
foundations and applications. M. Nijhoff/W. Junk, The Hague. 342 pp.
Huss, D. K. 1997. Actinorhizal symbioses and their N2 fixation. New Phytol. 136:375–405.
Kohls, S. J., Thimmapuram, J., Buschena, C. A., Paschke, M. W., and Dawson, J. O. 1994.
Nodulation patterns of actinorhizal plants in the family Rosaceae. Plant Soil 162:229–239.
Lechevalier, M. P. 1994. Taxonomy of the genus Frankia (Actinomycetales). Int. J. Syst.
Bacteriol. 44:1–8.
Malek, W., and Sajnaga, E. 1999. Current taxonomy of the rhizobia. Acta Microbiol. Polon.
48:109–122.
Normand, P., Fernandez, M. Simonet, P. and Domenach, A. M., eds. 1992. Frankia and
actinorhizal plants. Acta Oecol. 13:365–516.
Pawlowski, K., and Bisseling, T. 1996. Rhizobial and actinorhizal symbioses: what are the
shared features? Plant Cell 8:1899–1913.
Schwintzer, C. R., and Tjepkema, J. D. 1990. The biology of Frankia and actinorhizal plants.
Academic Press, San Diego. 408 pp.
Spaink, H. P., Kondorosi, A., and Hooykaas, P. J. J. 1998. The Rhizobiaceae: molecular biology
of model plant-associated bacteria. Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht, Boston. 566 pp.
Stacey, G., Burris, R. H., and Evans, H. J. 1992. Biological nitrogen fixation. Chapman & Hall,
London. 943 pp.
Swensen, S. M., and Mullin, B. C. 1997. The impact of molecular systematics on hypotheses for
the evolution of root nodule symbioses and implications for expanding symbioses to new
host plant genera. Plant Soil 194:185–192.
Torrey, J. G. 1988. Cellular interactions between host and endosymbiont in dinitrogen-fixing
root nodules of woody plants. NATO ASI Ser. H, Cell Biol. 17:1–25.
Torrey, J. G. 1992. Can plant productivity be increased by inoculation of tree roots with soil
microorganisms? Can. J. For. Res. 22:1815–1823.
Triplett, E. W., ed. 2000. Prokaryotic nitrogen fixation: a model system for the analysis of a
biological process. Horizon Scientific, Wymondham, UK. 800 pp.
Werner, D. 1992. Symbiosis of plants and microbes. Chapman & Hall, New York. 389 pp.
-----------------Epiphytes, lichens, and moss, Plate 261, page 525
Epiphytes
Arambarri, A. M., and Mandrile, E. L. 1999. Tillandsia L. (Bromeliaceae): anatomy and ethnopharmacology. Acta Hortic. No. No. 503:133–139.
Bartoli, C. G., Beltrano, J., Fernandez, L. V., and Caldiz, D. O. 1993. Control of the epiphytic
weeds Tillandsia recurvata and Tillandsia aeranthos with different herbicides. For. Ecol.
Manag. 59:289–294.
331
Benzing, D. H. 1990. Vascular epiphytes: general biology and related biota. Cambridge Univ.
Press, Cambridge, UK. 354 pp.
Benzing, D. H. 2000. Bromeliaceae: profile of an adaptive radiation. Cambridge Univ. Press,
Cambridge, UK., New York. 690 pp.
Brighigna, L., Montaini, P., Favilli, F., and Carabez, T. A. 1992. Role of the nitrogen-fixing
bacterial microflora in the epiphytism of Tillandsia (Bromeliaceae). Am. J. Bot. 79:723–727.
Caldiz, D. O., Beltrano, J., Fernandez, L. V., and Andia, I. 1993. Survey of Tillandsia recurvata
L.: preference, abundance and its significance for natural forests. For. Ecol. Manag. 57:161–
168.
Castro, H. J. C., Wolf, J. H. D., Garcia, F. J. G., and Gonzalez, E. M. 1999. The influence of
humidity, nutrients and light on the establishment of the epiphytic bromeliad Tillandsia
guatemalensis in the highlands of Chiapas, Mexico. Rev. Biol. Trop. 47:763–773.
Claver, F. K., Alaniz, J. R., and Caldiz, D. O. 1983. Tillandsia spp.: epiphytic weeds of trees and
bushes. For. Ecol. Manag. 6:367–372.
Espejo, S. A., and Lopez, F. A. R. 1998. Current floristic and phytogeographic knowledge of
Mexican Bromeliaceae. Rev. Biol. Trop. 46:493–513.
Florida Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services, Division of Plant Industry. 1962–
present. Plant Pathology Circulars 1– .
Lüttge, U., ed. 1989. Vascular plants as epiphytes: evolution and ecophysiology. SpringerVerlag, Berlin, New York. 270 pp.
Martin, C. E., Eades, C. A., and Pitner, R. A. 1986. Effects of irradiance on Crassulacean acid
metabolism in the epiphyte Tillandsia usneoides L. (Bromeliaceae). Plant Physiol. 80:23–26.
Morales, J. F. 1998. Bromelias de Costa Rica. Heredia, Santo Domingo, Costa Rica. 175 pp.
Nash, T. H. III. 1996. Lichen biology. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, New York. 303 pp.
Nowak, E. J., and Martin, C. E. 1997. Physiological and anatomical responses to water deficits
in the CAM epiphyte Tillandsia ionantha (Bromeliaceae). Int. J. Plant Sci. 158:818–826.
Puente, M. E., and Bashan, Y. 1994. The desert epiphyte Tillandsia recurvata harbours the
nitrogen-fixing bacterium Pseudomonas stutzeri. Can. J. Bot. 72:406–408.
Read, M. 1989. Bromeliads threatened by trade. Kew Mag. 6:22–29.
Rodriguez, A. 1995. Airplants: a survey of the genus Tillandsia. New Plantsman 2:72–88.
Stiles, K. C., and Martin, C. E. 1996. Effects of drought stress on CO2 exchange and water
relations in the CAM epiphyte Tillandsia utriculata (Bromeliaceae). J. Plant Physiol.
149:721–728.
Uphof, J. C. T. 1931. Tillandsia usneoides als Pflanzenschädling. Z. Pflanzenkr. 41:593–607.
Zotz, G., and Andrade, J. L. 1998. Water relations of two co-occurring epiphytic bromeliads. J.
Plant Physiol. 152:545–554.
-----------------Lichens and moss
Ahmadjian, V. 1993. The lichen symbiosis. Wiley, New York. 250 pp.
Bartholmess, H. 1989. Relations between lichens, air pollution load and forest decline in BadenWurttemberg. Forstwiss. Centralbl. 108:188–196.
Brodo, I. M., Sharnoff, S. D., and Sharnoff, S. 2001. Lichens of North America. Yale Univ.
Press, New Haven, CT. 795 pp.
Brown, D. H., ed. 1985. Lichen physiology and cell biology. Plenum Press, New York. 362 pp.
Dobson, F. S. 2000. Lichens. 4th ed. Richmond, Slough, UK. 431 pp.
332
Galun, M., ed. 1988. Handbook of lichenology. Vols. 1–3. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. 297,
181, and 147 pp.
Gilbert, O. L. 2000. Lichens. HarperCollins, London. 288 pp.
Hale, M. E. 1983. The biology of lichens. 3rd ed. Arnold, Baltimore. 190 pp.
Klinger, L. F. 1990. Global patterns in community succession: 1. Bryophytes and forest decline.
Mem. Torrey Bot. Club 24:1–50.
Klinger, L. F. 1996. Coupling of soils and vegetation in peatland succession. Arctic Alpine Res.
28:380–387.
Lawrey, J. D. 1984. Biology of lichenized fungi. Praeger, New York. 408 pp.
Llimona, X., Lumbsch, H. T., and Ott, S. 2000. Progress and problems in lichenology at the turn
of the millennium. Cramer, Berlin. 326 pp.
Mukerji, K. G., Upreti, D. K., Chamola, B. P., and Upadhyay, R. K. 1999. Biology of lichens.
Aravali Books International, New Delhi. 419 pp.
Phillips, J. F. V. 1929. The influence of Usnea sp. (near barbata Fr.) upon the supporting trees.
Trans. R. Soc. S.Afr. 17:101–107.
Purvis, W. 2000. Lichens. Smithsonian Inst. Press, Washington, DC. 112 pp.
------------------
333
Download